1.
Stout
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Stout is a dark beer made using roasted malt or roasted barley, hops, water and yeast. Stouts were traditionally the generic term for the strongest or stoutest porters, typically 7% or 8%, produced by a brewery. There are a number of variations including Baltic porter, milk stout, and imperial stout, the most common variation is dry stout, exemplified by Guinness Draught, the worlds best selling stout. The first known use of the stout for beer was in a document dated 1677 found in the Egerton Manuscript. The name porter was first used in 1721 to describe a dark beer that had been made with roasted malts. Because of the popularity of porters, brewers made them in a variety of strengths. Porter originated in London, England in the early 1720s, within a few decades, porter breweries in London had grown beyond any previously known scale. Large volumes were exported to Ireland, where by 1776 it was being brewed by Arthur Guinness at his St. Jamess Gate Brewery, in the 19th century, the beer gained its customary black colour through the use of black patent malt, and became stronger in flavour. Originally, the adjective stout meant proud or brave, but later, after the 14th century, the first known use of the word stout for beer was in a document dated 1677 found in the Egerton Manuscript, the sense being that a stout beer was a strong beer. Stout still meant only strong and it could be related to any kind of beer, as long as it was strong, in the UK it was possible to find stout pale ale, for example. Later, stout was eventually to be associated only with porter, because of the huge popularity of porters, brewers made them in a variety of strengths. The beers with higher gravities were called Stout Porters, there is still division and debate on whether stouts should be a separate style from porter. Usually the only deciding factor is strength, with beer writers such as Michael Jackson writing about stouts and porters in the 1970s, there has been a moderate interest in the global speciality beer market. In the mid 1980s a survey by What’s Brewing found just 29 brewers in the UK and Channel Islands still making stout, milk stout is a stout containing lactose, a sugar derived from milk. Because lactose cannot be fermented by beer yeast, it adds sweetness, body, milk stout was claimed to be nutritious, and was given to nursing mothers, along with other stouts, such as Guinness. The classic surviving example of milk stout is Mackesons, for which the original brewers claimed that each pint contains the energising carbohydrates of 10 ounces of pure dairy milk. With milk or sweet stout becoming the dominant stout in the UK in the early 20th century, it was mainly in Ireland that the non-sweet or standard stout was being made. As standard stout has a dryer taste than the English and American sweet stouts, though still sometimes termed Irish or dry stout, particularly if made in Ireland, this is the standard stout sold and would normally just be termed stout
2.
Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
3.
Diageo
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Diageo plc is a British multinational alcoholic beverages company, with its headquarters in London, United Kingdom. It is the worlds largest producer of spirits and a producer of beer. Diageos brands include Smirnoff, Johnnie Walker, Baileys, and Guinness and it also owns 34% of Moët Hennessy, which owns brands including Moët & Chandon, Veuve Clicquot and Hennessy. It sells its products in over 180 countries and has offices in around 80 countries, Diageo has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. Diageo is a name that was created by the branding consultancy Wolff Olins in 1997. The name is composed of the Latin word dia, meaning day, and the Greek root geo, meaning world, Diageo was formed in 1997 from the merger of Guinness and Grand Metropolitan. The creation was driven by the executives Anthony Greener and Philip Yea at Guinness plus George Bull, Anthony Greener was the first executive chairman. Shares in Diageo began trading on the London Stock Exchange on 17 December 1997, Diageo owned Pillsbury until 2000 when it was sold to General Mills. In 2002, Diageo sold the Burger King fast food restaurant chain to a consortium led by US firm Texas Pacific for $1.5 billion, in February 2011 Diageo agreed to acquire the Turkish liquor company Mey Icki for US$2.1 billion. In May 2012, Diageo agreed to acquire Ypioca, the brand of premium cachaça in Brazil. This did not, however, involve retaining the original Johnnie Walker plant, in Kilmarnock, in November 2012 Diageo agreed to acquire a 53. 4% stake in the Indian spirits company United Spirits for £1.28 billion. In 2013 Diageo joined leading alcohol producers as part of a producers commitments to reducing harmful drinking, in November 2014 Diageo agreed to sell Bushmills Irish whiskey in exchange for $408 million and full ownership of tequila brand Don Julio. In October 2015, Diageo announced the sale of most of its business to Treasury Wine Estates. Other brands, such as Navarro Correas and Chalone Vineyard, were sold separately, in March 2016 the company sold Grand Marnier, a cognac and bitter orange-based liqueur, to Italian aperitif maker Campari Group. In February 2017, Diageo announced plans to open a Guinness brewery and tourist attraction Baltimore County, the brewery could potentially create 70 new jobs and host as many as 300,000 visitors per year. It also has a large distillery at Roseisle in Speyside. Furthermore, Diageo owns a 34% stake in the Moet Hennessy drinks division of French luxury goods company LVMH, Diageos head office is in Park Royal, London Borough of Brent, on a former Guinness brewery property
4.
Harp Lager
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Harp Lager is an Irish lager created in 1960 by Guinness in its Great Northern Brewery, Dundalk. It is a minor brand in Ireland. Harp Lager was first produced in 1960 as a beer by the Guinness company, in response to the trend among drinkers in Britain. Guinness converted its Dundalk brewery into a modern production plant with the guidance of Dr. Herman Muender. Various names were considered for the brand, including Atlas, Cresta and Dolphin, the brand was marketed with the Brian Boru harp as its emblem. By 1961 a consortium of brewers, Courage, Barclay & Simonds, Scottish & Newcastle, Bass, Mitchells & Butlers and Guinness, grouped together as Harp Lager Ltd to brew and market the beer. Courages Alton Brewery, where Courage Directors had been brewed, was rebuilt to produce the lager in Great Britain, by 1964, the product was being sold on draught and led in its category for sales. Members of the Harp consortium changed over the years, with Courage and Scottish & Newcastle leaving in 1979, currently available on draught, and in 330ml and 500ml bottles, its top market is Northern Ireland. In 2005, Harp saw a makeover, Diageo Ireland separated the brand from Guinness. On 9 May 2008, Diageo Ireland announced that it would close the Dundalk Brewery along with the Kilkenny Brewery over a five-year period. And the last Harp was brewed at Great Northern in October 2013, after production moved to Diageos sole Irish brewery in St. Jamess Gate. Today, Harp is brewed in the Dublin brewery for Ireland, in Australia, distribution is handled by Carlton & United Breweries. Harp sold in America is brewed in Canada by Guinness Canada and is brewed at the Moosehead Brewery in New Brunswick. For many years the slogan Harp stays sharp was used in advertisements and it was written by the advertising executive Rod Allen. Recently it has used the slogan Look on the Harp side
5.
Arthur Guinness
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Arthur Guinness was a British Irish brewer and the founder of the Guinness brewery business and family. He was also an entrepreneur and philanthropist, at 27, in 1752, Guinnesss godfather Arthur Price, the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Cashel, bequeathed him £100 in his will. Guinness invested the money and in 1755 had a brewery at Leixlip, in 1759, Guinness went to the city and set up his own business. He took a 9, 000-year lease on the 4-acre brewery at St. Jamess Gate from the descendants of Sir Mark Rainsford for a rent of £45. Guinnesss flowery red signature is still copied on every label of bottled Guinness, Arthur Guinnesss parents Richard and Elizabeth were both the children of tenant farmers in Dublin and Kildare. Richards family claimed a descent from the Gaelic Magennis clan of County Down, recent DNA evidence however suggests descent from the McCartans, another County Down clan, whose spiritual home of Kinelarty included the townland of Guiness near Ballynahinch, County Down. Guinnesss place and date of birth are the subject of speculation and his gravestone in Oughterard, County Kildare says he died on 23 January 1803, in his 78th year, i. e. aged 77, indicating that he was born in 1725. There is no proof of the date of 28 September 1725 chosen by the Guinness company in 1991, the place of birth was perhaps his mothers home at Read homestead at Ardclough County Kildare. In his will, Dr. Price left £100 each to his servant Arthur, in 1761 he married Olivia Whitmore in St. Marys Church, Dublin, and they had 21 children,10 of whom lived to adulthood. Olivias father was William Whitmore, a grocer in Essex Street, Temple Bar, Dublin, Olivia also brought a dowry of £1,000. The townland name of Kilmore was renamed by Arthur as Beaumont, from March 1798 he lived at Mountjoy Square in Dublin, which was then in the process of being built in the style of elegant Georgian architecture, where his landlord was Gardiners son Luke. Three of his sons were also brewers, and his descendants eventually included missionaries, politicians. He died in Dublin and was buried in his mothers plot at Oughterard. Guinness supported Henry Grattan in the 1780s and 1790s, not least because Grattan wanted to reduce the tax on beer and he was one of the four brewers guild representatives on Dublin Corporation from the 1760s until his death. Guinness leased a brewery in Leixlip in 1755, brewing ale, five years later he left his younger brother Richard in charge of that enterprise and moved on to another in St. James Gate, Dublin, at the end of 1759. The 9, 000-year lease he signed for the brewery is presently displayed in the floor at St. James Gate, by 1767 he was elected Master of the Dublin Corporation of Brewers. His first actual sales of porter were listed on tax data from 1778, from the 1780s his second son Arthur worked at his side and eventually became the senior partner in the brewery from 1803. He commented on this in a letter of 1790 and his major achievement was in expanding his brewery in 1797–99
6.
Guinness Brewery
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St. Jamess Gate Brewery is a brewery founded in 1759 in Dublin, Ireland, by Arthur Guinness. The company is now a part of Diageo, a formed from the merger of Guinness. The main product of the brewery is Guinness Draught, originally leased in 1759 to Arthur Guinness at IR£45 per year for 9,000 years, St. Jamess Gate has been the home of Guinness ever since. It became the largest brewery in Ireland in 1838, and the largest in the world by 1886, although no longer the largest brewery in the world, it is still the largest brewer of stout in the world. The brewery also made all of its own power using its own power plant, there is an attached exhibition on the 250-year-old history of Guinness, called the Guinness Storehouse. Arthur Guinness started brewing ales in Leixlip, County Kildare, on 31 December he signed a 9, 000-year lease at £45 per annum for the unused brewery. However, the lease is no longer in effect because the property has been bought out when it expanded beyond the original 4-acre site. Ten years after establishment, on 19 May 1769 Guinness exported his beer for the first time, when six, the business expanded by adopting steam power and further exporting to the English market. On the death of Benjamin Guinness in 1868 the business was worth over £1 million, in 1886 his son Edward sold 65 percent of the business by a public offering on the London Stock Exchange for £6 million. The company pioneered several quality control efforts, because of the Irish Free States Control of Manufactures Act in 1932, the company moved its headquarters to London later that year. Guinness brewed its last porter in 1974, in 1983 a non-family chief executive Ernest Saunders was appointed and arranged the reverse takeover of the leading Scotch whisky producer Distillers in 1986. Saunders was then asked to resign following revelations that the Guinness stock price had been illegally manipulated, in 1986, Guinness PLC was in the midst of a bidding war for the much larger Distillers Company. In the closing stages, Guinness stock rose 25 percent — which was unusual, Guinness paid several people and institutions, most notably American arbitrageur Ivan Boesky, about $38 million USD to buy $300 USD million worth of Guinness stock. The effect was to increase the value of its offer for Distillers, in the course of the investigation, it emerged that Bank Leu was involved in half of the purchases. Two of Guinness directors signed under-the-table agreements in which Bank Leu subsidiaries in Zug, Guinness secretly promised to redeem the shares at cost, including commissions. To fulfill its end of the bargain, Guinness deposited $76 million with Bank Leus Luxembourg subsidiary, as Distillers was worth more than Guinness plc, the Guinness family shareholding in the merged company went below 10 percent, and today no member of the family sits on the board. Guinness acquired the Distillers Company in 1986, the company merged with Grand Metropolitan in 1997 to form Diageo plc, capitalised in 2006 at about 40 billion euros. Although not officially taken over, the Guinness family still owns 51 percent of the brewery
7.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
8.
Lactic acid
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Lactic acid is an organic compound with the formula CH3CHCO2H. In its solid state, it is white and water-soluble, in its liquid state, it is clear. It is produced naturally and synthetically. With a hydroxyl group adjacent to the group, lactic acid is classified as an alpha-hydroxy acid. In the form of its base called lactate, it plays a role in several biochemical processes. In solution, it can ionize a proton from the carboxyl group, compared to acetic acid, its pKa is 1 unit less, meaning lactic acid deprotonates ten times more easily than acetic acid does. This higher acidity is the consequence of the hydrogen bonding between the α-hydroxyl and the carboxylate group. Lactic acid is chiral, consisting of two optical isomers, one is known as L--lactic acid or -lactic acid and the other, its mirror image, is D--lactic acid or -lactic acid. A mixture of the two in equal amounts is called DL-lactic acid, or racemic lactic acid, DL-lactic acid is miscible with water and with ethanol above its melting point which is around 17 or 18 °C. D-lactic acid and L-lactic acid have a melting point. In animals, L-lactate is constantly produced from pyruvate via the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase in a process of fermentation during normal metabolism and exercise. The concentration of lactate is usually 1–2 mmol/L at rest. In industry, lactic acid fermentation is performed by lactic acid bacteria and these bacteria can also grow in the mouth, the acid they produce is responsible for the tooth decay known as caries. In medicine, lactate is one of the components of lactated Ringers solution. These intravenous fluids consist of sodium and potassium cations along with lactate and chloride anions in solution with distilled water and it is most commonly used for fluid resuscitation after blood loss due to trauma, surgery, or burns. Lactic acid was isolated for the first time by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1780 from sour milk, the name reflects the lact- combining form derived from the Latin word for milk. In 1808, Jöns Jacob Berzelius discovered that lactic acid also is produced in muscles during exertion and its structure was established by Johannes Wislicenus in 1873. In 1856, Louis Pasteur discovered Lactobacillus and its role in the making of lactic acid, lactic acid started to be produced commercially by the German pharmacy Boehringer Ingelheim in 1895
9.
Draught beer
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Draught beer, also spelt draft, is beer served from a cask or keg rather than from a bottle or can. Draught beer served from a keg is also known as keg beer. Until Joseph Bramah patented the engine in 1785, beer was served directly from the barrel. The Old English dragan developed into a series of related words including drag, draw, in time, the word came to be restricted to only such beer. The usual spelling is now draught in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, regardless of spelling, the word is pronounced /drɑːft/ or /dræft/ depending on the region the speaker is from. Canned draught is beer served from a pressurised container featuring a widget, smooth flow is the name brewers give to draught beers pressurised with a partial nitrogen gas blend. In the early 20th century, draught beer started to be served from pressurised containers, artificial carbonation was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1936, with Watney’s experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel. Though this method of serving beer did not take hold in the U. K. until the late 1950s, it did become the method in the rest of Europe. In Britain, the Campaign for Real Ale was founded in 1971 to protect traditional - unpressurised beer, the group devised the term real ale to differentiate between beer served from the cask and beer served under pressure. The term real ale has since expanded to include bottle-conditioned beer. Keg beer is often filtered and/or pasteurised, both of which are processes that render the yeast inactive, a tap hole near the edge of the top, and a spile hole on the side used for conditioning the unfiltered and unpasteurised beer. A keg has an opening in the centre of the top to which a flow pipe is attached. Kegs are artificially pressurised after fermentation with carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide, keg has become a term of contempt used by some, particularly in Britain, since the 1960s when pasteurised draught beers started replacing traditional cask beers. Keg beer was replacing traditional cask ale in all parts of the UK, since 1971, CAMRA has conducted a consumer campaign on behalf of those who prefer traditional cask beer. CAMRA has lobbied the British Parliament to ensure support for cask ale, pressurised CO2 in the kegs headspace maintains carbonation in the beer. The CO2 pressure varies depending on the amount of CO2 already in the beer, occasionally the CO2 gas is blended with nitrogen gas. CO2 / nitrogen blends are used to allow an operating pressure in complex dispensing systems. Nitrogen is used high pressure when dispensing dry stouts and other creamy beers because it displaces CO2 to form a rich tight head
10.
Nitrogenation
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Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7. It was first discovered and isolated by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish had independently done so at about the same time, Rutherford is generally accorded the credit because his work was published first. Nitrogen is the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, the name comes from the Greek πνίγειν to choke, directly referencing nitrogens asphyxiating properties. It is an element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in the Milky Way. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dinitrogen, a colourless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula N2, dinitrogen forms about 78% of Earths atmosphere, making it the most abundant uncombined element. Nitrogen occurs in all organisms, primarily in amino acids, in the nucleic acids, the human body contains about 3% nitrogen by mass, the fourth most abundant element in the body after oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the element from the air, into the biosphere and organic compounds, many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, organic nitrates, and cyanides, contain nitrogen. The extremely strong bond in elemental nitrogen, the second strongest bond in any diatomic molecule. Synthetically produced ammonia and nitrates are key industrial fertilisers, and fertiliser nitrates are key pollutants in the eutrophication of water systems. Apart from its use in fertilisers and energy-stores, nitrogen is a constituent of organic compounds as diverse as Kevlar used in high-strength fabric, Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class, including antibiotics. Many notable nitrogen-containing drugs, such as the caffeine and morphine or the synthetic amphetamines. Nitrogen compounds have a long history, ammonium chloride having been known to Herodotus. They were well known by the Middle Ages, alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis, as well as other nitrogen compounds such as ammonium salts and nitrate salts. The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia, celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold, the discovery of nitrogen is attributed to the Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air. Though he did not recognise it as a different chemical substance, he clearly distinguished it from Joseph Blacks fixed air. The fact that there was a component of air that does not support combustion was clear to Rutherford, Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as air or azote, from the Greek word άζωτικός. In an atmosphere of nitrogen, animals died and flames were extinguished
11.
Carbonation
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Carbonation can refer to two chemical processes involving carbon dioxide, The dissolution in a liquid, also known as fizz or effervescence. The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure, when the pressure is reduced, the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become effervescent, or fizzy. A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, carbon dioxide is weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released. Carbonation also describes the incorporation of carbon dioxide into chemical compounds and this occurs in the following cases, In biochemistry Our carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO. So important is this process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme. In reinforced concrete construction Also known as neutralisation, it is a reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete. Carbonation and Acidity Dissolution of Marble in Hydrochloric Acid Demonstration Robert OLeary, ATR Infrared Spectroscopy method for measuring CO2 concentration in Beer. Describes in detail the theory and practice of measuring dissolved CO2 content in soft drinks and beer
12.
Beer in Ireland
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Brewing in Ireland has a long history. Production currently stands at over 8 million hectolitres, and approximately half the alcohol consumed is beer, Lager accounts for 60% of the beer sold, stout 34% and ale 6%. By the beginning of the century, there were over two hundred breweries in the country, fifty-five of them in Dublin. In the nineteenth century, the number of breweries fell to about fifty, historically, Ireland produced ale, without the use of hops, as the plant is not native to Ireland. Large quantities of hops were imported from England in the 18th century, in 1752, more than 500 tons of English hops were imported through Dublin alone. In the second half of the 18th century, beer, mostly porter, was imported from England in increasing quantities,15,000 barrels in 1750,65,000 in 1785, in the 1760s about 600,000 barrels of beer were brewed annually in Ireland. In the 18th century, the Irish Parliament used taxation to encourage brewing at the expense of distilling, reasoning that beer was less harmful than whiskey. In the 1760s, the Royal Dublin Society offered prizes to brewers who used the most Irish hops, Brewing prospered in the early decades of the 19th century and by 1814 Ireland was exporting more beer to England than it imported. Exports were 3. 5m hectolitres in 1998 and fell to 2. 4m in 2002, whilst Ireland lies 6th in the world for beer consumption per capita, it ranks 4th in the consumption of alcohol, with 11.7 litres per head in 2011. The first lager brewery in Ireland was set up in Dartry, Dublin, in 1891, Lager was later brewed for a short period at the Regal Brewery, Kells. Harp Lager has been brewed in Dundalk since 1968, Heineken Ireland, based at the Murphy Brewery in Cork, have the largest share of the lager market. In addition to Heineken, they brew Amstel and Coors Light, as well as the brands acquired from Beamish & Crawford including Fosters. The ales produced in Ireland are now largely in the Irish red ale style, with a red colour. The largest national brand is Smithwicks, produced by the Diageo multinational, others include Diageos Macardles, Franciscan Wells Rebel Red, Carlow Brewing Companys OHaras Irish Red and Messrs Maguire Rusty. Irelands second-largest brewer, Heineken, no longer makes a red ale in Ireland, having discontinued local production of Murphys Red, dungarvan Brewing Companys Copper Coast red ale was released in 2010, along with Clanconnel Brewerys McGraths Irish Red. Eight Degrees brewery launched their Sunburnt Irish Red Ale in 2011, in 1756, Arthur Guinness set up a small brewery, moving to Dublin in 1759. Having initially brewed ale, he switched to producing porter, which was a style from London, in the early twentieth century, Guinness became the largest brewer in the world, exporting the Irish style to many countries. Although no longer the largest brewer in the world, it remains the largest brewer of stout, in 2014, Guinness sales amounted to 19% of all beer sales in Ireland
13.
Anglo-Irish Trade War
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The Anglo-Irish Trade War was a retaliatory trade war between the Irish Free State and the United Kingdom from 1932 to 1938. This resulted in the imposition of unilateral trade restrictions by both countries, causing damage to the Irish economy. This was thought necessary to develop industry, move away from over-dependence on Britain. It was also to compensate for the fall in demand for Irish agricultural products on international markets. Other means had also to be found to help the disastrously undermined balance of trade, a vigorous campaign was set in motion to make the Free State agriculturally and industrially self-sufficient by the then Minister for Industry and Commerce, Seán Lemass. Every effort was taken to add to the measures brought in by the government to boost tillage farming and industry and to encourage the population to avoid British imports. The government sought to go further and end the repayment to Britain of land annuities, in 1923, the previous W. T. Cosgrave government had assured Britain that the Free State would honour its debts and hand over the land annuities and other financial liabilities. Under the 1925 London Agreement, the Free State was relieved from its treaty obligation to pay its share towards the debt of the United Kingdom. The Free States liability to supervise and pass on land annuities payments led to controversy and debate on whether they were private or public debts. In 1932, de Valera interpreted that the annuities were part of the debt from which the Free State had been exempted. His government passed the Land Act of 1933 that allowed the money to be spent on government projects. UK households were unwilling to pay twenty per cent extra for these food products, the Free State responded in kind by placing a similar duty on British imports and in the case of coal from the UK, with the remarkable slogan, Burn everything English except their coal. While the UK was much affected by the ensuing Economic War. Internally, the Irish Government did not actually end its own collection of annuities that were costing its farmers over £4 million annually. In the background, unemployment was high, the effects of the Great Depression compounded the difficulties, removing the outlet of emigration. The government urged people to support the confrontation with Britain as a hardship to be shared by every citizen. Farmers were urged to turn to tillage to produce food for the home market. The hardship of the Economic War, which impacted particularly on farmers, was enormous, in 1935, a Coal-Cattle pact eased the situation somewhat, whereby Britain agreed to increase its import of Irish cattle by a third in return for the Free State importing more of Britains coal
14.
Grand Metropolitan
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Grand Metropolitan plc was a leisure, manufacturing and property conglomerate headquartered in England. The company was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was a constituent of the FTSE100 Index until it merged with Guinness plc to form Diageo in 1997, the business began in 1934 as a hotel business called MRMA Ltd. Grand Hotels Ltd, a business founded after World War II by Maxwell Joseph, merged with MRMA in 1957 and it was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1961 and changed its name to Grand Metropolitan Hotels Ltd in 1962. It diversified into catering acquiring Bateman Catering in 1967 and then Midland Catering in 1968 and it then bought Express Dairies in 1969, the Berni Inn chain, and the Mecca bingo halls in 1970. It changed its name to Grand Metropolitan in 1973, in 1980 it bought Liggett Group, a US tobacco and drinks business. In 1981 it bought Warner Holidays and Intercontinental Hotels Corporation, in 1986 the Company sold the Liggett Group to Bennett S. LeBow. It acquired Heublein wines and spirits in 1987, which made it one of the largest producers of wines and spirits in the world, also in 1987 the Company withdrew from catering when it disposed of its catering division by way of a management buyout so creating Compass Group. In 1988, having sold Intercontinental Hotels to Japanese based Saison Group and it also entered the fast food industry by buying the Pillsbury Company and with it the Burger King chain in 1988. It also bought the Wimpy Bar chain that year and merged it with Burger King and it continued to sell non-core business, including in 1990 the brewers Samuel Websters and in 1991 Ushers of Trowbridge. The Company merged with Guinness plc in 1997 to form Diageo, Grand Metropolitan, A History 1962-1987, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-822976-6
15.
Porter (beer)
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Porter is a dark style of beer developed in London from well-hopped beers made from brown malt. The name was first recorded in the 18th century, and is thought to come from its popularity with street, the history and development of stout and porter are intertwined. The name stout as used for a beer is believed to have come about because strong porters were marketed under such names as Extra Porter, Double Porter. The term Stout Porter would later be shortened to just Stout, for example, Guinness Extra Stout was originally called Extra Superior Porter and was only given the name Extra Stout in 1840. In 1802 John Feltham wrote a version of the history of porter that has used as the basis for most writings on the topic. Very little of Felthams story is backed up by contemporary evidence, Feltham badly misinterpreted parts of the text, mainly due to his unfamiliarity with 18th-century brewing terminology. Feltham claimed that in 18th-century London a popular beverage called three threads was made consisting of a third of a pint each of ale, beer and twopenny. About 1730, Feltham said, a brewer called Harwood made a beer called Entire or Entire butt. Porter is mentioned as early as 1721, but no writer before Feltham says it was made to replicate three threads, instead, it seems to be a more-aged development of the brown beers already being made in London. Before 1700, London brewers sent out their very young. Porter was the first beer to be aged at the brewery and it was the first beer that could be made on any large scale, and the London porter brewers, such as Whitbread, Truman, Parsons and Thrale, achieved great success financially. Early London porters were strong beers by modern standards, early trials with the hydrometer in the 1770s recorded porter as having an OG of 1.071 and 6. 6% ABV. Increased taxation during the Napoleonic Wars pushed its gravity down to around 1.055, the popularity of the style prompted brewers to produce porters in a wide variety of strengths. These started with Single Stout Porter at around 1.066, Double Stout Porter at 1.072, Triple Stout Porter at 1.078 and Imperial Stout Porter at 1.095, as the 19th century progressed the porter suffix was gradually dropped. The large London porter breweries pioneered many advances, such as the use of the thermometer. The use of the latter transformed the nature of porter, the first porters were brewed from 100% brown malt. Now brewers were able to measure the yield of the malt they used. When the malt tax was increased to pay for the Napoleonic War
16.
Brian O'Nolan
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Brian ONolan was an Irish novelist, playwright and satirist, considered a major figure in twentieth century Irish literature. Born in Strabane, County Tyrone, he is regarded as a key figure in postmodern literature and his English language novels, such as At Swim-Two-Birds, and The Third Policeman, were written under the pen name Flann OBrien. His many satirical columns in The Irish Times and an Irish language novel An Béal Bocht were written under the name Myles na gCopaleen, ONolans novels have attracted a wide following for their bizarre humour and modernist metafiction. As a novelist, ONolan was influenced by James Joyce and he was nonetheless sceptical of the cult of Joyce which overshadows much of Irish writing, saying I declare to God if I hear that name Joyce one more time I will surely froth at the gob. ONolan attended Blackrock College where he was taught English by President of the College, and Dr McQuaid did Myles the honour of publishing a little verse by him in the first issue of the revived College Annual – this being Myles’ first published item. He contributed to the student magazine Comhthrom Féinne under various guises, in it, the putative author of the story finds himself in riotous conflict with his characters, who are determined to follow their own paths regardless of the authors design. Meanwhile, the hero, Shaun Svoolish, chooses a comfortable, bourgeois life rather than romance and heroics, I may be a prig, he replied. Why cant I marry Bridie and have a shot at the Civil Service, railway accidents are fortunately rare, I said finally, but when they happen they are horrible. In 1934 ONolan and his student friends founded a magazine called Blather. The writing here, though clearly bearing the marks of youthful bravado, again somewhat anticipates ONolans later work, in case his Cruiskeen Lawn column as Myles na gCopaleen. As we advance to make our bow, you look in vain for signs of servility or of any evidence of a desire to please. We are an arrogant and depraved body of men and we are as proud as bantams and as vain as peacocks. A sardonic laugh escapes us as we bow, cruel and cynical hounds that we are and it is a terrible laugh, the laugh of lost men. Do you get the smell of porter, Brian ONolan, who had studied German in Dublin, may have spent at least parts of 1933 and 1934 in Germany, namely in Cologne and Bonn, although details are uncertain and contested. This fact alone contributed to ONolans use of pseudonyms, though he had started to create character-authors even in his pre-civil service writings and he was, indeed, forced to retire from the civil service in 1953. Although ONolan was a well known character in Dublin during his lifetime and he joined the Irish civil service in 1935, working in the Department of Local Government. From the time of his fathers death in 1937, he supported his brothers and sisters, eleven in total, on 2 December 1948 he married Evelyn McDonnell, a typist in the Department of Local Government. On his marriage he moved from his home in Blackrock to nearby Merrion Avenue
17.
Pub
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A pub, or public house, is an establishment licensed to sell alcoholic drinks, which traditionally include beer, ale and cider. It is a relaxed, social drinking establishment and a prominent part of British, Irish, New Zealand, Canadian, in many places, especially in villages, a pub is the focal point of the community. In his 17th century diary Samuel Pepys described the pub as the heart of England, Pubs can be traced back to Roman taverns, through the Anglo-Saxon alehouse to the development of the tied house system in the 19th century. In 1393, King Richard II of England introduced legislation that pubs had to display a sign outdoors to make them easily visible for passing ale tasters who would assess the quality of ale sold, most pubs focus on offering beers, ales and similar drinks. As well, pubs often sell wines, spirits, and soft drinks, meals, the owner, tenant or manager is known as the pub landlord or publican. The pub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s and these alehouses quickly evolved into meeting houses for the folk to socially congregate, gossip and arrange mutual help within their communities. Herein lies the origin of the public house, or Pub as it is colloquially called in England. They rapidly spread across the Kingdom, becoming so commonplace that in 965 King Edgar decreed that there should be no more than one alehouse per village. A traveller in the early Middle Ages could obtain overnight accommodation in monasteries, the Hostellers of London were granted guild status in 1446 and in 1514 the guild became the Worshipful Company of Innholders. A survey in 1577 of drinking establishment in England and Wales for taxation purposes recorded 14,202 alehouses,1,631 inns, Inns are buildings where travellers can seek lodging and, usually, food and drink. They are typically located in the country or along a highway, in Europe, they possibly first sprang up when the Romans built a system of roads two millennia ago. Some inns in Europe are several centuries old, in addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as community gathering places. In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, the latter tend to provide alcohol, but less commonly accommodation. Famous London inns include The George, Southwark and The Tabard, there is however no longer a formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment. In North America, the aspect of the word inn lives on in hotel brand names like Holiday Inn. The Inns of Court and Inns of Chancery in London started as ordinary inns where barristers met to do business, traditional English ale was made solely from fermented malt. The practice of adding hops to produce beer was introduced from the Netherlands in the early 15th century, alehouses would each brew their own distinctive ale, but independent breweries began to appear in the late 17th century. By the end of the century almost all beer was brewed by commercial breweries, the 18th century saw a huge growth in the number of drinking establishments, primarily due to the introduction of gin
18.
William Sealy Gosset
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William Sealy Gosset was an English statistician. He published under the pen name Student, and developed the Students t-distribution, born in Canterbury, England to Agnes Sealy Vidal and Colonel Frederic Gosset, Gosset attended Winchester College before reading chemistry and mathematics at New College, Oxford. Upon graduating in 1899, he joined the brewery of Arthur Guinness & Son in Dublin, Gosset acquired that knowledge by study, by trial and error, and by spending two terms in 1906–1907 in the biometrical laboratory of Karl Pearson. Gosset and Pearson had a good relationship, Pearson helped Gosset with the mathematics of his papers, including the 1908 papers, but had little appreciation of their importance. Another researcher at Guinness had previously published a paper containing trade secrets of the Guinness brewery, to prevent further disclosure of confidential information, Guinness prohibited its employees from publishing any papers regardless of the contained information. Thus his most noteworthy achievement is now called Students, rather than Gossets, Gosset had almost all his papers including The probable error of a mean published in Pearsons journal Biometrika under the pseudonym Student. It was, however, not Pearson but Ronald A. Fisher believed that Gosset had effected a logical revolution, Fisher introduced a new form of Students statistic, denoted t, in terms of which Gossets statistic was z = t n −1. The t-form was adopted because it fit in with Fishers theory of degrees of freedom, Fisher was also responsible for applications of the t-distribution to regression analysis. e. This principle only appeared in the thought of Ronald Fisher. In 1935, Gosset left Dublin to take up the position of Head Brewer, in charge of the side of production. He died two years later in Beaconsfield, England, of a heart attack, Gosset was a friend of both Pearson and Fisher, a noteworthy achievement, for each had a massive ego and a loathing for the other. He was a modest man who cut short an admirer with the comment that Fisher would have discovered it all anyway. The application of the law of error to the work of the Brewery On the error of counting with hæmacytometer, the probable error of a mean. Probable error of a correlation coefficient, the distribution of the means of samples which are not drawn at random. An experimental determination of the error of Dr Spearmans correlation coefficients. Review of Statistical Methods for Research Workers, on Students 1908 Article The Probable Error of a Mean. Journal of the American Statistical Association, Students Collected Papers, London, Biometrika Office. E. S. Pearson Student, A Statistical Biography of William Sealy Gosset, Edited and Augmented by R. L. Plackett with the Assistance of G. A. Barnard, Oxford, University Press
19.
Student's t-distribution
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It was developed by William Sealy Gosset under the pseudonym Student. The Students t-distribution also arises in the Bayesian analysis of data from a normal family, in this way, the t-distribution can be used to say how confident you are that any given range contains the true mean. The t-distribution is symmetric and bell-shaped, like the normal distribution, the Students t-distribution is a special case of the generalised hyperbolic distribution. In statistics, the t-distribution was first derived as a distribution in 1876 by Helmert. The t-distribution also appeared in a general form as Pearson Type IV distribution in Karl Pearsons 1895 paper. In the English-language literature the distribution takes its name from William Sealy Gossets 1908 paper in Biometrika under the pseudonym Student. Gosset worked at the Guinness Brewery in Dublin, Ireland, and was interested in the problems of small samples – for example, another version is that Guinness did not want their competitors to know that they were using the t-test to determine the quality of raw material. Gossets paper refers to the distribution as the distribution of standard deviations of samples drawn from a normal population. It became well-known through the work of Ronald Fisher, who called the distribution Students distribution, xn be independent and identically distributed as N, i. e. this is a sample of size n from a normally distributed population with expected value μ and variance σ2. Let X ¯ =1 n ∑ i =1 n X i be the sample mean and let S2 =1 n −1 ∑ i =1 n 2 be the sample variance. Then the random variable X ¯ − μ σ / n has a normal distribution. Students t-distribution has the probability density function given by f = Γ ν π Γ − ν +12 and this may also be written as f =1 ν B − ν +12, where B is the Beta function. As the number of degrees of freedom grows, the approaches the normal distribution with mean 0. The following images show the density of the t-distribution for increasing values of ν, the normal distribution is shown as a blue line for comparison. Note that the t-distribution becomes closer to the distribution as ν increases. The cumulative distribution function can be written in terms of I, for t >0, F = ∫ − ∞ t f d u =1 −12 I x, where x = ν t 2 + ν. Other values would be obtained by symmetry, an alternative formula, valid for t 2 < ν, is ∫ − ∞ t f d u =12 + t Γ π ν Γ2 F1, where 2F1 is a particular case of the hypergeometric function. For information on its inverse cumulative distribution function, see quantile function#Students t-distribution, certain values of ν give an especially simple form
20.
John Lumsden
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Sir John Lumsden KBE was an Irish physician and the founder of the St. John Ambulance Brigade of Ireland. John Lumsden was born in Drogheda, County Louth, Ireland, Dr. Lumsdens father had come from Scotland via India to work in a bank in Armagh and later moved to Dublin in 1867 to work for the Provincial Bank. Dr. Lumsdens father was a golfer and Dr. His father later helped the Dublin Golf Club become the Royal Dublin Golf Club in 1891. At the time of the birth they were living at Dr. Lumsdens parents house but, soon after, moved out to 4 Fitzwilliam Place, Dublin, where Dr. Lumsden also had a medical practice on the first floor. Their first child was followed by sisters, Leslie, born in 1898, Norah in 1900, Margery in 1908 and twins, Nancy. Dr. Lumsden was a physician on the staff of Mercers Hospital in Dublin and in 1902 was the Principal Medical Officer for the Commissioners of Irish Lights, however, it was his role as the Medical Officer at the Guinness Brewery that Dr. Lumsden made his name. After the Great Irish Famine many people moved from areas of Ireland into cities such as Dublin looking for food. This resulted in overcrowding with 33.9 percent of all families in Dublin each living in a single room, poverty and cramped conditions led to problems of disease and by 1881 Dublin had the highest death rate in Europe. Dr. Lumsden saw a high rate of tuberculosis amongst Guinness employees, the main Iveagh Trust buildings built in 1903–05 were designed accordingly. He also studied the diets of the employees and established classes for the wives of Guinness employees. Finally, he helped to set up the first Guinness sports club which included St Jamess Gate F. C, in his post as Medical Officer Dr. Lumsden was asked to provide first-aid classes for employees at the Guinness Brewery. The classes became so popular that later became the first registered division of the St. John Ambulance Brigade of Ireland. He remained Commissioner until his death, the Brigade was involved with many major events in Irish history, including treating casualties from the clashes during the General Strike of 1913. However, the Brigade became prominent in Dublin during the Easter Rising of 1916 where it treated casualties on both sides and fed and cared for evacuees. During the fighting in the streets of Dublin Dr. Lumsden became a figure as he dashed out carrying a white flag. He was knighted by King George V for these acts and for the formation of the St. John Ambulance Society, the service later became the National Blood Transfusion Association in 1948 but owes its origin to the Brigade and more especially to Sir John Lumsden. This led to the Brigade becoming an Associated Body and completely independent from the English-based St. John Ambulance, Sir John was one of the first members of the Irish Red Cross
21.
Bass Brewery
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The Bass Brewery /ˈbæs/ was founded in 1777 by William Bass in Burton-upon-Trent, England. The main brand was Bass Pale Ale, once the highest-selling beer in the UK, by 1877, Bass had become the largest brewery in the world, with an annual output of one million barrels. Its pale ale was exported throughout the British Empire, and the distinctive red triangle became the UKs first registered trademark. Bass took control of a number of other breweries in the early 20th century. The brewing operations of the company were bought by Interbrew in 2000, in 2010, it was widely reported that AB-InBev are attempting to sell the rights to the Bass brand in the UK for around £10 million to £15 million. Draught Bass has been brewed under contract in Burton by Marstons for AB-InBev since 2005, bottled and keg products are brewed at AB-InBevs own brewery in Samlesbury for export, except in the United States and Belgium, where Bass is brewed locally. Bass Ale is a top ten premium canned ale in the UK, prior to establishing a brewery, William Bass transported ale for brewer Benjamin Printon. Bass sold this business to the Pickford family, using the funds to establish Bass & Co Brewery in 1777 as one of the first breweries in Burton-upon-Trent. Early in the history, Bass was exporting bottled beer around the world. Growing demand led his son Michael Thomas Bass, to build a brewery in Burton in 1799 in partnership with John Ratcliff. The water produced from local boreholes became popular with brewers, with 30 operating there by the mid-19th century. His son, Michael Thomas Bass, succeeded on his fathers death in 1827, renewed the Ratcliff partnership, brought in John Gretton, the opening of a railway through Burton in 1839 redoubled Burtons preeminence as a brewing town. In the mid-1870s, Bass, Ratcliff and Gretton accounted for one third of Burtons output, a strong export business allowed Bass to boast their product was available in every country in the globe. By 1877, Bass was the largest brewery in the world, following the death of the second Michael Bass in 1884, his son Michael Arthur Bass, later the 1st Baron Burton, took the reins. Both Michael Thomas Bass and his son Lord Burton were philanthropically inclined, making extensive charitable donations to the towns of Burton, the annual Bass excursions, laid on by the firm for its employees, were the largest operation of its type in the world by a private company. The brewer became a limited company in 1888. Bass No.1 Ale was the first beer to be marketed as barley wine, early in the 20th century, a declining market closed many Burton breweries,20 in 1900 falling to eight in 1928. Bass took over Walkers in 1923, Worthington and Thomas Salt in 1927, Bass was one of the original London Stock Exchange FT30 companies when the listing was established in 1935
22.
Catholic
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
23.
Irish Independent
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The Irish Independent is the flagship publication of Independent News & Media and Irelands largest-selling daily newspaper. Aside from its material, the Independent also publishes a weekly supplement in the Irish language called Seachtain. It is a sister of the broadsheet Sunday Independent, since May 2012, the Irish Independent has been controlled by billionaire Denis OBrien after OBrien acquired a majority shareholding of parent company. Traditionally a broadsheet newspaper, it introduced a compact size in 2004. The Irish Independent described the 1916 Easter Rising as insane and criminal, in 1924, the traditional nationalist newspaper, the Freemans Journal, merged with the Irish Independent. Until October 1986 the papers masthead over the editorial contained the words incorporating the Freemans Journal, during the Spanish Civil War, the Irish Independents coverage was strongly pro-Franco, the paper criticized the De Valera government for not intervening on behalf of the Spanish Nationalists. In the 1970s, it was taken over by former Heinz chairman Tony OReilly, under his leadership, it became a more populist, market liberal newspaper—populist on social issues, but economically right-wing. By the mid-nineties its allegiance to Fine Gael had ended, in the 1997 general election, it endorsed Fianna Fáil under a front page editorial, entitled Its Payback Time. On 27 September 2005, a fortnight after the paper published its centenary edition and he was replaced by Gerry ORegan, who had until then been editor of the Irish Independents sister paper, the Evening Herald. The newspapers previous editor Stephen Rae was also editor of the Evening Herald and was appointed editor in September 2012. Fionnan Sheahan was appointed editor in January 2015, Denis OBrien successfully acquired a majority shareholding the newspaper parent company INM in May 2012. The New Irish Writing Page is the creative writing feature of its kind in any Irish or British newspaper. The Irish Independent, in cooperation with the Institute of Education, produces Exam Brief and this supplement is published in February, March and April each year. Excluding The Sun and the Daily Mirror, most of the content of which are produced in the United Kingdom, iNM-owned or partly owned titles have 58% of the newspaper market on Sunday. With the closure of the Evening Press, the Independents Evening Herald is now the only Irish national evening newspaper, another sister paper is the Sunday Independent. Other newspapers in the Independent News & Media group include the Irish Daily Star, the Independent News and Media Group had a major share in the Sunday Tribune, a Sunday broadsheet before its closure in 2011. The Independent News and Media Group also owns online business directory site Your Local that provides business information on approximately 100,000 Irish businesses. Circulation was 162,582 for the period January to December 2006, circulation was 149,906 for the period July to December 2009
24.
Mash ingredients
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Mash ingredients, mash bill, or grain bill are those materials used in brewing from which a wort can be obtained for fermenting into alcohol. The sugars will be separated from the ingredients and then converted to alcohol. A typical primary mash ingredient is grain that has been malted, modern-day malt recipes generally consist of a large percentage of a light malt and, optionally, smaller percentages of more flavorful or highly colored types of malt. The former is called malt, the latter is known as specialty malts. The grain bill of a beer or whisky may vary widely in the number, for example, in beer-making, a simple pale ale might contain a single malted grain, while a complex porter may contain a dozen or more ingredients. In whisky production, Bourbon uses a mash made primarily from maize, each particular ingredient has its own flavor that contributes to the final character of the beverage. Generally, brewers favor lower-nitrogen grains, while distillers favor high-nitrogen grains, the quantity of high-mass proteins can be reduced during the mash by making use of a protease rest. Distillers, by contrast, are not as constrained by the amount of protein in their mash as the nature of proteins means that none will be included in the final distilled product. Therefore, distillers seek out higher-nitrogen grains in order to ensure a more efficiently-made product, the act of germination produces a number of enzymes such as amylase that can convert the starch naturally present in barley and other grains into sugar. The mashing process activates these enzymes by soaking the grain in water at a controlled temperature, diastatic activity can also be provided by diastatic malt extract or by inclusion of separately-prepared brewing enzymes. Diastatic power for a grain is measured in degrees Lintner, or in Europe by Windisch-Kolbach units, the two measures are related by ∘ Lintner = ∘ WK +163.5 ∘ WK = −16. A malt with enough power to self-convert has a diastatic power near 35 °Lintner, until recently, the most active, so-called hottest, malts currently available were American six-row pale barley malts, which have a diastatic power of up to 160 °Lintner. Wheat malts have begun to appear on the market with diastatic power of up to 200 °Lintner, although with the huskless wheat being somewhat difficult to work with, this is usually used in conjunction with barley, or as an addition to add high diastatic power to a mash. In brewing, the color of a grain or product is evaluated by the Standard Reference Method, Lovibond, the darkness of grains range from as light as less than 2 SRM/4 EBC for Pilsener malt to as dark as 700 SRM/1600 EBC for black malt and roasted barley. The quality of starches in a grain is variable with the strain of grain used, a grain that is not fully modified requires mashing in multiple steps rather than at simply one temperature as the starches must be de-branched before amylase can work on them. One indicator of the degree of modification of a grain is that grains Nitrogen ratio, that is, the amount of soluble Nitrogen in a grain vs. the total amount of Nitrogen. This number is referred to as the Kolbach Index and a malt with a Kolbach index between 36% and 42% is considered a malt that is highly modified and suitable for single infusion mashing. Maltsters use the length of the acrospire vs. the length of the grain to determine when the degree of modification has been reached before drying or kilning
25.
The Distillers Company
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The Distillers Company Limited was a leading Scottish drinks and pharmaceutical company which at one time was a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It was taken over by Guinness & Co. in 1986 in a transaction which was found to have involved fraudulent activity. The Company was formed in 1877 by a combination of six Scotch whisky distilleries, John Haig & Co, MacNab Bros & Co, Robert Mowbray and Stewart & Co. This company was out of a trade association called the Scotch Distillers’ Association formed in 1865. It combined with John Walker & Son and Buchanan-Dewar in 1925 and it was acquired by Guinness in 1986, forming United Distillers and the majority of its assets are now part of Diageo. From 1942, Distillers Biochemicals operated an Agency Factory of the British Ministry of Supply manufacturing penicillin in Speke, the plant was one of the first two factories in Europe to produce penicillin. Following World War II, DCBL purchased the facility for four million dollars. Distillers was also responsible for the manufacture of the drug Thalidomide in the United Kingdom, Thalidomide had been developed by Grunenthal with whom, in July 1957, DCBL signed a sixteen-year contract to market the drug. DCBL ordered 6,000 tablets for clinical trial and 500 grammes of pure substance for animal experiments, Thalidomide was marketed in England under the name Distaval, beginning on April 14,1958. Advertisements emphasized the drugs complete safety, using such as non-toxic. Later, Thalidomide was marketed under the names Asmaval, Tensival, Valgis, the Speke site, also known as Speke Operations, was eventually sold to Eli Lilly and Company in 1963. Leonard Alsager Elgood FRSE1943 to 1960, pharmaceutical industry in the United Kingdom History page on Diageo website
26.
Guinness plc v Saunders
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Guinness plc v Saunders UKHL2 is a UK company law case, regarding the power of the company to pay directors. It required that whatever rules exist for payment in the companys articles, Guinness plc appointed a committee of three directors in January 1986, Ernest Saunders, Olivier Roux and Tom Ward, to handle the companys affairs during a takeover bid for Distillers Company. Guinness was successful in its bid, though only after Ward had been paid £5. 2m, Ward claimed that this fee was agreed among the committee of three directors. Guinness plcs articles of association gave power to fix directors remuneration to the whole board and it was not apparent that such power had ever been delegated. Ward argued that the articles should be construed so that the committee could be vested with power to pay remuneration to its members. The new owners of Guinness plc argued that there had no such power. The House of Lords held that the power to pay remuneration under the articles of the company should be strictly followed, Lord Templeman gave the leading judgment. Lord Templeman then ruled that none of the other articles gave the committee the power to pay directors, mr Saunders, even though he was chairman, had no actual or ostensible authority to agree that Ward should be paid. Finally, because the articles had a procedure for pay. Lord Keith, Lord Brandon and Lord Griffiths concurred, Lord Goff gave a concurring opinion. ’ His judgment went as follows. ’
27.
Park Royal
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Park Royal is an area in northwest London, England. It is the site of the largest business park in London, Park Royal Business Park is promoted commercially by the Park Royal Business Group which is part of West London Business. Park Royal is partly in the London Borough of Brent and partly the London Borough of Ealing, Park Royal business park has over 1,200 businesses, employing an estimated 35,000 workers. Approximately 500 food companies operate at Park Royal, employing more than 14,000 people, one third of all the food consumed in London is supplied by businesses in Park Royal. Park Royal also has areas of housing and amenities serving them. On the eastern side, Park Royal is bounded by Acton Lane, the Central Middlesex Hospital is located here. There is also a B&Q superstore, Renault and Nissan Car Dealerships, Park Royal Underground station, on the Piccadilly line, is located just off Western Avenue. To the west of Park Royal is Hanger Hill and the North Circular Road, as well as many small industrial firms, Park Royal is the location of some large company buildings, including McVities and Heinz. The first building erected adjacent to the new roundabout and bridge link to Western Avenue is occupied by international drinks company Diageo, owner of the Guinness brand, the Female Health Company, which manufactures Femidoms, has one of its two manufacturing plants here, too. The Grand Union Canal runs through the middle of the Park Royal industrial estate, the name Park Royal derives from the short-lived showgrounds opened in 1903 by the Royal Agricultural Society as a permanent exhibition site for the societys annual show. After only three years the society sold the site, and returned to a format for its shows. With its road, rail and canal links, Park Royal was subsequently developed for industrial use, for many years it was a centre of engineering, with firms including Park Royal Vehicles, GKN and Landis and Gyr. Queens Park Rangers F. C. played on two grounds in Park Royal, the first was the Horse Ring, later the site of the Guinness brewery, which had a capacity of 40,000. When the Royal Agricultural Society sold the grounds in 1907, QPR moved to the Park Royal Ground,400 yards south, the club was forced to move out in February 1915 as the ground was taken over by the Army. On 12 December 1908, the first ever rugby league test match between Great Britain and Australia took place at the Park Royal Ground in front of 2,000 fans, the match ended in a 22-all draw and was played as part of the first ever Kangaroo Tour. The Guinness Sports Club hosted some of the hockey events for the 1948 Summer Olympics. It is public policy to maintain Park Royal as predominantly a business area, the framework does not preclude use of parts of the site for housing. Park Royal is served by the A40 and A406 roads, and is situated close to an interchange called the Hanger Lane gyratory
28.
Sunday Independent (Ireland)
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The Sunday Independent is an Irish populist Sunday newspaper broadsheet published by Independent News & Media plc, under the control of Denis OBrien. It is the Sunday edition of the Irish Independent, and maintains a position midway between magazine and tabloid. The Sunday Independent was first published in 1905 as the Sunday edition of the Irish Independent, following the creation of the Irish Free State, the Sunday Independent followed its daily counterparts political line by supporting Cumann na nGaedheal and its successor Fine Gael. From the 1940s until 1970, the paper was run by Hector Legge, Legge also published a series of articles by the writer Frank OConnor in the paper. In the 1970s, under the editorship of Conor OBrien, the Sunday Independent became known for a series of investigations by journalist Joe MacAnthony into the activities of the Irish Sweepstakes, OBrien was succeeded as editor in 1976 by Michael Hand. Aengus Fanning became editor following Hands departure in 1984, Anne Harris succeeded her husband Aengus Fanning after his death in January 2012. Cormac Bourke, the executive editor of the Irish Independent. The newspaper is a general Sunday newspaper, covering news and politics and it is published in five sections, News, Sport, Business, Property, and Living, as well as a magazine section. In terms of news, while the newspaper maintains a broadsheet outlook and it has also been criticised for regularly tending towards sensationalism, and for the often opinion-focused, rather than news-focused nature of its articles. It is probably better described as a newspaper, rather than a newspaper of record. In the 1980s and 1990s, the Deputy Editor was Anne Harris, the Governments former Minister for Defence, Willie ODea writes a weekly column for the newspaper. The former partner of Bertie Ahern, Celia Larkin has also started writing as a columnist for the following the closure of her beauty salon business. Popularly nicknamed The Sindo, the paper has been a critic of the Provisional IRA. Many of the Sunday Independents columnists also criticised Hume for negotiating with Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams and it was strongly supportive of the Progressive Democrats and in favour of income tax reduction and the rolling back of the state. Major issues often include big government, the size of the sector, terrorism, and more recently. It usually features articles by Alan Ruddock, Jody Corcoran, Brendan OConnor, Anne Harris, Deputy Editor Willie Kealy and, prior to his death, former editor Aengus Fanning also contributed material here. The Sunday Independent also took a negative tone towards rival media outlets RTÉ, Circulation was 291,323 for the period June 2004 to January 2005 Circulation was 238,798 for the period January to June 2012. Circulation was 237,185 for the period July to December 2012, Circulation was 199,210 for the period January to June 2016
29.
Mary Coughlan (politician)
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Mary Coughlan is an Irish former Fianna Fáil politician who served as a Teachta Dála for the Donegal South-West constituency from 1987 to 2011, latterly attaining the office of Tánaiste of Ireland. She lost her Dáil seat in the 2011 general election, Coughlan was born in Donegal town in the south of County Donegal in 1965. Her father was Cathal Coughlan, a Fianna Fáil TD, who died in office in June 1986 and she was educated at the Ursuline Convent in Sligo – where she was a boarder from 1978 to 1983 – and at University College Dublin, graduating with a Social Science degree. She worked as a worker for a brief period before becoming involved in politics. Coming from a family, Coughlan was always interested in politics. Coughlan was first elected to Dáil Éireann as a Fianna Fáil TD for the Donegal South-West constituency, at the age of 21 years and nine months, Coughlan was the youngest member of the 25th Dáil. Her uncle Clement Coughlan was a TD from 1980 until his death in 1983 in a traffic accident. The death of her father resulted in Coughlan being co-opted onto Donegal County Council in 1986, Coughlan remained on the backbenches of the Dáil for the first thirteen years of her career as a TD, before being appointed a Junior Minister. Coughlan was also a member of the British-Irish Parliamentary Body, in 1994 Bertie Ahern became leader of Fianna Fáil and Leader of the Opposition. In early 1995 he named his new front bench, including Coughlan as Spokesperson on Educational Reform and she served in this position until 1997 but was not included in the cabinet or junior ministerial team when the party came to power. In February 2001, Coughlan received her first ministerial position, that of Minister of State at the Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands. She also oversaw the coming into force of an amended Gaeltacht Housing Act, the Commission on Irish in the Gaeltacht also completed its work under her guidance and Coughlan saw its report approved and published. During her time in this role, she established a Working Group on the Creation of Employment in the Gaeltacht. After the 2002 general election Coughlan was promoted to the cabinet as Minister for Social and her time in Social and Family Affairs saw increases in social welfare payments and the extension of family supports. Coughlan received criticism for changes she made regarding the availability of rent supplement and this was portrayed as targeting the weaker sections of society at a time when the Irish economy was reasonably strong. She was also criticised for cuts she made as Minister to entitlements for widows. The cuts were part of a drive for a reduction in government spending in autumn 2002. However, many considered these and other similar cutbacks to have forced upon her by Charlie McCreevy – who was Minister for Finance at the time
30.
Isinglass
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Isinglass is a substance obtained from the dried swim bladders of fish. It is a form of collagen used mainly for the clarification or fining of some beer and it can also be cooked into a paste for specialised gluing purposes. Its origin is from the obsolete Dutch huizenblaas – huizen is a kind of sturgeon, isinglass is no longer sourced from sturgeon. Although originally made exclusively from sturgeon, especially beluga, in 1795 an invention by William Murdoch facilitated a cheap substitute using cod and this was extensively used in Britain in place of Russian isinglass. The bladders, once removed from the fish, processed, before the inexpensive production of gelatin and other competing products, isinglass was used in confectionery and desserts such as fruit jelly and blancmange. Isinglass finings is widely used as an aid in the British brewing industry to accelerate the fining, or clarification. It is used particularly in the production of cask-conditioned beers, although a few cask ales are available which are not fined using isinglass, the finings flocculate the live yeast in the beer into a jelly-like mass, which settles to the bottom of the cask. Left undisturbed, beer will clear naturally, the use of isinglass finings accelerates the process, isinglass is sometimes used with an auxiliary fining, which further accelerates the process of sedimentation. Non-cask beers that are destined for kegs, cans, or bottles are often pasteurized and filtered, the yeast in these beers tends to settle to the bottom of the storage tank naturally, so the sediment from these beers can often be filtered without using isinglass. However, some still use isinglass finings for non-cask beers. Although very little remains in the beer when it is drunk. A beer-fining agent that is suitable for vegetarians is Irish moss, however, carrageenan-based products primarily reduce hazes caused by proteins, but isinglass is used at the end of the brewing process, after fermentation, to remove yeast. Since the two fining agents act differently, they are not interchangeable, and some beers use both. Isinglass finings are also used in the production of wines, although for reasons of kashrut, they are not derived from the beluga sturgeon. Whether the use of a nonkosher isinglass renders a beverage nonkosher is a matter of debate in Jewish law, rabbi Yehezkel Landau, in Noda BYehuda, first edition, Yore Deah 26, for example, permits such beverages. This is the position followed by many kashrut-observant Jews today, isinglass was used as a preservative in Britain in the 1940s before and during World War II. Isinglass from tins was dissolved into water, typically in a bucket, the resulting solution acted as an effective preservative for fresh eggs submerged in it. Isinglass is also used to help repair parchment, pieces of the best Russian isinglass are soaked overnight to soften and swell the dried material
31.
Barley
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Barley, a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago, Barley has been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures, Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In 2014, barley was ranked fourth among grains in quantity produced behind corn, rice, the Old English word for barley was bære, which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latin word farina flour. The direct ancestor of modern English barley in Old English was the derived adjective bærlic, the first citation of the form bærlic in the Oxford English Dictionary dates to around 966 CE, in the compound word bærlic-croft. The underived word bære survives in the north of Scotland as bere, the word barn, which originally meant barley-house, is also rooted in these words. Barley is a member of the grass family and it is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp, spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside this region, the barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats. However, in a study of genome-wide diversity markers, Tibet was found to be a center of domestication of cultivated barley. Wild barley has a spike, upon maturity, the spikelets separate. Domesticated barley has nonshattering spikes, making it easier to harvest the mature ears. The nonshattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two linked genes known as Bt1 and Bt2, many cultivars possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygous for the mutant allele, spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley, only the central spikelet is fertile, while the two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys, a pair of mutations result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys. Recent genetic studies have revealed that a mutation in one gene, two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley, thus a more fermentable sugar content. High-protein barley is best suited for animal feed, Malting barley is usually lower protein which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy
32.
Hops
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Hops are the flowers of the hop plant Humulus lupulus. The hop plant is a vigorous, climbing, herbaceous perennial, usually trained to grow up strings in a called a hopfield, hop garden. Many different varieties of hops are grown by farmers around the world, the first documented use of hops in beer is from the 9th century, though Hildegard of Bingen,300 years later, is often cited as the earliest documented source. Before this period, brewers used gruit, composed of a variety of bitter herbs and flowers, including dandelion, burdock root, marigold, horehound, ground ivy. Early documents include mention of a hop garden in the will of Charlemagnes father, historically, traditional herb combinations for beers were believed to have been abandoned when beers made with hops were noticed to be less prone to spoilage. The first documented hop cultivation was in 736, in the Hallertau region of present-day Germany, however, in a will of Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne,768 hop gardens were left to the Cloister of Saint-Denis. Not until the 13th century did hops begin to start threatening the use of gruit for flavoring, gruit was used when taxes were levied by the nobility on hops. Whichever was taxed made the then quickly switch to the other. In Britain, hopped beer was first imported from Holland around 1400, yet hops were condemned as late as 1519 as a wicked, in 1471, Norwich, England, banned use of the plant in the brewing of ale. In Germany, using hops was also a religious and political choice in the early 16th century, there was no tax on hops to be paid on the Catholic church, unlike on gruit, for which the Protestant preferred hopped beer. Therefore, in the hop industry there are words which originally were Dutch words. Hops were then grown as far north as Aberdeen, near breweries for infrastructure convenience, in England there were many complaints over the quality of imported hops, the sacks of which were often contaminated by stalks, sand or straw to increase their weight. Hop cultivation was begun in the present-day United States in 1629 by English, before national alcohol prohibition, cultivation was mainly centered around New York, California, Oregon, and Washington. Problems with powdery mildew and downy mildew devastated New Yorks production by the 1920s, Hops production is concentrated in moist temperate climates, with much of the worlds production occurring near the 48th parallel north. Historically, hops were not grown in Ireland, but were imported from England, in 1752 more than 500 tons of English hops were imported through Dublin alone. Important production centers today are the Hallertau in Germany, the Yakima and Willamette valleys, the principal production centers in the UK are in Kent which produces Kent Goldings hops, Herefordshire and Worcestershire. Essentially all of the hops are used in beer making. Although hops are grown in most of the continental United States and Canada, as hops are a climbing plant, they are trained to grow up trellises made from strings or wires that support the plants and allow them significantly greater growth with the same sunlight profile
33.
Yeast
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Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The yeast lineage originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and 1,500 species are currently identified and they are estimated to constitute 1% of all described fungal species. Yeast sizes vary greatly, depending on species and environment, typically measuring 3–4 µm in diameter, most yeasts reproduce asexually by mitosis, and many do so by the asymmetric division process known as budding. Yeasts, with their growth habit, can be contrasted with molds. Fungal species that can take both forms are called dimorphic fungi and it is also a centrally important model organism in modern cell biology research, and is one of the most thoroughly researched eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchers have used it to information about the biology of the eukaryotic cell. Other species of yeasts, such as Candida albicans, are opportunistic pathogens, yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in microbial fuel cells, and produce ethanol for the biofuel industry. Yeasts do not form a taxonomic or phylogenetic grouping. The budding yeasts are classified in the order Saccharomycetales, within the phylum Ascomycota, the word yeast comes from Old English gist, gyst, and from the Indo-European root yes-, meaning boil, foam, or bubble. Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticated organisms, archaeologists digging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeast-raised bread, as well as drawings of 4, 000-year-old bakeries and breweries. In 1680, Dutch naturalist Anton van Leeuwenhoek first microscopically observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be living organisms, researchers were doubtful whether yeasts were algae or fungi, but in 1837 Theodor Schwann recognized them as fungi. In 1857, French microbiologist Louis Pasteur proved in the paper Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by living yeasts and not by a chemical catalyst. Pasteur showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeast broth, cell growth could be increased, by the late 18th century, two yeast strains used in brewing had been identified, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis. S. cerevisiae has been sold commercially by the Dutch for bread-making since 1780, while, around 1800, in 1825, a method was developed to remove the liquid so the yeast could be prepared as solid blocks. The industrial production of yeast blocks was enhanced by the introduction of the press in 1867. In 1872, Baron Max de Springer developed a process to create granulated yeast. Yeasts are chemoorganotrophs, as they use organic compounds as a source of energy, carbon is obtained mostly from hexose sugars, such as glucose and fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose and maltose. Some species can metabolize pentose sugars such as ribose, alcohols, Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration or are anaerobic, but also have aerobic methods of energy production
34.
Pasteurization
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Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process that kills microbes in food and drink, such as milk, juice, canned food, and others. It was invented by French scientist Louis Pasteur during the nineteenth century, in 1864 Pasteur discovered that heating beer and wine was enough to kill most of the bacteria that caused spoilage, preventing these beverages from turning sour. The process achieves this by eliminating pathogenic microbes and lowering microbial numbers to prolong the quality of the beverage, today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and other food processing industries to achieve food preservation and food safety. Unlike sterilization, pasteurization is not intended to kill all microorganisms in the food, instead, it aims to reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause disease. Commercial-scale sterilization of food is not common because it affects the taste. Certain foods, such as products, may be superheated to ensure pathogenic microbes are destroyed. The process of heating wine for preservation purposes has been known in China since 1117, much later, in 1768, an Italian priest and scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani proved experimentally that heat killed bacteria, and that they do not reappear if the product is hermetically sealed. He placed the food in glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax, in that same year, the French military offered a cash prize of 12,000 francs for a new method to preserve food. After some 14 or 15 years of experimenting, Appert submitted his invention and won the prize in January 1810, later that year, Appert published LArt de conserver les substances animales et végétales. This was the first cookbook of its kind on modern food preservation methods, la Maison Appert, in the town of Massy, near Paris, became the first food-bottling factory in the world, preserving a variety of food in sealed bottles. Apperts method was to fill thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef and fowl to eggs, milk and his greatest success for publicity was an entire sheep. He left air space at the top of the bottle, the bottle was then wrapped in canvas to protect it, while it was dunked into boiling water and then boiled for as much time as Appert deemed appropriate for cooking the contents thoroughly. Appert patented his method, sometimes called appertisation, in his honor, Apperts method was so simple and workable that it quickly became widespread. In 1810, British inventor and merchant Peter Durand, also of French origin, patented his own method, in 1812, Englishmen Bryan Donkin and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing preserves. Just a decade later, Apperts method of canning had made its way to America, Apperts preservation by boiling involved heating the food to an unnecessarily high temperature, and for an unnecessarily long time, which could destroy some of the flavor of the preserved food. A less aggressive method was developed by the French chemist Louis Pasteur during an 1864 summer holiday in Arbois, in honour of Pasteur, the process became known as pasteurization. Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring, in the United States in the 1870s, it was common for milk to contain substances intended to mask spoilage before milk was regulated. Milk is an excellent medium for growth, and when stored at ambient temperature bacteria
35.
Filtered beer
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Filtered beer refers to any ale, lager, or fermented malt beverage in which the sediment left over from the brewing process has been removed. Ancient techniques included the use of mats, cloth, or straws. Modern filtration, introduced at the end of the 19th century, uses a process that can remove all sediment, including yeast. Such beer is known as beer and requires force carbonation before bottling or serving from a keg. Filters range from rough filters that remove much of the yeast and any solids left in the beer, to filters fine enough to strain colour, the normal filtration ratings are defined as rough, fine or sterile. Rough filtration leaves some cloudiness in the beer, but it is clearer than unfiltered beer. Fine filtration yields a beer which is transparent and not cloudy. Finally, as its name implies, sterile filtration is fine enough that almost all microorganisms in the beer have been removed, beer which has been filtered is usually held in bright tanks at the brewery before bottling or additional treatment. A beer which is filtered is stable, so all conditioning has stopped - as such it is termed brewery-conditioned, beers which are in contact with the yeast are known as bottle-conditioned or cask-conditioned. Sheet filters use pre-made media and are relatively straightforward, the sheets are manufactured to allow only particles smaller than a given size through, and the brewer is free to choose how finely to filter the beer. The sheets are placed into the frame, sterilized and then used to filter the beer. The sheets can be flushed if the filter becomes blocked, often the sheets contain powdered filtration media to aid in filtration. Pre-made filters have two sides, one with holes, and the other with tight holes. Sheets are sold in nominal ratings, and typically 90% of particles larger than the rating are caught by the sheet. For sterile filtration, a size is 1 micrometre or less. Filters that use a medium are considerably more complicated to operate. Common media include diatomaceous earth, or kieselguhr, and perlite, though all filtering is done cold, the term cold filtering is used for a filtering process in which the beer is chilled so the protein molecules clump together and so are easier to filter out. Breweries tend to differentiate cold filtered beers from those that have been heat pasteurised, when a beer has been left to allow the yeast to settle at the bottom of the vessel in which it is held, it has dropped bright
36.
Food energy
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Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction, with the water substance produced being in the liquid phase. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
37.
Joule
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The joule, symbol J, is a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal to the transferred to an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when a current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule, one joule can also be defined as, The work required to move an electric charge of one coulomb through an electrical potential difference of one volt, or one coulomb volt. This relationship can be used to define the volt, the work required to produce one watt of power for one second, or one watt second. This relationship can be used to define the watt and this SI unit is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every International System of Units unit named for a person, note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. The CGPM has given the unit of energy the name Joule, the use of newton metres for torque and joules for energy is helpful to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications. The distinction may be also in the fact that energy is a scalar – the dot product of a vector force. By contrast, torque is a vector – the cross product of a distance vector, torque and energy are related to one another by the equation E = τ θ, where E is energy, τ is torque, and θ is the angle swept. Since radians are dimensionless, it follows that torque and energy have the same dimensions, one joule in everyday life represents approximately, The energy required to lift a medium-size tomato 1 m vertically from the surface of the Earth. The energy released when that same tomato falls back down to the ground, the energy required to accelerate a 1 kg mass at 1 m·s−2 through a 1 m distance in space. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 0.24 °C, the typical energy released as heat by a person at rest every 1/60 s. The kinetic energy of a 50 kg human moving very slowly, the kinetic energy of a 56 g tennis ball moving at 6 m/s. The kinetic energy of an object with mass 1 kg moving at √2 ≈1.4 m/s, the amount of electricity required to light a 1 W LED for 1 s. Since the joule is also a watt-second and the unit for electricity sales to homes is the kW·h. For additional examples, see, Orders of magnitude The zeptojoule is equal to one sextillionth of one joule,160 zeptojoules is equivalent to one electronvolt. The nanojoule is equal to one billionth of one joule, one nanojoule is about 1/160 of the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito
38.
Pint
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The pint /ˈpaɪnt/ is a unit of volume or capacity in both the imperial and United States customary measurement systems. In both of those systems it is traditionally one-eighth of a gallon, Imperial or U. S. although measuring a different amount of liquid, the British pint is thus about 20% larger than the American pint. Almost all other countries have standardized on the metric system, the size of what may be called a pint varies depending on local custom. The imperial pint is used in the United Kingdom and Ireland, in the United States, two pints are used, a liquid pint and a less-common dry pint. Each of these pints is one-eighth of its respective gallon, but the gallons differ, the imperial pint consists of 20 imperial fluid ounces and the US liquid pint is 16 US fluid ounces, making the imperial fluid ounce about 4% smaller than the US fluid ounce. In the United Kingdom, the pint is still the primary unit for draught beer and cider. Historically, units called a pint were used much of Europe. Within continental Europe, the pint was replaced with the system during the 19th century. The imperial pint is equal to one-eighth of an imperial gallon, the United States liquid pint is equal to one-eighth of a United States liquid gallon. It is used commonly in the United States, the United States dry pint is equal to one-eighth of a United States dry gallon. It is used in the United States, but is not as common as the liquid pint, a now-obsolete unit of measurement in Scotland known as the Scottish pint or joug equals three imperial pints. It remained in use until the 19th century, surviving significantly longer than most of the old Scottish measurements, the French word pinte is etymologically related, but historically described a larger unit. The Royal pint was 48 French cubic inches and this is one of numerous false friends which exist between English and French. They are not the same although they have the same linguistic origin - the French Canadian pinte is actually equivalent to the English quart. If you want to order an English pint of beer in Canadian French, the Imperial system of measurement is no longer taught in Canadian schools, so servers may be unclear on how big a pint or pinte is regardless of language. In Flanders, the word pintje, meaning little pint, refers only to a 250 mL glass of lager, some West- and East-Flemish dialects use it as a word for beaker. The equivalent word in German, Pintchen, refers to a glass of a third of a litre in Cologne, one US fluid pint of water weighs about a pound, resulting in the popular saying, The pints a pound, the world around. A different saying for the pint is a pint of pure water weighs a pound
39.
Litre
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The litre or liter is an SI accepted metric system unit of volume equal to 1 cubic decimetre,1,000 cubic centimetres or 1/1,000 cubic metre. A cubic decimetre occupies a volume of 10×10×10 centimetres and is equal to one-thousandth of a cubic metre. The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit. The word litre is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek — where it was a unit of weight, not volume — via Latin, and which equalled approximately 0.831 litres. The litre was also used in subsequent versions of the metric system and is accepted for use with the SI. The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is litre, the less common spelling of liter is more predominantly used in American English. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram. Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact, a litre is defined as a special name for a cubic decimetre or 10 centimetres ×10 centimetres ×10 centimetres. Hence 1 L ≡0.001 m3 ≡1000 cm3, from 1901 to 1964, the litre was defined as the volume of one kilogram of pure water at maximum density and standard pressure. The kilogram was in turn specified as the mass of a platinum/iridium cylinder held at Sèvres in France and was intended to be of the mass as the 1 litre of water referred to above. It was subsequently discovered that the cylinder was around 28 parts per million too large and thus, during this time, additionally, the mass-volume relationship of water depends on temperature, pressure, purity and isotopic uniformity. In 1964, the definition relating the litre to mass was abandoned in favour of the current one, although the litre is not an official SI unit, it is accepted by the CGPM for use with the SI. CGPM defines the litre and its acceptable symbols, a litre is equal in volume to the millistere, an obsolete non-SI metric unit customarily used for dry measure. The litre is often used in some calculated measurements, such as density. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram when measured at its maximal density, similarly,1 millilitre of water has a mass of about 1 g,1,000 litres of water has a mass of about 1,000 kg. It is now known that density of water depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample. The litre, though not an official SI unit, may be used with SI prefixes, the most commonly used derived unit is the millilitre, defined as one-thousandth of a litre, and also often referred to by the SI derived unit name cubic centimetre. It is a commonly used measure, especially in medicine and cooking, Other units may be found in the table below, where the more often used terms are in bold
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Orange juice
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Orange juice is the liquid extract of the fruit of the orange tree, produced by squeezing oranges. It comes in different varieties, including blood orange, navel oranges, valencia orange, clementine. As well as variations in oranges used, some varieties include differing amounts of vesicles, known as pulp in American English. These vesicles contain the juice of the orange and can be left in or removed during the manufacturing process, how juicy these vesicles are depend upon many factors, such as species, variety, and season. In American English, the name may be abbreviated as OJ. Orange juice is offered to every visitor at each of the states five Florida Welcome Centers, commercial orange juice with a long shelf life is made by drying and later rehydrating the juice, or by concentrating the juice and later adding water to the concentrate. Prior to drying, the juice may also be pasteurized and oxygen removed from it, necessitating the addition of a flavor pack. The health value of orange juice is debatable and it has a high concentration of vitamin C, but also a very high concentration of simple sugars, comparable to soft drinks. As a result, some government nutritional advice has been adjusted to encourage substitution of orange juice with raw fruit, which is digested more slowly, during World War II, American soldiers rejected vitamin C-packed lemon crystals because of their unappetizing taste. Thus the government searched for a food that would fulfill the needs of the soldiers, have a desirable taste. The federal government, the Florida department of Citrus, along with a group of scientists desired to develop a product to canned orange juice. Unfortunately, frozen concentrated orange juice was developed three years after the war had ended, by 1949, orange juice processing plants in Florida were producing over 10 million gallons of concentrated orange juice. Consumers were captivated with the idea of concentrated canned orange juice as it was affordable, tasty, convenient, the preparation was simple, thaw the juice, add water, and stir. However, by the 1980s, food scientists developed a more fresh-tasting juice known as reconstituted ready to serve juice. Eventually in the 1990s, “not from concentrate” orange juice was developed, a cup serving of raw, fresh orange juice, amounting to 248 grams or 8 ounces, has 124 mg of vitamin C. It has 20.8 g of sugars and has 112 Calories and it also supplies potassium, thiamin, and folate. Citrus juices contain flavonoids that may have health benefits, Orange juice is also a source of the antioxidant hesperidin. Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, commercial squeezed orange juice is pasteurized and filtered before being evaporated under vacuum and heat
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[physics.flu-dyn]. Bibcode:2013AmJPh..81...88B. doi:10.1119/1.4769377.
