1.
Henry Justice Ford
–
Henry Justice Ford was a prolific and successful English artist and illustrator, active from 1886 through to the late 1920s. Sometimes known as H. J. Ford or Henry J, in 1892, Ford began exhibiting paintings of historical subjects and landscapes at the Royal Academy of Art exhibitions. His parents were Katherine Mary Justice and William Augustus Ford, his grandfather was George Samuel Ford. His father, and many of his family were cricketers and his father wrote a number of articles and books on the subject and Fords brother, Francis Ford played for England in an Ashes series in Australia. His love of the game led Henry Justice Ford to play regularly with the playwright JM Barries Allahakbarrie Cricket Club. Fords wide-ranging interests brought him into contact and friendship with many figures of his time, including the writers PG Wodehouse, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. At the age of 61, Ford surprised his friends by marrying a woman some thirty-five years younger and she was Emily Amelia Hoff, a widow whose first husband had been killed in the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in March 1915. The seated model in Henry Justice Fords painting Remembering Happier Times, now in the collection of the Russell-Cotes Art Gallery, Bournemouth, bears a resemblance to Fords wife. Doing Justice to Henry, a study of Henry Justice Ford, by Caroline Hares-Stryker (Imaginative Book Illustration Society, Studies in Illustration, Number 43
Henry Justice Ford
–
The Princess Imprisoned in the Summerhouse from
Andrew Lang 's
The Green Fairy Book
Henry Justice Ford
–
Richard John Cuninghame (1871-1925)
2.
Historia Regum Britanniae
–
Historia regum Britanniae, originally called De gestis Britonum, is a pseudohistorical account of British history, written around 1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth. It is one of the pieces of the Matter of Britain. Although credited uncritically well into the 16th century, it is now considered to have no value as history, when events described, such as Julius Caesars invasions of Britain, can be corroborated from contemporary histories, Geoffreys account can be seen to be wildly inaccurate. Yet the deeds of men were such that they deserve to be praised for all time. He also cites Gildas and Bede as sources, then follows a dedication to Robert, earl of Gloucester and Waleran, count of Meulan, whom he enjoins to use their knowledge and wisdom to improve his tale. The Historia itself begins with the Trojan Aeneas, who according to Roman legend settled in Italy after the Trojan War and his great-grandson Brutus is banished, and, after a period of wandering, is directed by the goddess Diana to settle on an island in the western ocean. Brutus lands at Totnes and names the island, then called Albion, Brutus defeats the giants who are the only inhabitants of the island, and establishes his capital, Troia Nova, on the banks of the Thames, after his time it is renamed London. When Brutus dies, his three sons, Locrinus, Kamber and Albanactus, divide the county between themselves, the three kingdoms are named Loegria, Kambria and Albany. The story then progresses rapidly through the reigns of the descendants of Locrinus, including Bladud, bladuds son Leir reigns for sixty years. He has no sons, so upon reaching old age he decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters, Goneril, Regan and Cordelia, to decide who should get the largest share, he asks his daughters how much they love him. Goneril and Regan give extravagant answers, but Cordelia answers simply and sincerely, angered, Goneril and Regan are to share half the island with their husbands, the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall. Cordelia marries Aganippus, King of the Franks, and departs for Gaul, soon Goneril and Regan and their husbands rebel and take the whole kingdom. After Leir has had all his attendants taken from him, he begins to regret his actions towards Cordelia, Cordelia receives him compassionately and restores his royal robes and retinue. Aganippus raises a Gaulish army for Leir, who returns to Britain, defeats his sons-in-law, Leir rules for three years and then dies, Cordelia inherits the throne and rules for five years before Marganus and Cunedagius, her sisters sons, rebel against her. They imprison Cordelia, grief-stricken, she kills herself, Marganus and Cunedagius divide the kingdom between themselves, but soon quarrel and go to war with each other. Cunedagius eventually kills Marganus in Wales and retains the whole kingdom and he is succeeded by his son. A later descendant of Cunedagius, King Gorboduc, has two sons called Ferreux and Porrex and they quarrel and both are eventually killed, sparking a civil war. This leads to Britain being ruled by five kings, who keep attacking each other, dunvallo Molmutius, the son of the King of Cornwall, becomes pre-eminent
Historia Regum Britanniae
–
Illumination of a 15th-century manuscript of Historia Regum Britanniae showing
Vortigern and
Ambros watching the fight between two dragons.
3.
Welsh language
–
Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
Welsh language
–
This tattered
Welsh Bible of 1620, in
Llanwnda church, is said to have been rescued from the hands of French invaders in 1797.
Welsh language
–
The 1588 Welsh Bible
Welsh language
–
Trilingual (Spanish, Welsh and English) sign in Argentina
4.
Breton language
–
Breton /ˈbrɛtən/ is a Southwestern Brittonic Celtic language spoken in Brittany. Breton is most closely related to Cornish, both being Southwestern Brittonic languages, Welsh and the extinct Cumbric are the more distantly related Brittonic languages. The other regional language of Brittany, Gallo, is a langue doïl, Gallo is consequently close to French, although not mutually intelligible, and a Romance language descended from Latin. However, the number of children attending bilingual classes has risen 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709, Breton is spoken in West Brittany, roughly to the west of a line linking Plouha and La Roche-Bernard. It comes from a Brittonic language community that extended from Great Britain to Armorica and had even established a toehold in Galicia. Old Breton is attested from the 9th century and it was the language of the upper classes until the 12th century, after which it became the language of commoners in Lower Brittany. The nobility, followed by the bourgeoisie, adopted French, the written language of the Duchy of Brittany was Latin, switching to French in the 15th century. There exists a tradition of Breton literature. Some Old Breton vocabulary remains in the present day as philosophical, during the French Revolution, the government introduced policies favouring French over the regional languages, which it pejoratively referred to as patois. The revolutionaries assumed that reactionary and monarchist forces preferred regional languages to try to keep the peasant masses underinformed, in 1794, Bertrand Barère submitted his report on the patois to the Committee of Public Safety in which he said that federalism and superstition speak Breton. Teachers humiliated students for using their regional languages, and such practices prevailed until the late 1960s, the majority of todays speakers are more than 60 years old, and Breton is now classified as an endangered language. At the beginning of the 20th century, half of the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton, by 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons, and this rapid decline has continued, with likely no monolingual speakers left today. A statistical survey in 1997 found around 300,000 speakers in Lower Brittany, few 15- to 19-year-olds spoke Breton. In 1925, Professor Roparz Hemon founded the Breton-language review Gwalarn, during its 19-year run, Gwalarn tried to raise the language to the level of a great international language. Its publication encouraged the creation of literature in all genres. In 1946, Al Liamm replaced Gwalarn, other Breton-language periodicals have been published, which established a fairly large body of literature for a minority language. In 1977, Diwan schools were founded to teach Breton by immersion and they taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school. See the education section for more information, the Asterix comic series has been translated into Breton
Breton language
–
Bilingual sign
Huelgoat,
Brittany
Breton language
–
Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg, the Breton language agency, was set up in 1999 by the Brittany region to promote and develop the use of Breton
Breton language
–
Bilingual sign in
Vannes (Gwened)
Breton language
–
Sign in French and Breton in Rennes, outside a school with bilingual classes
5.
King Arthur
–
King Arthur is a legendary British leader who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries AD. The details of Arthurs story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, the sparse historical background of Arthur is gleaned from various sources, including the Annales Cambriae, the Historia Brittonum, and the writings of Gildas. Arthurs name also occurs in early sources such as Y Gododdin. Arthur is a figure in the legends making up the so-called Matter of Britain. The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouths fanciful, how much of Geoffreys Historia was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown. Geoffrey depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and Gaul. The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot, in these French stories, the narrative focus often shifts from King Arthur himself to other characters, such as various Knights of the Round Table. Arthurian literature thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the lives on, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics. The historical basis for the King Arthur legend has long debated by scholars. These culminate in the Battle of Badon, where he is said to have single-handedly killed 960 men, recent studies, however, question the reliability of the Historia Brittonum. The other text that seems to support the case for Arthurs historical existence is the 10th-century Annales Cambriae, the Annales date this battle to 516–518, and also mention the Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut were both killed, dated to 537–539. These details have often used to bolster confidence in the Historias account. Problems have been identified, however, with using this source to support the Historia Brittonums account, the latest research shows that the Annales Cambriae was based on a chronicle begun in the late 8th century in Wales. Additionally, the textual history of the Annales Cambriae precludes any certainty that the Arthurian annals were added to it even that early. They were more likely added at point in the 10th century. The Badon entry probably derived from the Historia Brittonum and this lack of convincing early evidence is the reason many recent historians exclude Arthur from their accounts of sub-Roman Britain. These modern admissions of ignorance are a recent trend, earlier generations of historians were less sceptical
King Arthur
–
Tapestry showing Arthur as one of the
Nine Worthies, wearing a
coat of arms often attributed to him (c. 1385)
King Arthur
–
Statue of King Arthur at the
Hofkirche in
Innsbruck, designed by
Albrecht Dürer and cast by
Peter Vischer the Elder (1520s)
King Arthur
–
The 10th-century
Annales Cambriae (from a copy c. 1100)
King Arthur
–
A facsimile page of
Y Gododdin, one of the most famous early Welsh texts featuring Arthur (c. 1275)
6.
Geoffrey of Monmouth
–
Geoffrey of Monmouth was a British cleric and one of the major figures in the development of British historiography and the popularity of tales of King Arthur. He is best known for his chronicle The History of the Kings of Britain and it was credited, uncritically, well into the 16th century, but is now considered historically unreliable. Geoffrey was probably some time between 1100 and 1110 in Wales or the Welsh Marches. He must have reached the age of majority by 1129, when he is recorded as witnessing a charter. In his Historia, Geoffrey refers to himself as Galfridus Monemutensis, Geoffrey of Monmouth, which indicates a significant connection to Monmouth, Wales, Geoffreys works attest to some acquaintance with the place-names of the region. To contemporaries, Geoffrey was known as Galfridus Artur or variants thereof, the Arthur in these versions of his name may indicate the name of his father, or a nickname based on Geoffreys scholarly interests. Earlier scholars assumed that Geoffrey was Welsh or at least spoke Welsh and it has been argued, by Frank Stenton among others, that Geoffreys parents may have been among the many Bretons who took part in William Is Conquest and settled in the southeast of Wales. Monmouth had been in the hands of Breton lords since 1075 or 1086 and he may have served for a while in a Benedictine priory in Monmouth, but most of his adult life appears to have been spent outside Wales. Between 1129 and 1151 his name appears on six charters in the Oxford area and he was probably a secular canon of St. Georges college. All the charters signed by Geoffrey are also signed by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, another frequent co-signatory is Ralph of Monmouth, a canon of Lincoln. On 24 February 1152, at Lambeth, Archbishop Theobald consecrated Geoffrey as Bishop of St Asaph, there is no evidence that he ever visited his see, writes Lewis Thorpe, and indeed the wars of Owain Gwynedd make this most unlikely. He appears to have died between 25 December 1154 and 24 December 1155, in 1155 according to Welsh chronicles, when his apparent successor, Richard, Geoffrey wrote several works of interest, all in Latin, the language of learning and literature in Europe during the medieval period. His major work was The History of the Kings of Britain, modern historians have dismissed this claim. The History of the Kings of Britain is now acknowledged as a work of national myth containing little reliable history. Other contemporaries were similarly unconvinced by Geoffreys History, Geoffreys major work was nevertheless widely disseminated across the whole of Medieval Western Europe, Acton Griscom listed 186 extant manuscripts in 1929, and others have been identified since. Where it was accepted as a true account. It consists of a series of obscure prophetic utterances attributed to Merlin, the Historys effect on the legend of King Arthur was so vast that Arthurian works have been categorised as pre- or post-Galfridian depending on whether or not they were influenced by him. The third work attributed to Geoffrey is another hexameter poem Vita Merlini, the story is set long after the timeframe of the Historys Merlin, but the author tries to synchronise the works with references to the mad prophets previous dealings with Vortigern and Arthur
Geoffrey of Monmouth
–
Merlin prophesies for
Vortigern, from a manuscript of Geoffrey of Monmouth's
Historia Regum Britanniae.
7.
Chivalric romance
–
As a literary genre of high culture, romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Popular literature also drew on themes of romance, but with ironic, satiric or burlesque intent. Still, the image of medieval is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre, and the word medieval evokes knights, distressed damsels, dragons. Originally, romance literature was written in Old French, Anglo-Norman, Occitan, and Provençal, during the early 13th century, romances were increasingly written as prose. In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love. Unlike the later form of the novel and like the chansons de geste, the earliest forms were invariably in verse, but the 15th century saw many in prose, often retelling the old, rhymed versions. Many influences are clear in the forms of chivalric romance, the epics of Charlemagne, unlike such ones as Beowulf, already had feudalism rather than the tribal loyalties, this was to continue in romances. The romance form is distinguished from the epics of the Middle Ages by the changes of the 12th century. This occurred regardless of congruity to the material, Alexander the Great featured as a fully feudal king. Chivalry was treated as continuous from Roman times, historical figures reappeared, reworked, in romance. The entire Matter of France derived from known figures, and suffered somewhat because their descendents had an interest in the tales that were told of their ancestors, unlike the Matter of Britain. Hereward the Wakes early life appeared in chronicles as the embellished, romantic adventures of an exile, complete with rescuing princess, fulk Fitzwarin, an outlaw in King Johns day, has his historical background a minor thread in the episodic stream of romantic adventures. The earliest medieval romances dealt heavily with themes from folklore, which diminished over time, morgan le Fay never loses her name, but in Le Morte dArthur, she studies magic rather than being inherently magical. Still, fairies never completely vanished from the tradition, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a late tale, but the Green Knight himself is an otherworldly being. In Italy there is the story called Il Bel Gherardino and it is the most ancient prototype of an Italian singing fairy tale by an anonymous Tuscan author. It tells the story of a young Italian knight, depleted for its magnanimitas, other examples of Italian poetry tales are Antonio Puccis literature, Gismirante, Il Brutto di Bretagna or Brito di Bretagna and Madonna Lionessa. Another work of a second anonymous Italian author that is worth mentioning is Istoria di Tre Giovani Disperati e di Tre Fate, some romances, such as Apollonius of Tyre, show classical pagan origins. Tales of the Matter of Rome in particular may be derived from such works as the Alexander Romance
Chivalric romance
–
Yvain fighting
Gawain. Medieval illumination from
Chrétien de Troyes 's romance,
Yvain, le Chevalier au Lion
Chivalric romance
–
Holger Danske, or Ogier the Dane, from the Matter of France
Chivalric romance
–
A knight rescues a lady from a dragon.
8.
Lancelot
–
Sir Lancelot du Lac was one of the Knights of the Round Table in the Arthurian legend. Traditional scholars thought that they are the same due to the fact that their names are similar. One suggestion has been that the name may have been an invention by Chretien de Troyes, given the evidence of LAncelot. Another suggestion is that the name may have derived from Geoffrey of Monmouths Anguselaus. However, one scholar has suggested that Lancelot may be a variant of the name Lancelin, Lancelot or Lancelin may have instead been the hero of an independent folk-tale which had contact with and was ultimately absorbed into the Arthurian tradition. F. Campbell in his Tales of the West Highlands, the character Lancelot is first introduced by writer Chrétien de Troyes in the 12th century. In Chrétiens earliest known work Erec and Enide, the name Lancelot appears as third on a list of knights at King Arthurs court. The fact that Lancelots name follows Gawain and Erec indicates the importance of the knight at court. Here, Lancelot takes an important role as one of the knights that Cligès must overcome in his quest. It is not until Chrétiens Le Chevalier de la Charrette, however, in this text, he is presented as the most formidable knight at King Arthurs court. His adulterous relationship with the Queen is also introduced in this text, according to Pamela Raabe, Lancelot is portrayed in Chrétien de Troyes’ work as the bravest of knights and one whom everyone is forced to describe as uniquely perfect. His deeds are recounted for their uniqueness, not only among living knights, the problem is that critics have been unable to agree on how to reconcile his perfect “saintliness” with his obvious adultery with King Arthur’s Guinevere. How can the lovers’ consummation be considered a “saintly affair” when it is also adultery, and that adultery is against King Arthur, to whom all knights owe selfless respect, according to Arthurian politics and William Bowman Piper. It is also Chrétien who first gives Lancelot the name Lancelot du Lac which was picked up by the Anglo-French Lancelot-Grail. Lancelot is constantly tied to the Christianity associated with Arthurian Legend, Raabe compares Lancelot’s quest for Guinevere in “Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart” to Everyman’s quest for salvation and Christ’s quest for the human soul. This becomes intensified when he becomes the saviour of the captives of Logres. Danielle MacBain’s study of Thomas Malory’s Le Morte dArthur claims that Lancelot’s affair with Guinevere is often seen as parallel to that of Tristram and Iseult. MacBain suggests that it is Lancelot who is identified with the tragedy of chance
Lancelot
–
Sir Launcelot from The Book of Knowledge (1911).
Lancelot
–
Illustration from page 278 of The Boy's King Arthur: Launcelot and Guinevere - "He rode his way with the Queen unto Joyous Gard."
Lancelot
–
Lancelot fighting the lions, from a medieval illumination
Lancelot
–
Lancelot at the Chapel of the
Holy Grail by the Pre-Raphaelite painter
Edward Burne-Jones
9.
Thomas Malory
–
Sir Thomas Malory was an English writer, the author or compiler of Le Morte dArthur. Since the late century, he has generally been identified as Sir Thomas Malory of Newbold Revel in Warwickshire, a knight, land-owner. Previously, it was suggested by antiquary John Leland and John Bale that he was Welsh, the name could also be rooted in Irish & Scottish Gaelic and mean follower of the king, as in maol and ry or ree. Maol or Máel is a root of indigenous names and is found in the name Malmesbury which was founded by the Irish scholar Máel Dub meaning the dark follower. Arthurian literature originates in the Irish & Scottish Gaelic traditions as Norman interpretation and translation, occasionally, other candidates are put forward for authorship of Le Morte dArthur, but the supporting evidence for their claim has been described as no more than circumstantial. Most of what is known about Malory stems from the accounts describing him in the found in the Winchester Manuscript. He is described as a knyght presoner, distinguishing him from the six individuals also bearing the name Thomas Malory in the 15th century when Le Morte dArthur was written. At the end of the Tale of King Arthur is written, For this was written by a knight prisoner Thomas Malleorre, that God send him good recovery. At the end of The Tale of Sir Gareth, And I pray you all that readeth this tale to pray for him that this wrote, that God send him good deliverance soon and hastily. At the conclusion of the Tale of Sir Tristram, Here endeth the second book of Sir Tristram de Lyones, which was drawn out of the French by Sir Thomas Malleorre, knight, as Jesu be his help. Finally, at the conclusion of the book, The Most Piteous Tale of the Morte Arthure Sanz Gwerdon par le shyvalere Sir Thomas Malleorre, knight. For this book was ended the year of the reign of King Edward the Fourth by Sir Thomas Maleore, knight, as Jesu help him for his great might. The author was educated, as some of his material was drawn out of the French, a claimants age must also fit the time of writing. By far the likeliest candidate for the authorship is Thomas Malory of Newbold Revel in Warwickshire, H. Oskar Sommer first proposed this identification in his edition of Le Morte dArthur published in 1890, and George Lyman Kittredge, a professor at Harvard, provided the evidence in 1896. Kittredge showed Malory as a soldier and a member of Parliament, Helen Cooper referred to his life as one that reads more like an account of exemplary thuggery than chivalry. Malory was born to Sir John Malory of Winwick, Northamptonshire, who had served as a Justice of the Peace in Warwickshire and as a member of Parliament, and Lady Phillipa Malory, heiress of Newbold. He was born after 1415 and before 1418, judging by the fact that he attained his majority between 1434 and 1439. He was knighted before 8 October 1441, became a soldier, and served under the Duke of Warwick—but all dates are vague
Thomas Malory
–
An
Aubrey Beardsley illustration for Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, "How Sir Bedivere Cast the Sword Excalibur into the Water" (1894)
10.
Battle of Camlann
–
The Battle of Camlann is reputed to have been the final battle of King Arthur, in which he either died or was fatally wounded, fighting either with or against Mordred who is also said to have died. The earliest known reference to the battle of Camlann is an entry in the 10th-century Annales Cambriae and it mentions Mordred, but it does not specify that he and Arthur fought on opposite sides. Gueith camlann in qua Arthur et Medraut corruerunt, andrew Breeze writes, Last of all, what can we conclude about Camlan itself. Can we say anything at all on its location, significance, here we may recall the views expressed by Padel, Dark, Dumville, and Higham. The status of the entry for 537 is therefore now clear, on the one hand it is presented as sober fact and appears in the context of persons known to history. On the other, we cannot be certain that it is old, the historical Arthur thus becomes little more than a wisp of air. Unless unexpected evidence turns up, the only honest answer we can give here is that of Kenneth Jackson, that We do not know, the location described as Camlann is unknown. The name may derive from a Brittonic *Cambo-landa, or *Cambo-glanna, later accounts of the battle, much embroidered, appear in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae and the Alliterative Morte Arthure. Some sources state that the battle was caused by King Arthurs return to Camelot, King Arthur had learned of Guinevere and Sir Lancelots affair, and Sir Lancelot fled to France. Arthur pursued him in an effort to get revenge, and his enemy, Mordred, when Arthur returned and tried to take back his kingdom, Mordred refused. A battle erupted, and Arthur was severely wounded and he journeyed to the isle of Avalon, which is said to have magical properties, in hope that he could be healed. Some say he died there, and some say his wounds healed, welsh triads offer clues to the alleged cause of the Battle of Camlann. Triad 51 reflects Geoffrey of Monmouth, Medrawd rebels against Arthur while the latter is campaigning on the Continent and usurps the throne, instigating the battle of Camlann. Triad 53 lists a slap Gwenhwyvach gave to her sister Gwenhwyfar, wife of Arthur, as one of the Three Harmful Blows of the Island of Britain, calling Camlann one of Britains Three Futile Battles, Triad 84 also mentions this dispute between sisters. Triad 54 describes Medrawd raiding Arthurs court, throwing Gwenhwyfar to the ground, other Triads in which Camlann is mentioned include numbers 30,59,84. Battle of Badon Alistair Moffat, The Faded Map - Lost Kingdoms of Scotland
Battle of Camlann
–
"How Mordred was Slain by Arthur, and How by Him Arthur was Hurt to the Death", by
Arthur Rackham
11.
Mordred
–
Mordred or Modred is a character in the Arthurian legend, known as a notorious traitor who fought King Arthur at the Battle of Camlann, where he was killed and Arthur fatally wounded. In earlier literature, he was considered the son of Morgause, also known as Anna. His brothers or half-brothers are Gawain, Agravain, Gaheris, the name is ultimately derived from Latin Moderātus. The first surviving mention of Mordred, occurs in the Annales Cambriae entry for the year 537, the strife of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut fell. The Annales themselves were completed between 960 and 970, though their authors drew on older material, the earliest full account of Mordred is found in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, where he, for the first time in literature, plays the role of traitor to Arthur. During Arthurs absence Mordred crowns himself king and marries Guinevere, forcing Arthur to return to Britain, the Battle of Camlann is fought, and Mordred dies while Arthur is taken to Avalon. A number of Welsh sources also refer to Medraut, usually in relation to Camlann, Medraut is never considered Arthurs son in Welsh texts, only his nephew, though The Dream of Rhonabwy mentions that the king had been his foster father. However, Mordreds later characterization as the kings villainous son has a precedent in the figure of Amr, what connection exists between the stories of Amr and Mordred, if there is one, has never been satisfactorily explained. In Geoffrey and certain other sources such as the Alliterative Morte Arthure, Mordred marries Guinevere, seemingly consensually, after he steals the throne. However, in later writings like the Lancelot-Grail Cycle and Thomas Malorys Le Morte dArthur, Guinevere is not treated as a traitor and she flees Mordreds proposal, adultery is still tied to her role in these later romances, however, but Mordred has been replaced with Lancelot. Geoffrey and the Lancelot-Grail Cycle have Mordred being succeeded by his sons, stories always number them as two, though they are usually not named, nor is their mother. The 18th century Welsh antiquarian Lewis Morris, based on statements made by the Scottish chronicler Hector Boece, suggested that Medrawd had a wife, Cwyllog, another late Welsh tradition was that Medrawds wife was Gwenhwyach, sister of Gwenhwyfar. In Geoffreys version, after the Battle of Camlann, Constantine is appointed Arthurs successor, however, Mordreds two sons and their Saxon allies rise against him. He defeats them, and one of them flees to sanctuary in the Church of Amphibalus in Winchester while the other hides in a London friary, Constantine tracks them down, and kills them before the altars in their respective hiding places. This act invokes the vengeance of God, and three years later Constantine is killed by his nephew Aurelius Conanus, Geoffreys account of the episode may be based on Constantines murder of two royal youths as mentioned by the 6th-century writer Gildas. The elder of Mordreds sons is named Melehan or some derivation in the Lancelot-Grail, in these texts, Lancelot and his men return to Britain to dispatch Melehan and his brother after receiving a letter from the dying Gawain. In the ensuing battle Melehan slays Sir Lionel, son of King Bors the Elder and brother to Sir Bors the Younger, Bors kills him to avenge his brothers death, while Lancelot slays the unnamed younger brother. Virtually everywhere Mordred appears, his name is synonymous with treachery and he appears in Dantes Inferno in the lowest circle of Hell, set apart for traitors, him who, at one blow, had chest and shadow / shattered by Arthurs hand
Mordred
–
"Sir Mordred" (1902) by
H. J. Ford
12.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
13.
Gildas
–
He is one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sub-Roman period, and was renowned for his Biblical knowledge and literary style. In his later life, he emigrated to Brittany where he founded a monastery known as St. Gildas de Rhuys. Differing versions of the Life of Saint Gildas exist, but both agree that he was born in what is now Scotland on the banks of the River Clyde, and these works were written in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and are regarded by scholars as unhistorical. He is now thought to have his origins further south, in his own work, he claims to have been born the same year as the Battle of Mount Badon. He was educated at a center, possibly Cor Tewdws under St. Illtud. He became a teacher, converting many to Christianity and founding numerous churches and monasteries throughout Britain. He is thought to have made a pilgrimage to Rome before emigrating to Brittany, however, his life of solitude was short-lived, and pupils soon sought him out and begged him to teach them. He is thought to have died at Rhuys, and was buried there, the 9th century Rhuys Life is generally accepted as being more accurate. The First Life of St. Gildas was written by a monk at the monastery which Gildas founded in Rhuys. According to this tradition, Gildas is the son of Caunus, king of Alt Clut in the Hen Ogledd and he had four brothers, his brother Cuillum ascended to the throne on the death of his father, but the rest became monks in their own right. Gildas was sent as a child to the College of Theodosius in Glamorgan, under the care of St. Illtud and his master St. Illtud loved him tenderly and taught him with special zeal. He was supposed to be educated in arts and divine scripture, but elected to study only holy doctrine. After completing his studies under St. Illtud, Gildas went to Ireland where he was ordained as a priest and he returned to his native lands in northern Britain where he acted as a missionary, preaching to the pagan people and converting many of them to Christianity. He was then asked by Ainmericus, high king of Ireland, to order to the church in Ireland. Gildas obeyed the summons and travelled all over the island, converting the inhabitants, building churches. He then travelled to Rome and Ravenna where he performed many miracles, intending to return to Britain, he instead settled on the Isle of Houat off Brittany where he led a solitary, austere life. At around this time, he preached to Nonnita, the mother of Saint David. He was eventually sought out by those who wished to study under him and he built an oratory on the bank of the River Blavetum, today known as St. Gildas de Rhuys
Gildas
–
Statue of Saint Gildas near the village of
Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuys (France).
Gildas
–
The spring of St. Gildas in
Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuys, Morbihan
Gildas
–
Spring of St Gildas,
Magoar, Brittany
14.
Gerald of Wales
–
Gerald of Wales was a Cambro-Norman archdeacon of Brecon and historian. As a royal clerk to the king and two archbishops, he travelled widely and wrote extensively and he both studied and taught in France and visited Rome several times, meeting the Pope. He was nominated for several bishoprics but turned them down in the hope of becoming bishop of St Davids and his final post was as archdeacon of Brecon, from which he retired to academic study for the remainder of his life. Born c. 1146 at Manorbier Castle in Pembrokeshire, Wales, he was of mixed Norman and Welsh descent. His mother was Angharad FitzGerald, a daughter of Gerald FitzWalter of Windsor, Constable of Pembroke Castle, and his wife Nest ferch Rhys, daughter of Rhys ap Tewdwr, the last King of South Wales. Gerald received his education at the Benedictine house of Gloucester, followed by a period of study in Paris from c. 1165–74. He was appointed in 1174 archdeacon of Brecon, to which was attached a residence at Llanddew and he obtained this position by reporting the existence of the previous archdeacons mistress, the man was promptly fired. While administrating this post, Gerald collected tithes of wool and cheese from the populace, upon the death of his uncle, the Bishop of St Davids, in 1176, the chapter nominated Gerald as his successor. St Davids had long-term aims of becoming independent of Canterbury, such an appointment would only give strength to the Welsh and increase their pride. The chapter acquiesced in the decision, and Gerald, disappointed with the result, 1179-8, he studied and taught canon law and theology. He returned to England and spent an additional five years studying theology, in 1180, he received a minor appointment from the Bishop of St. Davids, which he soon resigned. Gerald became a clerk and chaplain to King Henry II of England in 1184. He was chosen to one of the kings sons, John. He followed it up, shortly afterwards, with an account of Henrys conquest of Ireland, both works were revised and added to several times before his death, and display a notable degree of Latin learning, as well as a great deal of prejudice against a foreign people. His account of that journey, the Itinerarium Cambriae was followed by the Descriptio Cambriae in 1194. It is uncertain whether Gerald was a Welsh speaker, although he quotes Welsh proverbs and appears familiar with the language and he turned them all down, possibly in the hopes of landing a more prominent bishopric in the future. He was acquainted with Walter Map whose career shares some similarities with Gerald, retiring from royal service, he lived in Lincoln from c. 1196 to 1198 where his friend William de Montibus was now chancellor of the Cathedral. It was in period that De instructione principis was probably first written
Gerald of Wales
–
Manorbier Castle, birthplace of Gerald of Wales
Gerald of Wales
–
St. David's Cathedral today
Gerald of Wales
–
A statue of Gerald of Wales at St David's Cathedral
Gerald of Wales
–
A drawing of Gerald de Barri's uncle,
Maurice FitzGerald, Lord of Lanstephan, from a manuscript of the Expugnatio Hibernica.
15.
Middle Cornish
–
Cornish is a Southwestern Brittonic Celtic language native to Cornwall. The language has undergone a revival in recent decades and is considered to be an important part of Cornish identity, culture and heritage. It is a minority language of the United Kingdom, protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Along with Welsh and Breton, Cornish is descended directly from the Common Brittonic language spoken throughout much of Britain before the English language came to dominate. A process to revive the language was begun in the early 20th century, in 2010 UNESCO announced that its former classification of the language as extinct was no longer accurate. Since the revival of the language, many Cornish textbooks and works of literature have been published, recent developments include Cornish music, independent films, and childrens books. A small number of people in Cornwall have been brought up to be native speakers. The first Cornish language crèche opened in 2010, Cornish is one of the Brittonic languages, which constitute a branch of the Insular Celtic section of the Celtic language family. Brittonic also includes Welsh, Breton and the Cumbric language, the last is extinct, scottish Gaelic, Irish and Manx are part of the separate Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic. Cornish evolved from the Common Brittonic spoken throughout Britain south of the Firth of Forth during the British Iron Age, as a result of westward Anglo-Saxon expansion, the Britons of the southwest were separated from those in modern-day Wales and Cumbria. Some scholars have proposed that this took place after the Battle of Deorham in about 577. The area controlled by the southwestern Britons was progressively reduced by the expansion of Wessex over the few centuries. The earliest written record of the Cornish language comes from period, a 9th-century gloss in a Latin manuscript of De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius. The phrase means it hated the gloomy places, a much more substantial survival from Old Cornish is a Cornish-Latin glossary containing translations of around 300 words. The manuscript was thought to be in Old Welsh until the 1700s when it was identified as Cornish. The Cornish language continued to flourish well through the Middle Cornish period, reaching a peak of about 39,000 speakers in the 13th century and this period provided the bulk of traditional Cornish literature, which was used to reconstruct the language during its revival. Most important is the Ordinalia, a cycle of three plays, Origo Mundi, Passio Christi and Resurrexio Domini. Together these provide about 20,000 lines of text, various plays were written by the canons of Glasney College, intended to educate the Cornish people about the Bible and the Celtic saints
Middle Cornish
–
The opening verses of Origo Mundi, the first play of the
Ordinalia (the
magnum opus of medieval Cornish literature), written by an unknown monk in the late 14th century
Middle Cornish
–
The
Brittonic speakers around the 6th century. Cornish and
Breton are very closely related
Middle Cornish
–
Beunans Meriasek (The life of St Meriasek) (f.56v.) Middle Cornish Saint's Play
Middle Cornish
–
William Bodinar's letter, dated 3 July 1776
16.
Bewnans Ke
–
Bewnans Ke is a Middle Cornish play on the life of Saint Kea or Ke, who was venerated in Cornwall, Brittany and elsewhere. It was written around 1500 but survives only in a manuscript from the second half of the 16th century. The discovery proved one of the most significant finds in the study of Cornish literature, Bewnans Ke is one of only two known Cornish plays based on a saints life, this and other evidence suggests some relationship with the other such work, Beunans Meriasek. The story has much correspondence with a French text, a translation of a lost medieval Latin hagiography of Kea, the play is divided into two distinct sections, which may indicate that it was intended for a two-day performance. The first section deals with the deeds and miracles of Kea, the second is a long Arthurian episode, describing King Arthurs wars with the Romans and with his nephew Mordred, it does not mention Kea in its current form. Bewnans Ke survives in one manuscript, NLW MS 23849D, now held at the National Library of Wales, the play has no title in the text, the National Library gave it its modern name after consulting scholars of Cornish. The manuscript had been in the collection of J. E. Caerwyn Williams, chair of Irish at the University of Wales. Thomas publicized his discovery in the National Library of Wales Journal in 2002, the manuscript was evidently created in the second half of the 16th century by a scribe copying a document dating perhaps to around 1500. Several leaves are missing, including the beginning and ending and. The provenance is unknown, but the language is Middle Cornish akin to that of Beunans Meriasek. This and other similarities between the plays suggest that both were composed around the time and in the same milieu, most probably at Glasney College in Penryn. If this is correct, Bewnans Ke may have performed in the still-extant Playing Place in the nearby village of that name. The play clearly relies on traditional material about Kea, which is known to have circulated in a Latin hagiography written as early as the 12th century. This work is lost, but a French translation published in Albert le Grands Lives of the Saints of Brittany in 1633 survives and this French Life of Kea has much correspondence with the Cornish text, and has been used to fill in gaps in the action. However, comparison with the Life shows that Arthurian material had been added to the story at an early period. This occurs in places that would be missing in the play, the play consists of two long parts, one concerning the deeds and miracles of Saint Kea, and the other concerning King Arthurs conflicts with the Romans and with his nephew Mordred. The Arthurian section is longer, and is adapted from some version of the account in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae. The extant text begins with Keas resurrection of a deceased shepherd, in Cornwall, he soon comes into conflict with the king, Teudar, but is eventually given land near the kings favourite hunting grounds in Kea parish
Bewnans Ke
17.
Jennifer (given name)
–
Jennifer is a feminine given name, a Cornish form of Guinevere/Gwenhwyfar adopted into the English language during the 20th century. Jennifer may mean white enchantress or the fair one, a Cornish form, it is cognate with the Welsh form Gwenhwyfar and with the Old Irish Findabair. A common first name for females in English-speaking countries during the 20th century, before 1906, the name was fairly uncommon, but it gained some recognition after George Bernard Shaw used it for the main female character in The Doctors Dilemma. Jennifer remained in the top 100 in England and Wales until 2005 and it was ranked No.166 in 2009. In the United States, the name Jennifer first entered the annual government-derived list of the 1,000 most commonly used names for baby girls in 1938. Thereafter, the name gained popularity, entering the top 100 most commonly given girls names in 1956. It gained even more popularity in the 1970s—Jennifer was the single most popular name for newborn American girls every year from 1970 to 1984. It dropped out of the top 10 in the United States in 1992 and out of the top 100 in 2009
Jennifer (given name)
–
William Morris, Queen Guinevere, 1858:
King Arthur's wife is known to English-speakers by a Norman French
cognate of "Jennifer"
18.
Cornish language
–
Cornish is a Southwestern Brittonic Celtic language native to Cornwall. The language has undergone a revival in recent decades and is considered to be an important part of Cornish identity, culture and heritage. It is a minority language of the United Kingdom, protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Along with Welsh and Breton, Cornish is descended directly from the Common Brittonic language spoken throughout much of Britain before the English language came to dominate. A process to revive the language was begun in the early 20th century, in 2010 UNESCO announced that its former classification of the language as extinct was no longer accurate. Since the revival of the language, many Cornish textbooks and works of literature have been published, recent developments include Cornish music, independent films, and childrens books. A small number of people in Cornwall have been brought up to be native speakers. The first Cornish language crèche opened in 2010, Cornish is one of the Brittonic languages, which constitute a branch of the Insular Celtic section of the Celtic language family. Brittonic also includes Welsh, Breton and the Cumbric language, the last is extinct, scottish Gaelic, Irish and Manx are part of the separate Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic. Cornish evolved from the Common Brittonic spoken throughout Britain south of the Firth of Forth during the British Iron Age, as a result of westward Anglo-Saxon expansion, the Britons of the southwest were separated from those in modern-day Wales and Cumbria. Some scholars have proposed that this took place after the Battle of Deorham in about 577. The area controlled by the southwestern Britons was progressively reduced by the expansion of Wessex over the few centuries. The earliest written record of the Cornish language comes from period, a 9th-century gloss in a Latin manuscript of De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius. The phrase means it hated the gloomy places, a much more substantial survival from Old Cornish is a Cornish-Latin glossary containing translations of around 300 words. The manuscript was thought to be in Old Welsh until the 1700s when it was identified as Cornish. The Cornish language continued to flourish well through the Middle Cornish period, reaching a peak of about 39,000 speakers in the 13th century and this period provided the bulk of traditional Cornish literature, which was used to reconstruct the language during its revival. Most important is the Ordinalia, a cycle of three plays, Origo Mundi, Passio Christi and Resurrexio Domini. Together these provide about 20,000 lines of text, various plays were written by the canons of Glasney College, intended to educate the Cornish people about the Bible and the Celtic saints
Cornish language
–
The opening verses of Origo Mundi, the first play of the
Ordinalia (the
magnum opus of medieval Cornish literature), written by an unknown monk in the late 14th century
Cornish language
–
Beunans Meriasek (The life of St Meriasek) (f.56v.) Middle Cornish Saint's Play
Cornish language
–
William Bodinar's letter, dated 3 July 1776
Cornish language
–
Dolly Pentreath (died 1777), said to be the last native speaker of Cornish, in an engraved portrait published in 1781
19.
James Archer (artist)
–
James Archer RSA, was a Scottish painter of portraits, genre works, landscapes and historical scenes. Archer was born in Edinburgh, one of the four children of Andrew Archer, a dentist and his sister was Georgina Archer who founded an early college for women in Germany. He was educated at the Royal High School and studied at the Trustees Academy in Edinburgh under Sir William Allan and Thomas Duncan. In 1840 he was accepted as a student at the Royal Scottish Academy and first exhibited there in 1842, with the biblical painting, in 1849 he exhibited his first historical picture The Last Supper at the Royal Scottish Academy. His work after that mostly consisted of scenes taken from literature or legends that were popular at the time, such as Shakespeare, in about 1859 he began to paint a series of Arthurian subjects, including La Morte dArthur and Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere. In 1864, he moved to London, in the 1880s, Archer travelled to the USA, where he painted Andrew Carnegies portrait, and to India, where he painted landscapes and people in costume. Archer died in 1904 in Haslemere in Surrey, survived by his son, james Archer online Paintings by Archer Summertime Gloucestershire Cooper, Thompson
James Archer (artist)
–
James Archer.
James Archer (artist)
–
The Death of King Arthur.
20.
Folklore
–
Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes and they include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations like Christmas and weddings, folk dances, each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next, for folklore is not taught in a formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration, the academic study of folklore is called folkloristics. To fully understand folklore, it is helpful to clarify its component parts and it is well-documented that the term was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms. He fabricated it to replace the contemporary terminology of popular antiquities or popular literature, the second half of the compound word, lore, proves easier to define as its meaning has stayed relatively stable over the last two centuries. Coming from Old English lār instruction, and with German and Dutch cognates, it is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, the concept of folk proves somewhat more elusive. When Thoms first created this term, folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, a more modern definition of folk is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. Folk is a concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family. This expanded social definition of folk supports a view of the material, i. e. the lore. These now include all things people make with words, things they make with their hands, Folklore is no longer circumscribed as being chronologically old or obsolete. The folklorist studies the traditional artifacts of a group and how they are transmitted. Transmission is a part of the folklore process. Without communicating these beliefs and customs within the group over space and time, for folklore is also a verb. These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, the folk group is not individualistic, it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, in direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within the social group. Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the significance of these beliefs, customs, for these cultural units would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group
Folklore
–
Horse and Sulky weathervane, Smithsonian American Art Museum
Folklore
–
Hansel and Gretel,
Arthur Rackham, 1909
Folklore
–
The story of
Jahangir and
Anarkali is popular folklore in the former territories of the
Mughal Empire.
21.
Culhwch and Olwen
–
Culhwch and Olwen is a Welsh tale that survives in only two manuscripts about a hero connected with Arthur and his warriors, a complete version in the Red Book of Hergest, ca. 1400, and a version in the White Book of Rhydderch. It is the longest of the surviving Welsh prose tales, certain linguistic evidence indicates it took its present form by the 11th century, making it perhaps the earliest Arthurian tale and one of Wales earliest extant prose texts. The title is an invention and does not occur in early manuscripts. Lady Charlotte Guest included this tale among those she collected under the title The Mabinogion, Culhwchs father, King Cilydd son of Celyddon, loses his wife Goleuddydd after a difficult childbirth. When he remarries, the young Culhwch rejects his stepmothers attempt to pair him with his new stepsister, offended, the new queen puts a curse on him so that he can marry no one besides the beautiful Olwen, daughter of the giant Ysbaddaden Pencawr. Though he has never seen her, Culhwch becomes infatuated with her, the young man immediately sets off to seek his kinsman. Arthur agrees to help, and sends six of his finest warriors to join Culhwch in his search for Olwen, the group meets some relatives of Culhwchs that know Olwen and agree to arrange a meeting. Fortunately for Culhwch, the completion of only a few of these tasks is recorded, the story is on one level a typical folktale, in which a young hero sets out to wed a giants daughter, and many of the accompanying motifs reinforce this. However, for most of the narrative the title characters go unmentioned, Culhwch and Olwen is much more than a simple folktale. In fact, the majority of the writing is taken up by two lists and the adventures of King Arthur and his men. The first of these occurs when Arthur welcomes his young kinsman to his court and offers to give him whatever he wishes. Culhwch, of course, asks that Arthur help him get Olwen, included in the list are names taken from Irish legend, hagiography, and sometimes actual history. The second list includes the tasks Culhwch must complete before Ysbaddaden will allow him to marry Olwen, only a fraction are recounted, but several that are disclosed, are of great significance. A version of the longest episode, the hunt for the boar Twrch Trwyth, is referenced in Historia Brittonum, the British painter/poet David Jones wrote a poem called The Hunt based on the tale of Culwhch ac Olwen. A fragment of a work, The Hunt takes place during the pursuit of the boar Twrch Trwyth by Arthur. In 1988 Gwyn Thomas released a retelling of the story, Culhwch ac Olwen, Culhwch ac Olwen won the annual Tir na n-Og Award for Welsh language nonfiction in 1989. A shadow play adaptation of Culhwch and Olwen toured schools in Ceredigion during 2003, the show was created by Jim Williams and was supported by Theatr Felinfach
Culhwch and Olwen
–
Culhwch at Ysbadadden's court. Image by
E. Wallcousins in "Celtic Myth & Legend", Charles Squire, 1920
22.
Equites
–
A member of the equestrian order was known as an eques. During the Roman kingdom and the 1st century of the Republic, legionary cavalry was recruited exclusively from the ranks of the patricians, around 400 BC,12 more centuriae of cavalry were established and these included non-patricians. Around 300 BC the Samnite Wars obliged Rome to double the annual military levy from two to four legions, doubling the cavalry levy from 600 to 1,200 horses. Legionary cavalry started to recruit wealthier citizens from outside the 18 centuriae and these new recruits came from the First Class of commoners in the centuriate organisation and were not granted the same privileges. By the time of the Second Punic War, all the members of the First Class of commoners were required to serve as cavalrymen. After c.88 BC, equites were no longer drafted into the legionary cavalry and they continued to supply the senior officers of the army throughout the Principate. With the exception of the purely hereditary patricians, the equites were originally defined by a property threshold, in the later Republican period, Roman Senators and their offspring became an unofficial elite within the equestrian order. As senators ability to engage in commerce was limited by law. As well as holding large landed estates, equites came to dominate mining, shipping and manufacturing industry, in particular, tax farming companies were almost all in the hands of equites. Under Augustus, the elite was given formal status with a higher wealth threshold and superior rank. During the Principate, equites filled the senior administrative and military posts of the imperial government, there was a clear division between jobs reserved for senators and those reserved for non-senatorial equites. Senators and equites formed an elite of under 10,000 members who monopolised political, military. This effectively reduced the Italian aristocracy to an idle, but immensely wealthy group of large landowners, during the 4th century, the status of equites was debased to insignificance by excessive grants of the rank. At the same time the ranks of senators were swollen to over 4,000 by the establishment of a second senate in Constantinople, the senatorial order of the 4th century was thus the equivalent of the equestrian order of the Principate. According to Roman legend, Rome was founded by its first king, Romulus, however, archaeological evidence suggests that Rome did not acquire the character of a unified city-state until ca.625 BC. This cavalry regiment was supposedly doubled in size to 600 men by King Tarquinius Priscus and that the cavalry was increased to 600 during the regal era is plausible, as in the early Republic the cavalry fielded remained 600-strong. However, according to Livy, king Servius Tullius established a further 12 centuriae of equites, apparently, equites were originally provided with a sum of money by the state to purchase a horse for military service and for its fodder. This was known as an equus publicus, mommsen argues that the royal cavalry was drawn exclusively from the ranks of the Patricians, the aristocracy of early Rome, which was purely hereditary
Equites
–
A recreation of equites
Equites
Equites
Equites
23.
Duke of Cornwall
–
Duke of Cornwall is a title in the Peerage of England, traditionally held by the eldest son of the reigning British monarch, previously the English monarch. The Duchy of Cornwall was the first duchy created in England and was established by charter in 1337. The present duke is the Prince of Wales, the eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II and his wife, Camilla, is the current Duchess. According to legend, Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall under King Uther Pendragon, Uther killed Gorlois and took Igraine, the result of their union was the future King Arthur. Edward, the Black Prince, the eldest son of Edward III, was made the first Duke of Cornwall in 1337, after Edward predeceased the King, the duchy was recreated for his son, the future Richard II. Under a charter of 1421, the passes to the sovereigns eldest son. Cornwall was the first dukedom conferred within the Kingdom of England, the dukedom of Cornwall can only be held by the oldest living son of the monarch who is also heir apparent. In the event of a Duke of Cornwalls death, the title merges in the Crown even if he left surviving descendants, the monarchs grandson, even if he is the heir apparent, does not succeed to the dukedom. Similarly, no female may ever be Duke of Cornwall, even if she is heir presumptive or heir apparent to the throne. However, if a Duke of Cornwall should die without descendants and has no sister, his next brother obtains the duchy. It is possible for an individual to be Prince of Wales, the title Prince of Wales is the traditional title of the heir apparent to the throne, granted at the discretion of the Sovereign, and is not restricted to the eldest son. For example, King George IIs heir apparent, the future George III, was Prince of Wales, James Francis Edward Stuart, son of James II, was born Duke of Cornwall in 1688. Although his father lost the throne, James Francis Edward was not deprived of his own honours, on a Jacobite perspective, on his fathers death in 1701 the duchy of Cornwall was merged in the Crown. On a Hanoverian perspective, it was as a result of his claiming his fathers lost thrones that James was attainted for treason on 2 March 1702, the current Duke of Cornwall is Charles, Prince of Wales, eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II, the reigning monarch. Charles was officially proclaimed Duke of Cornwall at Launceston Castle in 1973. As part of his feudal dues there was a pair of gloves, gilt spurs and greyhounds, a pound of pepper and cumin, a bow, one hundred silver shillings, wood for his fires. The Dukes second wife, Camilla, whom he married on 9 April 2005 at the Guildhall in Windsor, is the current Duchess of Cornwall and she is also Princess of Wales but does not use that title. Should there be no Duke of Cornwall at any time, the income of the Duchy goes to the Crown, the Duchy includes over 570 square kilometres of land, more than half of which lies in Devon
Duke of Cornwall
–
HRH The Prince of Wales, the current Duke of Cornwall
24.
Herbert James Draper
–
Herbert James Draper was an English Classicist painter whose career began in the Victorian era and extended through the first two decades of the 20th century. Born in London, the son of a jeweller named Henry Draper and his wife Emma, he was educated at Bruce Castle School in Tottenham and then went on to study art at the Royal Academy. He undertook several trips to Rome and Paris between 1888 and 1892, having won the Royal Academy Gold Medal and Travelling Studentship in 1889. In the 1890s, he worked as an illustrator, eventually settling in London, in 1891, he married Ida, with whom he had a daughter, Yvonne. He died of arteriosclerosis at the age of 56, in his home on Abbey Road, Drapers most productive period began in 1894. He focused mainly on themes from ancient Greece. His painting The Lament for Icarus won the medal at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1900 and was later bought for the Tate Gallery by the Chantrey Trustees. He was also responsible for the decoration of the ceiling of the Drapers Hall in the City of London, though Draper was neither a member nor an associate of the Royal Academy, he took part in the annual expositions from 1890 on. In later years as the public tastes changed and mythological scenes became popular he concentrated more on portraits. During his lifetime Draper was quite famous, a portrait painter. In his last years, his popularity faded, though there has recently been a revival of interest in his work on the art market. The sale of his painting The Sea Maiden by the Royal Cornwall Museum in 2010, to secure its finances. Simon Tolls book on Draper, published by the Antique Collectors Club is the modern study of his work. Toll, Simon, Herbert Draper 1863–1920, A Life Study, ISBN 1-85149-378-6 H J Draper H J Draper online Works by H J Draper H J Draper Works by Herbert James Draper at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Herbert James Draper at Internet Archive
Herbert James Draper
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Herbert James Draper
Herbert James Draper
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The
Kelpie, 1903
Herbert James Draper
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Tristan and Isolde
Herbert James Draper
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The
Water Nymph, 1908
25.
Leodegrance
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King Leodegrance /ˈliːoʊdᵻɡræns/, sometimes Leondegrance, Leodogran, or some other minor variation, is the father of Queen Guinevere in Arthurian legend. His kingdom of Carmelide is usually identified with Cornwall but may be located in Breton Cornouaille near the town of Carhaix, Leodegrance had served Uther Pendragon, King Arthurs biological father and regnal predecessor. Leodegrance was entrusted with the keeping of the Round Table at Uthers death, when Guinevere marries Arthur, Leodegrance gives the young king the table as a wedding present. In later romance Leodegrance is one of the few kings who accept Arthur as his overlord, for this, his land is invaded by the rebel King Rience, but Arthur comes to his rescue and expels the enemy. Arthur meets Guinevere for the first time during this excursion, according to the Lancelot–Grail Cycle, Leodegrance fathered a second daughter out of wedlock, he also names this child Guinevere. Guinevere eventually returns and reclaims her throne, in Welsh mythology the father of Gwenhwyfar is the giant Ogyruan/Ogyrvan or Gogyrfan, who is mentioned in a number of Middle Welsh texts. Leodegrance was portrayed by Patrick Stewart in the 1981 film Excalibur
Leodegrance
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Two Knights do Battle before
Cameliard, by
Howard Pyle from The Story of King Arthur and His Knights. (1903)
26.
Uther Pendragon
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Uther Pendragon also known as King Uther, is a legendary king of sub-Roman Britain and the father of King Arthur. He is a fairly ambiguous individual throughout the literature, but is described as a strong king, according to Arthurian Legend, Merlin magically disguises Uther to look like his enemy Gorlois, enabling Uther to sleep with Gorlois wife Lady Igraine. Thus Arthur, the once and future king, is an illegitimate child and this act of conception occurs the very night that Uthers troops dispatch Gorlois. This theme of illegitimate conception is repeated in Arthurs siring of Mordred by his own half-sister Morgause in the prose romances. It is Mordred who mortally wounds King Arthur in the Battle of Camlann. Uthers epithet Pendragon literally means Chief-Dragon or Head-Dragon, but in a sense, chief leader, chief of warriors, commander-in-chief, generalissimo, or chief governor. The name was misinterpreted by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the Historia to mean dragons head. According to Geoffrey and works based on his version, Uther acquired the epithet when he witnessed a portentous dragon-shaped comet, which inspired him to use dragons on his standards. According to Robert de Boron and the Grail cycle based on his work, it was Uthers older brother who saw the comet and received the name Pendragon, though the Welsh tradition of the Arthurian legend is fragmentary, some material exists through the Welsh Triads and various poems. Uther appears in fragments, where he is associated with Arthur and, in some cases. He is mentioned in the circa-10th century Arthurian poem Pa gur yv y porthaur, where it is only said of him that Mabon son of Modron is his servant. He is also memorialized with The Death-song of Uther Pen from the Book of Taliesin, the latter includes a reference to Arthur, so the marginal addition of dragon to Uthers name is probably justified. The Colloquy of Arthur and the Eagle, a contemporary with but independent of Geoffrey, mentions another son of Uther named Madoc. In Triad 28, Uther is named the creator of one of the Three Great Enchantments of the Island of Britain, since Menw is a shapeshifter according to Culhwch and Olwen, it might be that Uthyr was one as well. Uthyrs other reference, Triad 51, however, shows influence from Geoffreys Historia and it follows Geoffreys description of Uther as son of Constantine II, now called Custennin the Blessed, and brother of both Aurelius Ambrosius and Constans II. Uther is best known from Geoffreys Historia Regum Britanniae where he is the youngest son of King of Britannia Constantine II and his eldest brother Constans succeeds to the throne on their fathers death, but is murdered at the instigation of his adviser Vortigern, who seizes the throne. Uther and his other brother Aurelius Ambrosius, still children, flee to Brittany, Vortigern makes an alliance with the Saxons under Hengist, but it goes disastrously wrong. Aurelius and Uther return, now adults, Aurelius burns Vortigern in his castle and becomes king. With Aurelius on the throne, Uther leads his brother in arms to Ireland to help Merlin bring the stones of Stonehenge from there to Britain, later, while Aurelius is ill, Uther leads his army against Vortigerns son Paschent and his Saxon allies
Uther Pendragon
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Uther Pendragon, by
Howard Pyle from The Story of King Arthur and His Knights. (1903)
Uther Pendragon
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Uthr Bendragon. A crude illustration from a 15th-century Welsh language version of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae
27.
Round Table
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The Round Table is King Arthurs famed table in the Arthurian legend, around which he and his Knights congregate. As its name suggests, it has no head, implying that everyone who sits there has equal status, the table was first described in 1155 by Wace, who relied on previous depictions of Arthurs fabulous retinue. The symbolism of the Round Table developed over time, by the close of the 12th century it had come to represent the order associated with Arthurs court. The Round Table first appears in Waces Roman de Brut, a Norman language adaptation of Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae finished in 1155, Wace says Arthur created the Round Table to prevent quarrels among his barons, none of whom would accept a lower place than the others. Layamon added to the story when he adapted Waces work into the Middle English Brut in the early 13th century, in response a Cornish carpenter built an enormous but easily transportable Round Table to prevent further dispute. Wace claims he was not the source of the Round Table, some scholars have doubted this claim, while others believe it may be true. Though the Round Table itself is not mentioned until Wace, the concept of Arthur having a court made up of many prominent warriors is much older. Geoffrey of Monmouth says that after establishing peace throughout Britain, Arthur increased his personal entourage by inviting very distinguished men from far-distant kingdoms to join it, though no Round Table appears in the early Welsh texts, Arthur is associated with various items of household furniture. A henge at Eamont Bridge near Penrith, Cumbria is known as King Arthurs Round Table, the still-visible Roman amphitheatre at Caerleon has been associated with the Round Table. and has been suggested as a possible source for the legend. The Round Table takes on new dimensions in the romances of the late 12th and early 13th century, where it becomes a symbol of the famed order of chivalry which flourishes under Arthur. In Robert de Borons Merlin, written around the 1190s, the wizard Merlin creates the Round Table in imitation of the table of the Last Supper and of Joseph of Arimatheas Holy Grail table. This table, here made for Arthurs father Uther Pendragon rather than Arthur himself, has twelve seats and this seat must remain empty until the coming of the knight who will achieve the Grail. The Didot Perceval, a continuation of Roberts work, takes up the story. The prose cycles of the 13th century, the Lancelot-Grail cycle, here it is the perfect knight Galahad, rather than Percival, who assumes the empty seat, now called the Siege Perilous. Galahads arrival marks the start of the Grail quest as well as the end of the Arthurian era, in these works the Round Table is kept by King Leodegrance of Cameliard after Uthers death, Arthur inherits it when he marries Leodegrances daughter Guinevere. Other versions treat the Round Table differently, for instance Italian Arthurian works often distinguish between the Old Table of Uthers time and Arthurs New Table, during the Middle Ages, festivals called Round Tables were celebrated throughout Europe in imitation of Arthurs court. These events featured jousting, dancing, and feasting, and in some cases attending knights assumed the identities of Arthurs entourage, the earliest of these was held in Cyprus in 1223 to celebrate a knighting. Round Tables were popular in various European countries through the rest of the Middle Ages and were at times very elaborate, René of Anjou even erected an Arthurian castle for his 1446 Round Table
Round Table
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King Arthur presides at the Round Table with all of his Knights.
Round Table
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Sir Galahad takes the "
Siege Perilous "
Round Table
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Winchester Round Table
28.
Bretons
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The Bretons are an ethnic group located in the region of Brittany in France. They trace much of their heritage to groups of Brittonic speakers who emigrated from southwestern Great Britain including Cornwall to avoid the invading Germanic peoples and they also descend from the Gauls and in some parts from Vikings. They migrated in waves from the third to ninth century into Armorica, the main traditional language of Brittany is Breton, spoken in Lower Brittany. Today, Breton is spoken by less than 200,000 people, the other principal minority language of Brittany is Gallo, Gallo is spoken only in Upper Brittany, where Breton is less dominant. As one of the Brittonic languages, Breton is related closely to Cornish and more distantly to Welsh, currently, most Bretons native language is standard French. Brittany and its people are counted as one of the six Celtic nations, ethnically, along with the Cornish and Welsh, the Bretons are Celtic Britons. The actual number of ethnic Bretons in Brittany and France as a whole is difficult to assess as the government of France does not collect statistics on ethnicity, the population of Brittany, as of a January 2007 estimate, was 4,365,500. It is said that, in 1914, over 1 million people spoke Breton west of the boundary between Breton and Gallo-speaking regions – roughly 90% of the population of the half of Brittany. In 1945, it was about 75%, and today, in all of Brittany, Brittany has a population of roughly 4 million, including the department of Loire-Atlantique, which the Vichy government separated from historical Brittany in 1941. Three-quarters of the estimated 200,000 to 250,000 Breton speakers using Breton as an everyday language today are over the age of 65, many Breton families have also emigrated to the Americas, predominantly to Canada and the United States. In the late century, large numbers of British auxiliary troops in the Roman army may have been stationed in Armorica. The ninth-century Historia Brittonum states that the emperor Magnus Maximus, who withdrew Roman forces from Britain, nennius and Gildas mention a second wave of Britons settling in Armorica in the following century to escape the invading Anglo-Saxons and Scoti. Modern archaeology also supports a two-wave migration and it is generally accepted that the Brittonic speakers who arrived gave the region its current name as well as the Breton language, Brezhoneg, a sister language to Welsh and Cornish. The Bretons are known for their participation in the Hunt of the Apple of Eden and this took place between 400 and 600 AD. These legends were discovered in Poullia in Italy but have unfortunately been marked as improvable history, as in Cornwall, many Breton towns are named after these early saints. The Irish saint Columbanus was also active in Brittany and is commemorated accordingly at Saint-Columban in Carnac, in the Early Middle Ages, Brittany was divided into three kingdoms — Domnonia, Cornouaille, and Bro Waroch — which eventually were incorporated into the Duchy of Brittany. The first two kingdoms seem to derive their names from the homelands of the tribes in Britain. Neither language has official status under French law, however, some still use Breton as an everyday language, in modern times, a number of schools and colleges have emerged with the aim of providing Breton-medium education or bilingual Breton/French education
Bretons
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Some
notable Bretons: 1st row: •
Nominoe: First Duke, Tad ar Vro •
St Yves: Erwann, patron of Brittany 2nd row: •
René Laennec •
Jacques Cartier •
Anne of Brittany 3rd row: •
François-René de Chateaubriand •
Robert Surcouf •
Jules Verne 4th row: •
J. M. G. Le Clézio •
Alan Stivell •
Eric Tabarly
Bretons
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The modern flag of
Brittany: Gwenn Ha Du (White and Black)
Bretons
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Sculpted
calvaries can be found in many villages.
Bretons
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A
fest-noz in the Pays Gallo in September 2007 as part of the Mill Góll festival
29.
Carhaix-Plouguer
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Carhaix-Plouguer is a commune in the Finistère department in northwestern France. The Vieilles Charrues Festival is held every year in mid-July and this festival is one of the largest music events in Europe, attracting more than 200,000 people every year. It is held in the once held by the famille de Saisy de Kerampuil. In continental histories Carhaix is thought to be Carohaise of King Leodegrance and it is at Carohaise that the legendary King Arthur defends Leodegrance by defeating Rience, and meets Guinevere, Leodegrances daughter. Modern archaeological digs have uncovered evidence of the ancient Roman city including its aqueduct system, inhabitants of Carhaix-Plouguer are called Carhaisiens. There are about 2680 students in Carhaix, of which 234 attended a Diwan school as of school year 2003-04, Carhaix has one Diwan preschool, one primary school and a Diwan lycée. The lycée was from 1994 to 1999 first located in Brest, in 1999 it moved to Carhaix. The municipality launched a plan through Ya dar brezhoneg on April 9,2004. In 2008,21. 49% of primary-school children attended bilingual schools, every year about 1,000 athletes participate in Huelgoat-Carhaix half-marathon and 10k. Communes of the Finistère department Gare de Carhaix Listing of the works of the atelier of the Maître de Tronoën, INSEE Mayors of Finistère Association Official website French Ministry of Culture list for Carhaix-Plouguer
Carhaix-Plouguer
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The 16th century house of the Seneschal, now the tourist information office
