1.
Alberto Korda
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Alberto Díaz Gutiérrez, better known as Alberto Korda or simply Korda, was a Cuban photographer, remembered for his famous image Guerrillero Heroico of Argentine Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara. Korda, whose name was Alberto Díaz Gutiérrez, was born on 14 September 1928 in Havana. He got his first taste of photography when he took his fathers Kodak 35mm, Korda was the son of a railway worker, and took many jobs before beginning as a photographers assistant. Korda began his career as a photographer who shot pictures at banquets, baptisms and he would run back to his studio to develop the film, then return to the event and sell his photographs as a souvenir. The quality of Korda’s work as a beginner was very poor, after a few months the image became blurry and the paper yellowed. When he opened his first studio, Korda had an opportunity to learn from his mistakes, in 1953, Korda opened his first studio with a photographer named Luis Pierce. Initially, Korda and Pierce took a variety jobs ranging from fashion to advertisements, most of the jobs were photographed by his studio partner, in order to keep their business going. It was the money generated by these jobs that allowed Korda to develop his style of looking at an image from another angle. It was this style that Studios Korda quickly became identified with achieving, in the early years, Korda was most interested in fashion because it allowed him to pursue his two favorite things, photography and beautiful women. Korda became Cubas premiere fashion photographer, Korda disliked artificial lighting he said it was a travesty of reality and only used natural light in his studio. He was master of photography who looked for perfect composition. Korda had unique creative ambition that he used to rise above in style compared to the unimaginative cultural perspective of traditional Cuban photography. This unique creativity turned the Korda Studio into something more than just a prosperous business and my main aim was to meet women, he once confessed. His second wife, Natalia Menendez, was a well known Cuban fashion model, the relationship between Fidel Castro and Korda could not be defined by one label or title. For Castro, Korda was more than a photographer, a friend or personal photographer. They never discussed the salary or the title, their relationship wasnt boss, thus, Korda was very relaxed, and interested in everything and everyone. Every photo he took was a symbol of the revolution, instead of a documentary of the events of the revolution, the Cuban Revolution was the turning point in Kordas career. His career plans were changed with the success of the revolutionaries
2.
Che Guevara
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Ernesto Che Guevara was an Argentine Marxist revolutionary, physician, author, guerrilla leader, diplomat, and military theorist. A major figure of the Cuban Revolution, his stylized visage has become a ubiquitous symbol of rebellion. As a young student, Guevara traveled throughout South America and was radicalized by the poverty, hunger. Guevara soon rose to prominence among the insurgents, was promoted to second-in-command, following the Cuban Revolution, Guevara performed a number of key roles in the new government. Additionally, he was a writer and diarist, composing a seminal manual on guerrilla warfare. Guevara left Cuba in 1965 to foment revolution abroad, first unsuccessfully in Congo-Kinshasa and later in Bolivia, Guevara remains both a revered and reviled historical figure, polarized in the collective imagination in a multitude of biographies, memoirs, essays, documentaries, songs, and films. In accordance with the flexibility allowed in Spanish naming customs, his name will sometimes appear with de la Serna and/or Lynch accompanying it. Referring to Ches restless nature, his father declared the first thing to note is that in my sons veins flowed the blood of the Irish rebels, very early on in life, Ernestito developed an affinity for the poor. Growing up in a family with leftist leanings, Guevara was introduced to a spectrum of political perspectives even as a boy. His father, a supporter of Republicans from the Spanish Civil War. He was a rugby union player, and played at fly-half for Club Universitario de Buenos Aires. His rugby playing earned him the nickname Fuser—a contraction of El Furibundo and his mothers surname, Guevara learned chess from his father and began participating in local tournaments by age 12. He could also recite Rudyard Kiplings If— and José Hernándezs Martín Fierro by heart. Additionally, he enjoyed the works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Franz Kafka, Albert Camus, Vladimir Lenin, and Jean-Paul Sartre, as well as Anatole France, Friedrich Engels, H. G. Wells, and Robert Frost. As he grew older, he developed an interest in the Latin American writers Horacio Quiroga, Ciro Alegría, Jorge Icaza, Rubén Darío, many of these authors ideas he cataloged in his own handwritten notebooks of concepts, definitions, and philosophies of influential intellectuals. These included composing analytical sketches of Buddha and Aristotle, along with examining Bertrand Russell on love and patriotism, Jack London on society, sigmund Freuds ideas fascinated him as he quoted him on a variety of topics from dreams and libido to narcissism and the Oedipus complex. His favorite subjects in school included philosophy, mathematics, engineering, political science, sociology, history, in 1948, Guevara entered the University of Buenos Aires to study medicine. The first expedition in 1950 was a 4, 500-kilometer solo trip through the provinces of northern Argentina on a bicycle on which he installed a small engine
3.
Icon
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An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity and certain Eastern Catholic churches. The most common subjects include Christ, Mary, saints and/or angels, icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, painted on wood, done in mosaic or fresco work, printed on paper or metal, etc. Comparable images from Western Christianity are generally not described as icons, Eastern Orthodox tradition holds that the creation of Christian images dates back to the very early days of Christianity, and there is has been a continuous tradition since then. The icons of later centuries can be linked, often closely, to images from the 5th century onwards, there was enormous destruction of images during the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 726-842, although this did settle for good the question of the appropriateness of images. Since then icons have had a continuity of style and subject. At the same time there has been change and development, Christian tradition dating from the 8th century identifies Luke the Evangelist as the first icon painter. Aside from the legend that Pilate had made an image of Christ and he relates that King Abgar of Edessa sent a letter to Jesus at Jerusalem, asking Jesus to come and heal him of an illness. In this version there is no image, further legends relate that the cloth remained in Edessa until the 10th century, when it was taken to Constantinople. It went missing in 1204 when Crusaders sacked Constantinople, but by then numerous copies had firmly established its iconic type. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the manner of the Gentiles. And he called him and said, Lycomedes, what do you mean by this matter of the portrait, can it be one of thy gods that is painted here. For I see that you are living in heathen fashion. Later in the passage John says, But this that you have now done is childish and imperfect, at least some of the hierarchy of the Christian churches still strictly opposed icons in the early 4th century. At the Spanish non-ecumenical Synod of Elvira bishops concluded, Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration. to our religion. After the emperor Constantine I extended official toleration of Christianity within the Roman Empire in 313 and this period of Christianization probably saw the use of Christian images became very widespread among the faithful, though with great differences from pagan habits. Robin Lane Fox states By the early century, we know of the ownership of private icons of saints. 480-500, we can be sure that the inside of a saints shrine would be adorned with images and votive portraits, when Constantine himself apparently converted to Christianity, the majority of his subjects remained pagans
4.
Photograph
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A photograph or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scenes visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography, the word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, together meaning drawing with light. The first permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based heliography process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process, after Niépces death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype and its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical. The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the image surface. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera, inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type, the needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process. Non-digital photographs are produced with a chemical process. In the two-step process the film captures a negative image. To produce an image, the negative is most commonly transferred onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to motion picture films. Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film, originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color
5.
Marxism
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
6.
Havana
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Havana is the capital city, largest city, province, major port, and leading commercial centre of Cuba. The city extends mostly westward and southward from the bay, which is entered through a narrow inlet, the sluggish Almendares River traverses the city from south to north, entering the Straits of Florida a few miles west of the bay. King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City in 1592, walls as well as forts were built to protect the old city. The sinking of the U. S. battleship Maine in Havanas harbor in 1898 was the cause of the Spanish–American War. Contemporary Havana can essentially be described as three cities in one, Old Havana, Vedado and the suburban districts. The city is the center of the Cuban government, and home to various ministries, headquarters of businesses, the current mayor is Marta Hernández of the Communist Party of Cuba. In 2009, the city/province had the third highest income in the country, the city attracts over a million tourists annually, the Official Census for Havana reports that in 2010 the city was visited by 1,176,627 international tourists, a 20% increase from 2005. Old Havana was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982, the city is also noted for its history, culture, architecture and monuments. As typical of Cuba, Havana also features a tropical climate, in May 2015, Havana was officially recognized as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, La Paz, Durban, Beirut, and Kuala Lumpur. Most native settlements became the site of Spanish colonial cities retaining their original Taíno names, an alternate theory is that Habana is derived from the Middle Dutch word havene, referring to a harbour, etymologically related to the English word haven. All attempts to found a city on Cubas south coast failed, however, an early map of Cuba drawn in 1514 places the town at the mouth of this river. The town that became Havana finally originated adjacent to what was then called Puerto de Carenas, the quality of this natural bay, which now hosts Havanas harbor, warranted this change of location. Pánfilo de Narváez gave Havana – the sixth town founded by the Spanish on Cuba – its name, the name combines San Cristóbal, patron saint of Havana. Shortly after the founding of Cubas first cities, the served as little more than a base for the Conquista of other lands. Havana began as a port, and suffered regular attacks by buccaneers, pirates. The first attack and resultant burning of the city was by the French corsair Jacques de Sores in 1555, ships from all over the New World carried products first to Havana, in order to be taken by the fleet to Spain. The thousands of ships gathered in the bay also fueled Havanas agriculture and manufacture, since they had to be supplied with food, water. On December 20,1592, King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City, later on, the city would be officially designated as Key to the New World and Rampart of the West Indies by the Spanish Crown
7.
Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
8.
Maryland Institute College of Art
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Maryland Institute College of Art is an art and design college in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. It was founded in 1826 as the Maryland Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, the school is located in the Bolton Hill neighborhood, along Mount Royal Ave. The main campus is about 1.5 miles from downtown Baltimore, MICA hosts pre-college, post-baccalaureate, continuing studies, Master of Fine Arts, and Bachelor of Fine Arts programs, as well as weekend young peoples studio art classes. The Maryland Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts was established in November 1825, by prominent citizens of the city of Baltimore, such as Fielding Lucas, Howard, William Hubbard, Thomas Kelso, John H. B. Latrobe, William Meeter, Hezekiah Niles, William Roney, William F. Small, S. D. Walker, John D. Craig, Jacob Deems, William H. Freeman, Moses Hand, William Krebs, Robert Cary Long, Jr. Peter Leary, James Mosher, Henry Payson, P. K. Stapleton, James Sykes, P. B. Williams. A course of lectures on subjects connected with the arts was inaugurated and a library of works on mechanics. After about its first decade of being located at The Athenaeum at the southwest corner of East Lexington, in November 1847, Benjamin S. Benson and sixty-nine others of New Jersey and his opponent Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire—. During the American Civil War, the Institute served briefly as an armory for the Union, on February 7–8,1904, the Centre Market and the Maryland Institute building of 1851 burned down along with 1,500 other buildings in downtown Baltimore during the Great Baltimore Fire. Temporarily, classes are moved to spaces above other covered municipal markets in the city, Michael Jenkins donated the future site of the Main Building on Mount Royal Avenue near the new Bolton Hill neighborhood in the northwest, which opened in 1908. It was to house the School of Art and Design, felix Agnus along with Frank A. Furst and Henry Clark, with ex-officio members – Mayor E. Clay Timanus and Comptroller George R. Heffner. C. Along the Anne Arundel and Howard Counties lines, upon opening, the Main Building had spaces for pottery, metal working, wood carving, free-hand drafting, and textile design, as well as a library, galleries and exhibition rooms. The galleries and exhibition rooms were important, because at the time of construction, in 1923, the Institutes galleries hosted the first known public showing of Henri Matisses work in the United States, brought over from Europe by sisters Claribel and Etta Cone. The Institute legally changed its name to the Maryland Institute, College of Art in 1959, the consolidation of MICA to the Mount Royal campus is furthered by the purchase of the Mount Royal Station, a former Baltimore and Ohio Railroad train station, in 1964. During that time, the College focused on increased interaction with the international art world—offering study abroad programs, MICAs campus is a milieu of diverse buildings from different periods of Baltimores development. The State of Maryland, the Carnegie Foundation, and a number of local benefactors contributed funds to build the Main Building, Michael Jenkins donated the land on which the Main Building was built, stipulating that the new building not clash with the nearby Gothic Revival Corpus Christi Church. Otto Fuchs designed the studio plans. The architecture was designed to evoke a feeling of the Grand Canal of Venice, the exterior marble is carved from Beaver Dam marble, excavated from the famed Baltimore County quarry near Cockeysville, Maryland
9.
Victoria and Albert Museum
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The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
10.
Havana Harbor
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Havana Harbor is the port of Havana, the capital of Cuba, and it is the main port in Cuba. Most vessels coming to the island port in Havana. Other port cities in Cuba include Cienfuegos, Matanzas, Manzanillo, the harbor was created from the natural Havana Bay which is entered through a narrow inlet and which divides into three main harbors, Marimelena, Guanabacoa, and Atarés. The importance of these fortifications was recognized as English, French. The fort rises above the 200-foot hilltop, beside Morro Castle, castillo de la Real Fuerza and San Salvador de la Punta Fortress, both constructed in sixteenth century, sit on the western side of the harbor in Old Havana. The Battle of Havana was a siege of the harbor defenses by the British in 1762. The sinking of the U. S. battleship Maine in Havana Harbor in 1898 was the cause of the Spanish–American War. In January 1898 the USS Maine, the largest vessel to come out of an American shipyard, was dispatched to Cuba to protect US interests there. At the time more than 8,000 US citizens resided in the country, on February 15,1898 the Maine exploded and sank in the harbor. It became a rallying call for the Spanish–American War. In 1910 the wreck was removed from the harbor as it was posing a hazard to navigation and it was sunk in deep water in the Gulf of Mexico with proper military ceremonies. On March 4,1960, the harbor was the scene of an explosion when the French freighter La Coubre. The cause of the blast, which killed an estimated 100 people, is attributed to the CIA who wished to overthrow the new government of Fidel Castro. Other docks include the Havana Container Terminal, the Ñico Lopez oil refinery, formerly a Shell refinery, least developed of the harbor arms. The harbor in Old Havana offers cruise ship terminals, shipping, as a harbor almost completely surrounded by shipping and industrial activities, the waters of the bay suffer from environmental stress. This in turn affects the quality of the Caribbean Sea into which it flows. Water entering the bay as river flows or effluent from industrial processes has a residence in the harbor of 8 days, on average. It receives approximately 48,000 m3 of waste water per day, which carries about 4,800 kg of nitrogen and 1,200 kg of phosphorus, which results in elevated concentrations of nutrients
11.
Fidel Castro
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Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008. Politically a Marxist–Leninist and Cuban nationalist, he served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011. Under his administration, Cuba became a one-party socialist state, industry and business were nationalized, born in Birán, Oriente as the son of a wealthy Spanish farmer, Castro adopted leftist anti-imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana. After a years imprisonment, he traveled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group, returning to Cuba, Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batistas forces from the Sierra Maestra. After Batistas overthrow in 1959, Castro assumed military and political power as Cubas Prime Minister, adopting a Marxist–Leninist model of development, Castro converted Cuba into a one-party, socialist state under Communist Party rule, the first in the Western Hemisphere. Policies introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by control of the press. These actions, coupled with Castros leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and Cubas medical internationalism, following the Soviet Unions dissolution in 1991, Castro led Cuba into its Special Period and embraced environmentalist and anti-globalization ideas. In the 2000s he forged alliances in the Latin American pink tide—namely with Hugo Chávezs Venezuela—and signed Cuba up to the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, in 2006 he transferred his responsibilities to Vice-President Raúl Castro, who was elected to the presidency by the National Assembly in 2008. Castro is a world figure. His supporters view him as a champion of socialism and anti-imperialism whose revolutionary regime advanced economic, critics view him as a dictator whose administration oversaw human-rights abuses, the exodus of a large number of Cubans, and the impoverishment of the countrys economy. He was decorated with various awards and significantly influenced various individuals. In 1960 Castro was bestowed with the Grand Slam Silver Trophy in the prestigious Ernest Hemingway International Billfishing Tournament after he caught a sailfish, Castro was born out of wedlock at his fathers farm on August 13,1926. His father, Ángel Castro y Argiz, was a migrant to Cuba from Galicia, aged six, Castro was sent to live with his teacher in Santiago de Cuba, before being baptized into the Roman Catholic Church at the age of eight. Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago, in 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit-run El Colegio de Belén in Havana. Although Castro took an interest in history, geography and debating at Belén, he did not excel academically, in 1945, Castro began studying law at the University of Havana. Admitting he was illiterate, he became embroiled in student activism. In 1947, Castro joined the Party of the Cuban People, a charismatic figure, Chibás advocated social justice, honest government, and political freedom, while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform. Though Chibás came third in the 1948 general election, Castro remained committed to working on his behalf, in later years anti-Castro dissidents accused him of committing gang-related assassinations at the time, but these remain unproven
12.
Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
13.
Colon Cemetery, Havana
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The Colon Cemetery, or more fully in the Spanish language Cementerio de Cristóbal Colón, was founded in 1876 in the Vedado neighbourhood of Havana, Cuba on top of Espada Cemetery. Named for Christopher Columbus, the 140 acre cemetery is noted for its many elaborately sculpted memorials and it is estimated that today the cemetery has more than 500 major mausoleums, chapels, and family vaults. Prior to the opening of the Colon Cemetery, Havanas dead were laid to rest in the crypts of local church catacombs and then, beginning in 1806, at Havanas newly opened Espada Cemetery. When locals realized there would be a need for a space for their community’s dead. Yet for all its elegance and grandeur Colon Cemetery conceals as much as it displays, empty tombs and desecrated family chapels disfigure the stately march of Cuban family memorials even in the most prominent of the avenues, and away from the central cross-streets, ruin. Many of these are the tombs of exiled families, whose problems with caring for their dead have been complicated by residence in new countries. The first impact of Colon Cemetery is an endless succession of tombs blinding white in the midday heat, few shade trees. The best preserved and grandest tombs stand on or near these central avenues, Colon Cemetery has a 75-foot -high monument to the firefighters who lost their lives in the great fire of May 17,1890. As baseball is a sport in Cuba, the cemetery has two monuments to baseball players from the Cuban League. The first was erected in 1942 and the second in 1951 for members of the Cuban Baseball Hall of Fame, in February 1898, the recovered bodies of sailors who died on the United States Navy battleship Maine were interred in the Colon Cemetery. In December 1899 the bodies were disinterred and brought back to the United States for burial at Arlington National Cemetery, francisco Taquechel, notable doctor, founder and director of the Farmacia Taquechel, Old Havana Panoramic photo of Colon Cemetery
14.
Eulogy
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A eulogy is a speech or writing in praise of a person or thing, especially one who recently died or retired or as a term of endearment. Eulogies may be given as part of funeral services and they take place in a funeral home during or after a wake. However, some denominations either discourage or do not permit eulogies at services to maintain respect for traditions, eulogies can also praise people who are still alive. This normally takes place on occasions like birthdays, office parties, retirement celebrations. Catholic priests are prohibited by the rubrics of the Mass from presenting a eulogy for the deceased in place of a homily during a funeral Mass, the modern use of the word eulogy was first documented in the 15th century and came from the Medieval Latin term eulogium. Eulogium at that time has turned into the shorter eulogy of today. Eulogies are usually delivered by a member or a close family friend in the case of a dead person. For a living eulogy given in such cases as a retirement, on occasions, eulogies are given to those who are severely ill or elderly in order to express words of love and gratitude before they die. Eulogies are not limited to people, however, places or things can also be given eulogies. A successful eulogy may provide comfort or inspiration, as well as establishing a connection to the person whom the eulogy is in behalf of, the following section will explore some well-known eulogies that have done just that. President Reagan’s eulogy for the Challenger space shuttle crew, “I know it is hard to understand, it’s all part of the process of exploration and discovery. It’s all part of taking a chance and expanding man’s horizons, the future doesn’t belong to the fainthearted, it belongs to the brave. The Challenger crew was pulling us into the future, and we’ll continue to follow them. ”Charles Spencer’s eulogy for Princess Diana, “Diana was the essence of compassion, of duty, of style, of beauty. ”Jawaharlal Nehru’s eulogy for Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. A great disaster is a symbol to us to all the big things of life and forget the small things. Some of them are meant to be a biography of the person’s life. The short biography is a retelling of what the individual went through in his life. This can be done to highlight major points in the deceased’s life, another version is by telling a more personal view on what the individual did. It entails retelling memories that are shared between the storyteller and the deceased, memories, impressions, and experiences are all things that can be included in a retelling of the personal eulogy
15.
Existentialism
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While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher and he proposed that each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or authentically. Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology. The term is seen as a historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, Sartre posits the idea that what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence, as scholar Frederick Copleston explains. Sartre himself, in a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism and this assertion comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern, Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard. This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern, the second claim comes from the Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term existential was borrowed from the poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that Hegelians do not study philosophy existentially, on the other hand, the Norwegian historian Anne-Lise Seip is critical of Slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from the Norwegian literary historian Cathrinus Bang. The actual life of the individuals is what constitutes what could be called their true essence instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them, thus, human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life. However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence - what Sartre would call bad faith, instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are defined only insofar as they act and that they are responsible for their actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity. This is as opposed to their genes, or human nature, as Sartre writes in his work Existentialism is a Humanism. Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards. Of course, the positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied, A person can choose to act in a different way. Here it is clear that since humans can choose to be either cruel or good, they are, in fact. Sartres definition of existentialism was based on Heideggers magnum opus Being and this way of living, Heidegger called average everydayness
16.
Jean-Paul Sartre
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Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology and his work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines. Sartre was also noted for his relationship with prominent feminist. Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural and social assumptions and expectations of their upbringings, Sartres introduction to his philosophy is his work Existentialism and Humanism, originally presented as a lecture. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused it, saying that he always declined official honours, Jean-Paul Sartre was born on 21 June 1905 in Paris as the only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and Anne-Marie Schweitzer. His mother was of Alsatian origin and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, when Sartre was two years old, his father died of a fever overseas. When he was twelve, Sartres mother remarried, and the moved to La Rochelle. As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergsons essay Time and Free Will and he attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school in Paris. It was at ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, perhaps the most decisive influence on Sartres philosophical development was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojèves seminars, which continued for a number of years. From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters, in 1927, his antimilitarist satirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored with Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced the event on 25 May, thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike. The publics resultant outcry forced Lanson to resign, in 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous, the first time Sartre took the exam to become a college instructor, he failed. He took it a time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place in his class. Sartre was drafted into the French Army from 1929 to 1931 and he later argued in 1959 that each French person was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence. From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre, Laon, in 1932, Sartre discovered Voyage au bout de la nuit by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, a book that had a remarkable influence on him. In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institut français dAllemagne in Berlin where he studied Edmund Husserls phenomenological philosophy, Aron had already advised him in 1930 to read Emmanuel Levinass Théorie de l’intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl. The Neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a generation of French thinkers, including Sartre
17.
Simone de Beauvoir
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Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir was a French writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist, feminist and social theorist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory, De Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, autobiography and monographs on philosophy, politics and social issues. She was also known for her lifelong relationship with French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Simone de Beauvoir was born in Paris on 9 January 1908 and her parents were Georges Bertrand de Beauvoir, a legal secretary who once aspired to be an actor, and Françoise de Beauvoir, a wealthy bankers daughter and devout Catholic. Simones sister, Hélène, was two years later. De Beauvoir herself was deeply religious as a child, at one point intending to become a nun and she experienced a crisis of faith at age 14, after which she remained an atheist for the rest of her life. De Beauvoir was intellectually precocious, fueled by her fathers encouragement, he reportedly would boast, because of her familys straitened circumstances, de Beauvoir could no longer rely on her dowry, and like other middle-class girls of her age, her marriage opportunities were put at risk. De Beauvoir took this opportunity to do what she wanted to do while also taking steps to earn a living for herself. After passing baccalaureate exams in mathematics and philosophy in 1925, she studied mathematics at the Institut Catholique de Paris and she then studied philosophy at the Sorbonne and after completing her degree in 1928, she wrote her diplôme détudes supérieures on Leibniz for Léon Brunschvicg. De Beauvoir was only the woman to have received a degree from the Sorbonne at the time. De Beauvoir first worked with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Claude Lévi-Strauss, when all three completed their practice teaching requirements at the secondary school. It was while studying for the agrégation that she met École Normale students Jean-Paul Sartre, Paul Nizan, and René Maheu. The jury for the agrégation narrowly awarded Sartre first place instead of de Beauvoir and this disequilibrium, which made my life a kind of endless disputation, is the main reason why I became an intellectual. From 1929 to 1943, De Beauvoir taught at the level until she could support herself solely on the earnings of her writings. She taught at the Lycée Montgrand, the Lycée Jeanne-dArc, the Lycée Molière, during October 1929, Jean-Paul Sartre and De Beauvoir became a couple and, after they were confronted by her father, Sartre asked her to marry him. One day while they were sitting on a bench outside the Louvre, he said, near the end of her life, de Beauvoir said, Marriage was impossible. So they entered a lifelong relationship, De Beauvoir chose never to marry and did not set up a joint household with Sartre. This gave her time to earn an academic degree, to join political causes, to travel, to write, to teach
18.
Jorge Masetti
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Jorge Josè Ricardo Masetti Blanco, also known as Commander Segundo, was an Argentinean journalist and guerrilla. Born in Avellaneda, Masetti entered the jungle at Salta and after 21 April 1964 was not heard from again. He was the founder and the first director of the Cuban news agency Prensa Latina, and became the leader of one of Argentinas first guerrilla organizations, the Guevarist Peoples Guerrilla Army. Jorge Josè Ricardo Masetti Blanco was born in Avellaneda, a city located in the belt formed around the city of Buenos Aires. He was born into a family descended from immigrants who came from the city of Bologna in Italy, in the mid-1940s he was an active member of the Nationalist Liberation Alliance, an extreme right-wing organization, together with Rodolfo Walsh and Rogelio García Lupo. During the Cuban Revolution he was the only Argentine reporter on the scene in the Sierra Maestra covering the 1958 guerrilla campaign led by the 26th of July Movement. As a special correspondent of Radio El Mundo, he got several interviews with Fidel Castro and these interviews, the first opportunity for the people of Cuba and Latin American to hear the leaders of the Cuban Revolution in their own words, were broadcast by Rebel Radio. This was the origin of Prensa Latina which still exists today, on March 4–5,1960, Masetti personally reported on the explosion of La Coubre, a ship docked in Havana Harbor which had exploded at the cost of 100 lives. In 1961, Masetti left Prensa Latina disappointed by growing sectional rivalries within the organization, Masetti himself said, to be a revolutionary I had to sacrifice my inner journalist. It was in Algeria that Angel Boan, a friend and colleague of his from Prensa Latina, was killed in action and they eventually decided to start the struggle in Salta Province in the northwestern Department of Orán, a jungle area bordering on Bolivia. It was a group of nearly 30 guerrillas, mostly Argentineans with a few experienced Cubans, Masetti took the rank of deputy commander, saving the leadership for Che when he was ready to join the group after it had established itself. Then the code of conduct was drawn up which, among other things, demanded the death penalty for homosexuality as well as for treason, exploitation of the population, rape. In 1963 the situation changed due to the calling of limited elections won by Arturo Illia of the Radical Civic Union, peronists were not permitted to participate in the election. On 21 September 1963 Masettis guerrillas crossed into Argentina and after days on foot settled down near the Pescado River. Continuing with their plan to topple the government, they commenced the armed insurgency with a letter to President Illia dated 9 July 1963. The guerrilla Bustos was in charge of taking the letter to the media, héctor Jouvet said, From the M1 Garand rifle, a semiautomatic with a six-round clip, up to the FN FAL with anti-tank grenades.25. Also, machine guns similar to the Halcón, like the ones that the Argentinean police had and their first military objective was the gendarmerie post at Aguas Blancas, but the location was deemed unsuitable and another objective was not chosen. Concerning one of the members, Adolfo Rotblat, or Pupi, Jouvet stated
19.
Pablo Neruda
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Pablo Neruda was the pen name and, later, legal name of the Chilean poet-diplomat and politician Ricardo Eliécer Neftalí Reyes Basoalto. He derived his pen name from the Czech poet Jan Neruda, Neruda won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1971. Neruda became known as a poet when he was 10 years old and he often wrote in green ink, which was his personal symbol for desire and hope. The Colombian novelist Gabriel García Márquez once called Neruda the greatest poet of the 20th century in any language, harold Bloom included Neruda as one of the 26 writers central to the Western Tradition in his book The Western Canon. On July 15,1945, at Pacaembu Stadium in São Paulo, Brazil, during his lifetime, Neruda occupied many diplomatic positions and served a term as a Senator for the Chilean Communist Party. When President González Videla outlawed communism in Chile in 1948, a warrant was issued for Nerudas arrest, friends hid him for months in the basement of a house in the port city of Valparaíso. Later, Neruda escaped through a pass near Maihue Lake into Argentina. Years later, Neruda was an advisor to Chiles socialist President Salvador Allende. When Neruda returned to Chile after his Nobel Prize acceptance speech, Neruda died in his house in Isla Negra on 23 September 1973 six and a half hours after that injection. Pinochet, backed by elements of the forces, denied permission for Nerudas funeral to be made a public event. However, thousands of grieving Chileans disobeyed the curfew and crowded the streets, soon after her death, Reyes moved to Temuco, where he married Trinidad Candia Marverde, a woman with whom he had had another child nine years earlier, a boy named Rodolfo. Neruda grew up in Temuco with Rodolfo and a half-sister, Laura and he composed his first poems in the winter of 1914. During this winter, he wrote often about dinosaurs, on July 18,1917, at the age of thirteen, he published his first work, an essay entitled Entusiasmo y perseverancia in the local daily newspaper La Mañana, signed Neftalí Reyes. From 1918 to mid-1920 he published poems, such as Mis ojos. In 1919, he participated in the literary contest Juegos Florales del Maule, by mid-1920, when he adopted the pseudonym Pablo Neruda, he was a published author of poems, prose, and journalism. He is thought to have named himself Neruda after the Czech poet Jan Neruda, the young poets intention in publishing under a pseudonym was to avoid his fathers disapproval of his poems. In 1921, at the age of 16, Neruda moved to Santiago to study French at the Universidad de Chile, both works were critically acclaimed and have been translated into many languages. Over the decades, Veinte poemas sold millions of copies and became Nerudas best-known work, almost one hundred years later, Veinte Poemas still retains its place as the best selling poetry book in the Spanish language
20.
Leica Camera
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Leica Camera AG, is a German optics enterprise and manufacturer of Leica cameras. The companys main products are cameras of the same name, the company specializes in high-end and expensive cameras. The earliest Leica prototypes were developed by the company Ernst Leitz during the first years of the 20th century, the Leicas were innovative, by orienting the image frame sideways for the 35 mm film as opposed to the cine-camera tradition of across the film-strip. The cameras were compact with collapsible lenses, for hiking and biking, the rangefinder feature was added with the Leica II during 1932, and that year both rangefinder and viewfinder cameras became available with interchangeable lenses. Further iterations of the models I and II were offered, prior to WWII Leica and competing Contax cameras from Zeiss Ikon were considered to be the finest 35mm cameras, but post-WWII the companies had competition from Soviet and Japanese copies. Through the 1950s Japanse quality and innovation, along with low pricing, Leica became an expensive type of camera bought largely by professional or serious photographers. However, the advent of reflex camera technology made rangefinders somewhat obsolete, despite never using reflex viewing or consumer digital production to any major extent, Leica has remained a notable trade-name into the 21st Century. Leica Microsystems AG actually owns the Leica brand and licenses the other two companies to use it, the name Leica is a combination of the first three letters of Ernst Leitzs surname and the first two from the word camera, lei-ca. The first 35mm film Leica prototypes were built by Oskar Barnack at Ernst Leitz Optische Werke, Wetzlar, intended as a compact camera for landscape photography, particularly during mountain hikes, the Leica was the first practical 35 mm camera that used standard cinema 35 mm film. The Leica transports the film horizontally, extending the size to 24×36mm with a 2,3 aspect ratio. The Leica had several model iterations, and during 1923 Barnack convinced his boss, Ernst Leitz II, to make a series of 31 cameras for the factory. Though the prototypes received a reception, Ernst Leitz decided during 1924 to produce the camera. It was a success when introduced at the 1925 Leipzig Spring Fair as the Leica I. The focal plane shutter has a range from 1/20 to 1/500 second, Barnack conceived the Leica as a small camera that produced a small negative. To make large photos by enlargement, requires that the camera have high quality lenses that could create well-defined negatives. Barnack tried a Zeiss Tessar on his prototype camera, but because the Tessar was designed for the 18×24 mm cine format. Barnack resorted to a Leitz Summar lens for the prototype, but to achieve resolution necessary for satisfactory enlargement, the first Leica lens was a 50 mm f/3.5 design based on the Cooke triplet of 1893, adapted by Max Berek at Leitz. The lens has five elements in three groups—- the third group being three cemented elements—- and was named the Leitz Anastigmat
21.
Leica M2
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The Leica M2 is a 35 mm rangefinder camera by Ernst Leitz GmbH of Wetzlar, Germany, introduced in 1957. Around 82,000 M2s were produced between 1957 and 1968, around 1500 M2s were produced by Ernst Leitz Canada, but most of these are not marked as such on the top plate. The M2 was considered to be an affordable, simplified version of the 1954 Leica M3. Notably, the counter of the M2 was composed of a disk plate beneath the film advance lever that had to be manually reset to zero after reloading. The rangefinder system was simplified from that of the M3. The M2 has a rangefinder with a 0.72 magnification and framelines for 35,50 and 90mm lenses instead of the 0.91 magnification and 50,90 and 135mm framelines of the M3. This made it better suited for photojournalists who favour shorter lenses or for using a 50mm lens who sometimes find it difficult to see the framelines on the M3. The ground glass frameline illumination window of the M3 was replaced with a plastic lens. Finally, the ornate beveling around the windows on the front of the M3 were flattened on the body of the M2. Unlike the M3, the widest framelines were not always visible so only one set of framelines were ever displayed at one time, all M2s are single stroke advance. On the present-day used market the M2 commands only slightly lower prices to the M3 despite its original affordable intentions. Both cameras are made to a level of quality and the M2s framelines have proved to be more versatile over time. There are a number of variations of the Leica M2, although most models have the self-timer lever, it is absent from some earlier models. Also, some models have a film rewind push-button instead of the typical lever. About 2400 M2s were factory-painted black, but these are rare and more valued by collectors. Near the end of production, Leica also produced a number of M2-R models, Leica M2 on photoethnography. com Leica M Serial Numbers on Cameraquest. com
22.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
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Kodak Plus-X
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The following is a partial list of products manufactured by Kodak. For a list of Kodak motion picture film stocks, see List of motion picture film stocks, Kodak has produced a range of Computer printers, concentrating on the photo printing market. Several of these systems were acquired from Scitex Corporation and Creo Holding Company. Kodak was a leader in digital photography products, although in recent years it has retreated from this market. Since Kodak did not have its own line of lenses, Kodak digital SLRs have all taken either Canon EOS or Nikon F-mount lenses, pixPro has seen its kind of revival, but manufactured by JK Imaging instead of Kodak. Kodak DC220 Pro Edition Kodak DC260 Pro Edition Kodak EOS-DCS1 - converted Canon EOS-1N, DCS300 series - converted Nikon Pronea, released 1999. DCS400 series - converted Nikon N90s, released 1994, DCS500 series - converted Canon EOS-1N, released 1999. DCS600 series - converted Nikon F5, released 1999, DCS700 series - converted Nikon F5, released 2001. DCS Pro Back - for various medium format cameras, DCS Pro 14n - worlds first full-frame 135 film-sized sensor, with 14 megapixels. DCS Pro SLR/n - Single lens reflex camera compatible with Nikon lenses DCS Pro SLR/c - Single lens reflex camera compatible with Canon EOS lenses, dC-Series Cameras were the earliest consumer digital cameras released. The DX series cameras were the first EasyShare models released, beginning with the DX3215 and it was originally a very basic point and shoot camera series, compatible with the original EasyShare Camera Dock. The CX series eventually replaced the lower-end DX models, and the newer DX-Series models had more advanced features and higher megapixel resolutions, the DX series is now discontinued. The higher-end of the DX-Series eventually became the Z-Series, select DX models were the last Kodak consumer digital cameras to use CompactFlash external memory cards. The CX series grew out of the DX series, at the time, it was the range of the lowest-priced, most basic point and shoot cameras, typically with no more than a 3× optical zoom. The LS series has now been discontinued and it has been replaced by the V-Series cameras that emphasize small, stylish design with advanced features. Select LS-series models used custom docks, CD and CW models are simply derivatives of mainstream C series models. V-Series had a number of innovations, such as dual-lens technology.5 LCD screen V1003, 10-megapixel and these were the only consumer models to leverage an external flash. The EasyShare-One series is now discontinued, Kodak EASYSHARE-ONE /6 MP Kodak EASYSHARE-ONE /4 MP The EasyShare M series are a blend between point-and-shoot cameras and thin and stylish cameras
24.
Communism
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Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
25.
Cuban Revolution
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The Cuban Revolution was an armed revolt conducted by Fidel Castros 26th of July Movement and its allies against the right-wing authoritarian government of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista. The revolution began in July 1953, and continued sporadically until the rebels finally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, the 26th of July Movement later reformed along communist lines, becoming the Communist Party in October 1965. Castro’s organized attack set up on the end of Santiago de Cuba against the military barracks ended in despair. The Cuban Revolution had powerful domestic and international repercussions, in particular, it transformed Cubas relationship with the United States. Efforts to improve diplomatic relations have gained momentum in recent years, in the immediate aftermath of the revolution, Castros government began a program of nationalization and political consolidation that transformed Cubas economy and civil society. The revolution also heralded an era of Cuban intervention in military conflicts, including the Angolan Civil War. Although Batista had been relatively progressive during his first term, in the 1950s he proved far more dictatorial, Batista developed a powerful security infrastructure to silence political opponents. In the months following the March 1952 coup, Fidel Castro, then a lawyer and activist, petitioned for the overthrow of Batista. However, Castros constitutional arguments were rejected by the Cuban courts, after deciding that the Cuban regime could not be replaced through legal means, Castro resolved to launch an armed revolution. Striking their first blow against the Batista government, Fidel and Raúl Castro gathered 123 Movement fighters, on 26 July 1953, the rebels attacked the Moncada Barracks in Santiago and the barracks in Bayamo, only to be decisively defeated by government soldiers. The staged attack was in hope to spark a revolt against Batista’s government. He had around 150 factory and farm workers, after an hour of fighting the rebel leader fled to the mountains. Due to the large number of men, Hunt revised the number to be around 60 members taking at the opportunity to flee to the mountains along with Castro. Among the dead was Abel Santamaría, Castros second-in-command, who was imprisoned, tortured, numerous key Movement revolutionaries, including the Castro brothers, were captured shortly afterwards. In a highly political trial, Fidel spoke for four hours in his defense, ending with the words Condemn me. Through Castro’s defense he used nationalism, the representation and beneficial programs for the non-elite Cubans, Fidel was sentenced to 15 years in the Presidio Modelo prison, located on Isla de Pinos, while Raúl was sentenced to 13 years. However, in 1955, under political pressure, the Batista government freed all political prisoners in Cuba. Fidels Jesuit childhood teachers succeeded in persuading Batista to include Fidel, soon, the Castro brothers joined with other exiles in Mexico to prepare for the overthrow of Batista, receiving training from Alberto Bayo, a leader of Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War
26.
Royalties
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A royalty is a payment made by one party, the licensee or franchisee to another that owns a particular asset, the licensor or franchisor for the right to ongoing use of that asset. A royalty interest is the right to collect a stream of future royalty payments, license agreements can be regulated, particularly where a government is the resource owner, or they can be private contracts that follow a general structure. However, certain types of agreements have comparable provisions. When a government owns the resource in question, the transaction is subject to legal. In the United States, fee simple ownership of the mineral is possible by a private individual, local taxing authorities may impose a severance tax on the unrenewable natural resources extracted from within their authority. The Federal Government receives royalties on production on federal lands, managed by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement, an example from Canadas north is the federal Frontier Lands petroleum royalty regime. In this manner risks and profits are shared between the government of Canada and the petroleum developer and this attractive royalty rate is intended to encourage oil and gas exploration in the remote Canadian frontier lands where costs and risks are higher than other locations. In many jurisdictions oil and gas royalty interests are considered property under the NAICS classification code. As a standard example, for every $100 bbl of oil sold on a U. S. federal well with a 25% royalty, the U. S. government does not pay and will only collect revenues. All risk and liability lie upon the operator of the well, Royalties in the forestry industry are called stumpage. An intangible asset such as a patent gives the owner an exclusive right to prevent others from practicing the patented technology in the country issuing the patent for the term of the patent. The right may be enforced in a lawsuit for monetary damages and/or imprisonment for violation on the patent, patent rights may be divided and licensed out in various ways, on an exclusive or non-exclusive basis. The license may be subject to limitations as to time or territory, a license may encompass an entire technology or it may involve a mere component or improvement on a technology. In the United States, reasonable royalties may be imposed, both after-the-fact and prospectively, by a court as a remedy for infringement. 0%, however, the range extended from 0% to 50%. All of these agreements may not have been at arms length, in license negotiation, firms might derive royalties for the use of a patented technology from the retail price of the downstream licensed product. In the Arab countries, it may be found, that a royalty as a percentage of sales may be difficult to transact, a flat fee may be preferred as percentages may be interpreted as percentage of profit. Trade marks are words, logos, slogans, sounds, or other expressions that distinguish the source, origin. Trade marks offer the public a means of identifying and assuring themselves of the quality of the good or service and they may bring consumers a sense of security, integrity, belonging, and a variety of intangible appeals
27.
Smirnoff
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Smirnoff is a brand of vodka owned and produced by the British company Diageo. The Smirnoff brand began with a distillery founded in Moscow by Pyotr Arsenievich Smirnov. It is now distributed in 130 countries and it is produced in several countries including India, Ireland, Honduras, Albania, Mongolia, Latvia, the Philippines, Italy, the United Kingdom and the United States. Smirnoff products include vodka, flavoured vodka, and malt beverages, in March 2006, Diageo North America claimed that Smirnoff vodka was the best-selling distilled spirit brand in the world. The vodka is made using a traditional charcoal filtration method developed by P. A SMIRNOFF, recipe NO.21 was created by P. A. s son Vladimir after escaping Russia and the Bolshevik revolution. His brand was reportedly a Tsar favorite, when Pyotr died, he was succeeded by his third son Vladimir Smirnov. The company flourished and produced more than 4 million cases of vodka per year, in 1904, the Tsar nationalized the Russian vodka industry and Vladimir Smirnov was forced to sell his factory and brand. During the October Revolution of 1917, the Smirnov family had to flee the country, Vladimir Smirnov re-established a factory in 1920 in Constantinople. Four years later he moved to Lwów and started to sell the vodka under the contemporary French spelling of the name, the new product sold marginally well but not nearly as it had in Russia prior to 1904. An additional distillery was founded in Paris in 1925, however the company was a shadow of its former self, in the 1930s, Vladimir met Rudolph Kunett, a Russian who had emigrated to America in the 1920s and became a successful businessman in New York City. The Kunett family had been a supplier of grains to Smirnoff in Moscow before the Revolution, in 1933, Vladimir sold Kunett the right to begin producing Smirnoff vodka in North America. He then returned to the United States, quit his sales job, however, the business in America was not as successful as Kunett had hoped. In 1938 Kunett could not afford to pay for the necessary sales licences, Heublein was a company that specialized in the import and export of liquors and foreign foods. Using the $14,000 that the Heublein company made from a new product that ended up saving them from bankruptcy, A1 Steak Sauce and his board thought he was mad. Americans were traditionally whiskey drinkers unfamiliar with vodka and so sales were very slow, in a marketing move they changed the product to use whiskey corks instead and branded it as a white whiskey with no taste, no smell. Sales picked up considerably after that, in 1982, the R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company acquired Heublein Inc. for $1.4 billion. RJR Nabisco sold the division to Grand Metropolitan in 1987, ironically, in 1985 Heublein Corporate Audit Manager Hanson J Kan had recommended to Heublein that they buy out the Grand Metropolitan IDV Smirnoff licensee with its global licensee locations. Grand Metropolitan merged with Guinness to form Diageo in 1997, suddenly 500,000 Soviet soldiers were paid in hard currency and had almost nothing to do except drink
28.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families
29.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
30.
Giangiacomo Feltrinelli
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Giangiacomo Feltrinelli was an influential Italian publisher and businessman active following the Second World War. He founded a vast library of documents mainly in the history of international labor and he became a militant and clandestine left-wing activist during the Years of Lead. Feltrinelli is perhaps most famous for his decision to translate and publish Boris Pasternaks novel Doctor Zhivago in the West after the manuscript was smuggled out of the Soviet Union and he died violently under mysterious circumstances. Giangiacomo Feltrinelli was born in 1926 into one of Italys wealthiest families, at the instigation of Giangiacomos monarchist mother, Benito Mussolini had him created marquess of Gargnano at the age of twelve. His mother Giannalisa Gianzana Feltrinelli married in 1940 Luigi Barzini, editor of the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera, during the Second World War the family left the Villa Feltrinelli in Gargnano north of Salò to be occupied by Mussolini and moved to Monte Argentario. The young Giangiacomo first took an interest in the conditions of workers. He came to believe that under capitalism most people could never attain his privileges and were compelled to sell their labour for a pittance to industrialists, in the post-war period the PCI held an influential position in the Italian electorate. The country was in ruins and the Partys opposition to Mussolini had gained it great popularity. The PCI was in coalition until 1947, Carlo Feltrinellis will had made Giangiacomo heir to three-quarters of his assets, and they came fully under his control when he came of age in 1947. Banca Unione was controlled by Giangiacomo until 1968, when it was taken over by Michele Sindona, according to some interpretations Sindona was pushed to buy out Feltrinelli by IOR, the Vatican bank, a minority shareholder embarrassed by cohabitation with a communist partner. Near the end of 1954, Giangiacomo Feltrinelli established a company in Milan. Its first published book was the autobiography of the first Indian Prime Minister, in late 1956 an Italian journalist showed Feltrinelli the manuscript of Doctor Zhivago by the Russian writer Boris Pasternak. Set in Russia, the novel follows a multitude of characters from 1903 to 1943, fetrinellis Slavist advisor told him, Not to publish a novel like this would constitute a crime against culture. Doctor Zhivago immediately became an international best seller, Feltrinelli sold the film rights to MGM for $450,000 and, adjusting for inflation, it became one of the highest-grossing films of all time. As a result of his defiance of Moscow, Feltrinelli was criticised, but the PCI leaders were reluctant to be seen to condone criticism of the Soviet Union. Feltrinelli Editore scored another coup in 1958 when it published a book rejected by other significant Italian publisher. Despite these successes Feltrinelli Editore in this period lost about 400 million lire a year on a turnover of 1.207 billion lire, still, Feltrinelli Libra had a nominal capital of 120 million in 1956. Feltrinelli Masonite, which he chaired, had a turnover of 1.421 billion in 1965, another firm which he advised on real estate construction had a capital of 400 million in 1970
31.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
32.
Paris Match
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Paris Match is a French-language weekly news magazine. It covers major national and international news along with celebrity lifestyle features, the magazine was started as a news magazine with the name Match in 1938 by the industrialist Jean Prouvost and closed in June 1940. It was relaunched in 1949 with a new name, Paris Match, the magazine temporarily ceased its publication between 18 May and 15 June 1968 upon the call for a strike by the Syndicat du Livre, the French Printers’ Union. In 1976 Daniel Filipacchi purchased the ailing Paris Match, and turned it into one of Frances most successful and it is published weekly and is now part of Hachette Filipacchi Médias, which is itself owned by the Lagardère Group. On occasion, Paris Match has sold more than one million worldwide when covering major events such as the first flight by a French astronaut aboard the U. S. Benoît Clair, a writer for Paris Match, was the first journalist allowed to join the shuttle crew members from training until the departure for the launch pad at Cape Canaveral. A series of reports on the training was published in Paris Match on 22 April 1985,17 June 1985 and 20 January 1986, as of 1996 the magazine had an independent political stance. Paris Match had a circulation of 1,800,000 copies in 1958, the 1988 circulation of the magazine was 873,000 copies, making it the best-selling news weekly in the country. In 2001 the weekly was the tenth largest news magazine worldwide with a circulation of 630,000 copies, Paris Match had a circulation of 656,000 copies during the 2007–2008 period. In 2009 the magazine was the best selling magazine in France with a circulation of 611,000 copies. Its circulation was 578,282 copies in 2014, in Hergés Tintin adventure The Castafiore Emerald, reporters from the imaginary Paris-Flash magazine play a major role in the plots development. The magazine is satirized as sensationalist and inaccurate
33.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
34.
Algerian War
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An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, and the use of torture by both sides. The conflict also became a war between loyalist Algerians supporting a French Algeria and their Algerian nationalist counterparts. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate approved the Évian Accords, the planned French withdrawal led to a state crisis, to various assassination attempts on de Gaulle, and to some attempts at military coups. Upon independence, in 1962,900,000 European-Algerians fled to France, in fear of the FLNs revenge, the French government was totally unprepared for the vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830, in 1834, Algeria became a French military colony and was subsequently declared by the constitution of 1848 to be an integral part of France and divided into three departments. Many French and other Europeans later settled in Algeria, under the Second Empire, the Code de lindigénat was implemented by the Sénatus-consulte of July 14,1865. Its first article stipulated, The indigenous Muslim is French, however and he may be admitted to serve in the army and the navy. He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria and he may, on his demand, be admitted to enjoy the rights of a French citizen, in this case, he is subjected to the political and civil laws of France. However, prior to 1870, fewer than 200 demands were registered by Muslims and 152 by Jewish Algerians, the 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870 Crémieux decrees, which granted French nationality to Jews living in one of the three Algerian departments. In 1881, the Code de lIndigénat made the official by creating specific penalties for indigènes. The Law of September 20,1947, granted French citizenship to all Algerian subjects, Algeria was unique to France because, unlike all other overseas possessions acquired by France during the 19th century, only Algeria was considered and legally classified an integral part of France. Both Muslim and European Algerians took part in World War I, Algerian Muslims served as tirailleurs and spahis, and French settlers as Zouaves or Chasseurs dAfrique. Within this context, a grandson of Abd el-Kadir spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 20th century and he was a member of the directing committee of the French Communist Party. The North African Star broke from the PCF in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Pariss demand, the pieds-noirs violently demonstrated against it and the North African Party opposed it, leading to the projects abandonment. This new party was dissolved in 1939, under Vichy, the French state attempted to abrogate the Crémieux decree in order to suppress the Jews French citizenship, but the measure was never implemented. On the other hand, nationalist leader Ferhat Abbas founded the Algerian Popular Union in 1938, in 1943 Abbas wrote the Algerian Peoples Manifesto. In the early morning hours of November 1,1954, FLN maquisards attacked military and he declared in the National Assembly, One does not compromise when it comes to defending the internal peace of the nation, the unity and integrity of the Republic. The Algerian departments are part of the French Republic and they have been French for a long time, and they are irrevocably French
35.
May 1968 events in France
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The volatile period of civil unrest in France during May 1968 was punctuated by demonstrations and massive general strikes as well as the occupation of universities and factories across France. At the height of its fervor, it brought the economy of France to a virtual halt. May 68 had a impact on French society that would be felt for decades to come. It is considered to this day as a cultural, social and moral turning point in the history of the country, as Alain Geismar—one of the leaders of the time—later pointed out, the movement succeeded as a social revolution, not as a political one. The unrest began with a series of student occupation protests against capitalism, consumerism and traditional institutions, values and it then spread to factories with strikes involving 11 million workers, more than 22% of the total population of France at the time, for two continuous weeks. It was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, the student occupations and wildcat general strikes initiated across France were met with forceful confrontation by university administrators and police. De Gaulle went to a French military base in Germany, and after returning dissolved the National Assembly, Violence evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers went back to their jobs, and when the elections were held in June. In February 1968, the French Communists and French Socialists formed an electoral alliance, the universitys administration called the police, who surrounded the university. After the publication of their wishes, the left the building without any trouble. After this first record some leaders of what was named the Movement of 22 March were called together by the committee of the university. Following months of conflicts between students and authorities at the Paris University at Nanterre, the shut down the university on May 2,1968. Students at the Sorbonne University in Paris met on May 3 to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. More than 20,000 students, teachers and supporters marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to create out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again, high school student unions spoke in support of the riots on 6 May. Negotiations broke down, and students returned to their campuses after a report that the government had agreed to reopen them. The students now had a near revolutionary fervor, on Friday,10 May, another huge crowd congregated on the Rive Gauche
36.
Charles de Gaulle
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Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman. He was the leader of Free France and the head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, in 1958, he founded the Fifth Republic and was elected as the 18th President of France, a position he held until his resignation in 1969. He was the dominant figure of France during the Cold War era, born in Lille, he graduated from Saint-Cyr in 1912. He was an officer of the First World War, wounded several times. During the interwar period, he advocated mobile armoured divisions, during the German invasion of May 1940, he led an armoured division which counterattacked the invaders, he was then appointed Under-Secretary for War. Refusing to accept his governments armistice with Nazi Germany, de Gaulle exhorted the French population to resist occupation and he led a government in exile and the Free French Forces against the Axis. Despite frosty relations with Britain and especially the United States, he emerged as the leader of the French resistance. He became Head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic in June 1944, frustrated by the return of petty partisanship in the new Fourth Republic, he resigned in early 1946 but continued to be politically active as founder of the RPF party. He retired in the early 1950s and wrote his War Memoirs, when the Algerian War was ripping apart the unstable Fourth Republic, the National Assembly brought him back to power during the May 1958 crisis. De Gaulle founded the Fifth Republic with a presidency. He granted independence to Algeria and progressively to other French colonies and he restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between the Anglo-American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring a Europe of sovereign nations, De Gaulle openly criticised the US intervention in Vietnam and the exorbitant privilege of the US dollar. In his later years, his support for an independent Quebec, De Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralization. He died a year later at his residence in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, leaving his Presidential memoirs unfinished, many French political parties and figures claim the Gaullist legacy. De Gaulle was ranked as Le Plus Grand Français de tous les temps, De Gaulle was born in the industrial region of Lille in the Nord departement, the third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family and his father, Henri de Gaulle, was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college who eventually founded his own school. Henri de Gaulle came from a line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy. De Gaulles mother, Jeanne, descended from a family of entrepreneurs from Lille
37.
Daniel Cohn-Bendit
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Daniel Marc Cohn-Bendit is a French-German politician. He was a student leader during the unrest of May 1968 in France and was known during that time as Dany le Rouge. He was co-president of the group European Greens–European Free Alliance in the European Parliament and he co-chairs the Spinelli Group, a European parliament intergroup aiming at relaunching the federalist project in Europe. Cohn-Bendit was born in Montauban, France, to German-Jewish parents who had fled Nazism in 1933 and he spent his childhood in Montauban. He moved to Germany in 1958, where his father had been a lawyer since the end of the war and he attended the Odenwaldschule in Heppenheim near Frankfurt, a secondary school for children of the upper middle class. Being officially stateless at birth, when he reached the age of 14 he chose German citizenship and he returned to France in 1966 to study sociology at the University of Pariss Faculty in Nanterre under the supervision of the network societys theorist Manuel Castells. Although residing in Paris, he was able to travel back to Germany, where he was notably influenced by the death of Benno Ohnesorg in 1967. In this tense context, he invited Karl Dietrich Wolff, leader of the Socialist German Student Union, for a lecture in Paris, which would prove influential to later May events. This contributed to attracting to him a lot of student supporters later to be called the 22 March Movement, in the autumn of 1967 rumours of his upcoming expulsion from the university led to a local students strike, and his expulsion was cancelled. On 22 March 1968 students occupied the offices, and the closing of the university on 2 May helped move the protests to downtown Paris. From 3 May 1968 onwards, massive student and workers riots erupted in Paris against Charles de Gaulles government, Cohn-Bendit quickly emerged as a public face of the student protests, along with Jacques Sauvageot, Alain Geismar and Alain Krivine. His foreign origins were highlighted by opponents of the student movement, leading to students taking up the chant, the French Communist Party leader Georges Marchais described Cohn-Bendit as the German anarchist Cohn-Bendit and denounced some student protesters as sons of the upper bourgeoisie. Who will quickly forget their revolutionary flame in order to manage daddys firm, continued police violence, however, prompted trade unions to support the students, and from 13 May onwards, France was struck by a general strike. Cohn-Bendits political opponents took advantage of his German passport and had him expelled from Saint-Nazaire to Germany on 22 May as a seditious alien, in Frankfurt in the family house, Cohn-Bendit became one of co-founders of the autonomist group Revolutionärer Kampf in Rüsselsheim. From this point his fate was linked with Joschka Fischer, another leader in the group, both were later to become leaders of the Realo wing of the German Green Party, alongside many former Communist and non-Communist libertarian leftists. Some have suggested that the group participated in violent action, which was common in the German extreme left of the early-seventies, but testimony from witnesses appears contradictory, sometimes unreliable. Communal apartments were common on the left, and peaceful political activists could easily have shared living quarters with terrorists, while Fischer was more concerned with demonstrations, Cohn-Bendit worked in the Karl-Marx-Buchhandlung bookshop in Frankfurt and ran an anti-authoritarian kindergarten. In his 1975 book Le Grand Bazar, he described himself as engaging in activities with very young children at the kindergarten
38.
Anarchism
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
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Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
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Jim Fitzpatrick (artist)
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Jim Fitzpatrick is an Irish artist. He is best known for detailed work inspired by the Irish Celtic tradition. However, perhaps his most famous piece is rather different in style, his iconic two-tone portrait of Che Guevara created in 1968. In 1978, he wrote and lavishly illustrated a book called The Book of Conquests, the retelling of a cycle of Irish myths and it is replete with intricate Celtic scrollwork and knotwork. This was followed up by The Silver Arm, which further portions of Irish myth, this time based on the deeds of Nuada of the Silver Arm. This second book is drawn in a sophisticated style, not so close to comic book style. A third volume, The Son of the Sun, is listed as in preparation as of 2004, the artist mentions that the two former books were more ambitiously illustrated, but the projects were curtailed. Another book, Erinsaga, is a recompilation of his work, from early jobs to his most famous books and freelance illustrations. He has also produced artwork for Thin Lizzy, for Sinéad OConnors 2000 album Faith and Courage. He blamed crass commercial use of the image for his decision and plans to hand over the copyright and all rights, in perpetuity, the Book of Conquests 1978 p/b ISBN 0-525-47511-7,1991 p/b ISBN 0-905895-14-2 The Silver Arm ISBN 1-85028-081-9 The Children of Lir ISBN 0-7497-0888-3 Erinsaga. The Mythological Paintings of Jim FitzPatrick, celtworld Celtia Jim was educated at the Franciscan College Gormanston, County Meath, just north of Dublin. Irish art Official website Interview with Jim Fitzpatrick by Aleksandra Mir, Jim Fitzpatricks site on flickr Marking Che Guevaras Limerick Link Limerick Leader, December 4,2008 Jim Fitzpatricks Gallery with biography and artbooks on Inside Your ART
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Francisco Franco
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Francisco Franco Bahamonde was a Spanish general who ruled over Spain as a military dictator for 36 years from 1939 until his death. As a conservative and a monarchist, he opposed the abolition of the monarchy, with the 1936 elections, the conservative Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups lost by a narrow margin and the leftist Popular Front came to power. Intending to overthrow the republic, Franco followed other generals in attempting a coup that precipitated the Spanish Civil War. With the death of the generals, Franco quickly became his factions only leader. Leaving half a million dead, the war was won by Franco in 1939. He established a dictatorship, which he defined as a totalitarian state. Franco proclaimed himself Head of State and Government under the title El Caudillo, under Franco, Spain became a one-party state, as the various conservative and royalist factions were merged into the fascist party and other political parties were outlawed. Although Francos Spain maintained a policy of neutrality during World War II. Francos regime has been called a fascist one, Spain was isolated by the international community for nearly a decade after World War II. By the 1950s, the nature of his regime changed from being openly totalitarian, by the 1960s Spain saw incremental reforms and progressive economic development. After a 36-year rule, Franco died in 1975 and he restored the monarchy before his death, which made King Juan Carlos I his successor, who led the Spanish transition to democracy. After a referendum, a new constitution was adopted, which transformed Spain into a democracy under a constitutional monarchy. Franco was born at half past noon on December 4,1892, at 108 Calle Frutos Saavedra in Ferrol and his father was of Andalusian ancestry. His mother was María del Pilar Bahamonde y Pardo de Andrade, Francisco was to follow his father into the Navy, but as a result of the Spanish–American War the country lost much of its navy as well as most of its colonies. Not needing any more officers, the Naval Academy admitted no new entrants from 1906 to 1913, to his fathers chagrin, Francisco decided to try the Spanish Army. In 1907, he entered the Infantry Academy in Toledo, graduating in 1910 as a lieutenant, two years later, he obtained a commission to Morocco. Spanish efforts to occupy their new African protectorate provoked the protracted Rif War with native Moroccans and their tactics resulted in heavy losses among Spanish military officers, and also provided an opportunity to earn promotion through merit. It was said that officers would receive either la caja o la faja, Franco quickly gained a reputation as a good officer
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Private Eye
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Private Eye is a British fortnightly satirical and current affairs news magazine, founded in 1961. It is published in London and has been edited by Ian Hislop since 1986 and it is also known for its in-depth investigative journalism into under-reported scandals and cover-ups. Private Eye is Britains best-selling current affairs magazine, and such is its long-term popularity, the magazine bucks the trend of declining circulation for print media, having recorded its highest ever circulation in the second half of 2016. The forerunner of Private Eye was a magazine, The Salopian, published at Shrewsbury School in the mid-1950s and edited by Richard Ingrams, Willie Rushton, Christopher Booker. After National Service, Ingrams and Foot went as undergraduates to Oxford University, the magazine proper began when Usborne learned of a new printing process, photo-litho offset, which meant that anybody with a typewriter and Letraset could produce a magazine. The publication was funded by Osmond and launched in 1961. It was named when Osmond looked for ideas in the recruiting poster of Lord Kitchener and, in particular. After the name Finger was rejected, Osmond suggested Private Eye, the magazine was initially edited by Booker and designed by Rushton, who drew cartoons for it. Its subsequent editor, Ingrams, who was pursuing a career as an actor, shared the editorship with Booker, from around issue number 10. At first, Private Eye was a vehicle for jokes, an extension of the original school magazine. However, according to Booker, it got caught up in the rage for satire, others essential to the development of the magazine were Auberon Waugh, Claud Cockburn, Barry Fantoni, Gerald Scarfe, Tony Rushton, Patrick Marnham and Candida Betjeman. Christopher Logue was another contributor, providing the column True Stories. The gossip columnist Nigel Dempster wrote extensively for the magazine before he fell out with Ian Hislop and other writers, while Foot wrote on politics, local government, Ingrams continued as editor until 1986, when he was succeeded by Hislop. Ingrams remains chairman of the holding company, Private Eye often reports on the misdeeds of powerful and important individuals and, consequently, has received numerous libel writs throughout its history. Its defenders point out that it often carries news that the press will not print for fear of legal reprisals or because the material is of minority interest. As well as covering a range of current affairs, Private Eye is also known for highlighting the errors. It reports on parliamentary and national issues, with regional and local politics covered in equal depth under the Rotten Boroughs column. Extensive investigative journalism is published under the In the Back section, often tackling cover-ups, Stories sometimes originate from writers for more mainstream publications who cannot get their stories published by their main employers
