1.
Ry Cooder
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Ryland Peter Ry Cooder is an American musician, songwriter, film score composer, and record producer. He is a multi-instrumentalist but is best known for his guitar work, his interest in roots music from the United States. Cooders solo work has been eclectic, encompassing many genres and he briefly formed a band named Little Village. He produced the Buena Vista Social Club album, which became a worldwide hit, Wim Wenders directed the documentary film of the same name, which was nominated for an Academy Award in 2000. Cooder was ranked eighth on Rolling Stone magazines 2003 list of The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time, a 2010 ranking by Gibson placed him at number 32. Cooder was born in Los Angeles, California, to father Bill Cooder and he grew up in Santa Monica, California, and graduated from Santa Monica High School in 1964. During the 1960s, he briefly attended Reed College in Portland and he began playing the guitar when he was three years old. He has had an eye since he was four, when he accidentally stuck a knife in his left eye. As a young man Cooder performed as part of a trio with Bill Monroe and Doc Watson. The trio was not a success, but Cooder applied banjo tunings, at a vital warm-up performance at the Mt. He later claimed he had seen a girl in the turn into a fish. This aborted any opportunity of success at Monterey, as Cooder immediately decided he could no longer work with Van Vliet. Cooder also played with Randy Newman, including on 12 Songs, Van Dyke Parks worked with Newman and Cooder during the 1960s. Parks arranged Cooders One Meatball according to Parks 1984 interview by Bob Claster, during this period, Cooder joined with Mick Jagger, Charlie Watts, Bill Wyman, and longtime Rolling Stones sideman Nicky Hopkins to record Jamming with Edward. Cooder also played guitar for the 1970 film soundtrack Performance. The 1975 compilation album Metamorphosis features an uncredited Cooder contribution on Bill Wymans Downtown Suzie, Ry Cooder also collaborated with Lowell George of Little Feat, playing slide guitar on the original version of Willin. Throughout the 1970s, Cooder released a series of Warner Bros, Cooder explored bygone musical genres and found old-time recordings which he then personalized and updated. Thus, on his album, Into the Purple Valley, he chose unusual instrumentations and arrangements of blues, gospel, calypso
2.
Slide guitar
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Slide guitar is a particular method or technique for playing the guitar. Instead of altering the pitch of the strings in the manner, an object called a slide is placed upon the string to vary its vibrating length. This slide can then be moved along the string without lifting, creating smooth transitions in pitch and allowing wide, Slide guitar is most often played, With the guitar in the normal position, using a slide on one of the fingers of the left hand. This same technique is used to play steel guitar and the Dobro resonator guitar used in Bluegrass music. The technique of using a slide on a string has been traced to one-stringed African instruments similar to a Diddley bow, the technique was made popular by African American blues artists. The first musician recorded using the style was Sylvester Weaver, who recorded two solo pieces Guitar Blues and Guitar Rag in 1923, Blues legend Muddy Waters was also very influential, particularly in developing the electric Chicago blues slide guitar from the acoustic Mississippi Delta slide guitar. Texas blues musician Johnny Winter developed his style through years of touring with Waters. Slide player Roy Rogers honed his skills by touring with blues artist John Lee Hooker. John Lees cousin Earl Hooker may have been the first to use wah-wah, the sound has since become commonplace in country and Hawaiian music. The Rolling Stones featured a guitar as early as their 1963 recording of the John Lennon/Paul McCartney song I Wanna Be Your Man. Guitarist Brian Jones played slide in a very blues-oriented style, Jones was also one of the first English guitarists to play slide and during the bands early years, he was considered one of the best slide guitarists in the music world. His successors Mick Taylor and Ronnie Wood also displayed their own slide guitar skills while with the band, the album Let It Bleed features Keith Richards on slide guitar for the majority of the album, since the band were in-between guitarists during the making of the album. Rolling Stones vocalist Mick Jagger has also played guitar on occasion. Canned Heats Alan Wilson also helped bring slide guitar to music in the late 1960s. George Harrison experimented with slide guitar during the half of The Beatles career, first using the technique on an early outtake recording of Strawberry Fields Forever. The 1965 songs Drive My Car, and Run For Your Life have slide guitar, Harrison later used slide extensively in his solo career, on songs such as My Sweet Lord, Give Me Love, This Is Love, and Cheer Down. He played slide in the Traveling Wilburys as well as on The Beatles 1995 and 1996 reunion singles Free as a Bird, slides may be used on any guitar, but slides generally and steels in particular are often used on instruments specifically made to play in this manner. Often, the strings are raised a little higher off the fingerboard than they would be for conventional guitar playing—especially if the player isnt going to use the fingers for fretting
3.
Open tuning
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Guitar tunings assign pitches to the open strings of guitars, including acoustic guitars, electric guitars and classical guitars, among others. Tunings can be described by the pitches that are denoted by notes in Western music. By convention, the notes are ordered from lowest-pitched string to the highest-pitched, Tuning is described in how-to manuals for guitarists. Standard tuning defines the pitches as E, A, D, G, B. Standard tuning is used by most guitarists, and frequently used tunings can be understood as variations on standard tuning, “Nonstandard” tunings are also called “alternative” or “alternate”. Some tunings are used for songs by professional musicians. There are hundreds of such tunings, which are minor variants of established tunings. Communities of guitarists who share a tradition often use the same or similar tunings. The hundreds of alternative tunings have been classified into a number of categories, “open”. Modal, dropped, and many other tunings are mentioned in the supplementary list of guitar tunings, Standard tuning is the tuning most frequently used on a 6-string guitar and musicians assume this tuning by default if a specific alternate or scordatura is not mentioned. It consists of the notes, E2-A2-D3-G3-B3-E4. The letter gives the name of each note, and the number indicates in which octave the pitch lies. The fifth string is tuned to 110 Hz, exactly two octaves below the standard reference pitch of 440 Hz. Tuning forks and electronic tuners that match these frequencies are commonly available, Tuning forks which provide the pitch of the high E string are also common. The guitar is conventionally an equal-tempered instrument, the frets are positioned logarithmically, creating equally-tempered pitches along each string. However, guitarists who tune by ear will typically tune “clean” so that dissonant beating between particular strings is minimized, in this way, open intervals can be more consonant. This is known as just intonation, which is at variance with equal temperament, when the guitar is tuned in this way, open tunings theoretically allow for certain chords to be more consonant. Standard tuning provides reasonably simple fingering for playing standard scales and basic chords in all major and minor keys, the open notes of the second and third strings are separated by a four-semitone interval
4.
Barring (music)
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Players use this chording technique to play a chord that is not restricted by the tones of the guitars open strings. For instance, if a guitar is tuned to concert pitch, with the open strings being E, A, D, G, B, E. To play an F♯ chord the guitarist may barre strings so that the root is F♯. Barre chords are sometimes called moveable chords, as the player can move the whole chord shape up. Commonly used in popular and classical music, Barre chords are frequently used in combination with open chords. Playing a chord with the barre technique slightly affects tone quality, a closed, or fretted, note sounds slightly different than an open, unfretted, string. Barre chords are a part of the sound of pop music. For example, if a guitarist plays an E major and wants the next chord to be an F♯ Major—barring the open E major up two frets from the open position produces a barred F♯ Major chord. The term barre comes from the method of using the finger to form a rigid bar across all of the strings. The specific spelling barre is French, translating to rod or bar also translating as closed off, note, notes of each chord are listed in order from bottom, thickest string string to top. Barre chords are used when a performer wishes to voice a chord in higher positions on the guitar. Choice of key may result in using barre chords as the basic open chord fingerings of the first position of a standard-tuned guitar are not available for use in the chosen key. The two most commonly barred notes are variations of fingering shapes that are used to play the chords A and E on first, or open, position. The E type barre chord is made of an E chord shape moved up and down the frets and being barred, for example, the E chord barred one fret up becomes an F chord. The next fret up is F♯, followed by G, A♭, A, B♭, B, C, C♯, D, E♭, and then back to E at fret twelve. The A type barre chord, occasionally called the barre, is made by sliding the A chord shape up. When the A chord is barred, the finger lies across the top five strings. Either the ring or little finger is then barred across the 2nd, 3rd, for instance, if barred at the second fret, the A chord becomes B. From fret one to twelve, the barred A becomes B♭, B, C, C♯, D, E♭, E, F, F♯, G, A♭, sometimes the highest note in a double barre chord is left out
5.
Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
6.
Chord (music)
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A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of pitches consisting of two or more notes that are heard as if sounding simultaneously. In everyday use by musical ensembles such as bands and orchestras, however, the notes of a chord do not have to be played together at the same time, arpeggios and broken chords may, for many practical and theoretical purposes, also constitute chords. Other chords with more than three notes include added tone chords, extended chords and tone clusters, which are used in classical music, jazz. Triads commonly found in the Western classical tradition are major and minor chords, the descriptions major, minor, augmented, and diminished are referred to collectively as chordal quality. Chords are also classified by their root note—for instance, a C major triad consists of the pitch classes C, E. While most chords have at least three notes, power chords, which are used in rock music, particularly in hard rock. An ordered series of chords is called a chord progression, one example of a widely used chord progression in Western traditional music and blues is the 12 bar blues progression, the simplest versions of which include tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. To describe this, Western music theory has developed the practice of numbering chords using Roman numerals which represent the number of steps up from the tonic note of the scale. Common ways of notating or representing chords in Western music include Roman numerals, figured bass, macro symbols, the chords in a song or piece are also given names which refer to their function. The chord built on the first note of a scale is called the tonic chord. The chord built on the note of a major scale is called the subdominant chord. The chord built on the degree of the major scale is called the dominant chord. There are names for the built on every note of the major scale. Chords can be played on instruments, including piano, pipe organ, guitar. Chords can also be performed when multiple musicians play together in an ensemble or when multiple singers sing in a choir. The English word chord derives from Middle English cord, a shortening of accord in the sense of agreement and later. A sequence of chords is known as a progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music, a chord progression aims for a definite goal of establishing a tonality founded on a key, root or tonic chord
7.
Set (mathematics)
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In mathematics, a set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. For example, the numbers 2,4, and 6 are distinct objects when considered separately, Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. Developed at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a part of mathematics. In mathematics education, elementary topics such as Venn diagrams are taught at a young age, the German word Menge, rendered as set in English, was coined by Bernard Bolzano in his work The Paradoxes of the Infinite. A set is a collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up a set can be anything, numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters. Sets A and B are equal if and only if they have precisely the same elements. Cantors definition turned out to be inadequate, instead, the notion of a set is taken as a notion in axiomatic set theory. There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set, one way is by intensional definition, using a rule or semantic description, A is the set whose members are the first four positive integers. B is the set of colors of the French flag, the second way is by extension – that is, listing each member of the set. An extensional definition is denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets, one often has the choice of specifying a set either intensionally or extensionally. In the examples above, for instance, A = C and B = D, there are two important points to note about sets. First, in a definition, a set member can be listed two or more times, for example. However, per extensionality, two definitions of sets which differ only in one of the definitions lists set members multiple times, define, in fact. Hence, the set is identical to the set. The second important point is that the order in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant and we can illustrate these two important points with an example, = =. For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be abbreviated, for instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be specified extensionally as, where the ellipsis indicates that the list continues in the obvious way. Ellipses may also be used where sets have infinitely many members, thus the set of positive even numbers can be written as
8.
Musical note
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In music, the term note has three primary meanings, A sign used in musical notation to represent the relative duration and pitch of a sound, A pitched sound itself. Notes are the blocks of much written music, discretizations of musical phenomena that facilitate performance, comprehension. In the former case, one note to refer to a specific musical event, in the latter. Two notes with fundamental frequencies in an equal to any integer power of two are perceived as very similar. Because of that, all notes with these kinds of relations can be grouped under the pitch class. However, within the English-speaking and Dutch-speaking world, pitch classes are represented by the first seven letters of the Latin alphabet. A few European countries, including Germany, adopt an almost identical notation, the eighth note, or octave, is given the same name as the first, but has double its frequency. The name octave is also used to indicate the span between a note and another with double frequency, for example, the now-standard tuning pitch for most Western music,440 Hz, is named a′ or A4. There are two systems to define each note and octave, the Helmholtz pitch notation and the scientific pitch notation. Letter names are modified by the accidentals, a sharp ♯ raises a note by a semitone or half-step, and a flat ♭ lowers it by the same amount. In modern tuning a half step has a ratio of 12√2. The accidentals are written after the name, so, for example, F♯ represents F-sharp, B♭ is B-flat. Additional accidentals are the double-sharp, raising the frequency by two semitones, and double-flat, lowering it by that amount, in musical notation, accidentals are placed before the note symbols. Systematic alterations to the seven lettered pitches in the scale can be indicated by placing the symbols in the key signature, explicitly noted accidentals can be used to override this effect for the remainder of a bar. A special accidental, the natural symbol ♮, is used to indicate an unmodified pitch, effects of key signature and local accidentals do not accumulate. If the key signature indicates G♯, a flat before a G makes it G♭, though often this type of rare accidental is expressed as a natural. Likewise, a sharp sign on a key signature with a single sharp ♯ indicates only a double sharp. Assuming enharmonicity, many accidentals will create equivalences between pitches that are written differently, for instance, raising the note B to B♯ is equal to the note C
9.
Guitar
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The guitar is a musical instrument classified as a fretted string instrument with anywhere from four to 18 strings, usually having six. The sound is projected either acoustically, using a wooden or plastic and wood box, or through electrical amplifier. It is typically played by strumming or plucking the strings with the fingers, the guitar is a type of chordophone, traditionally constructed from wood and strung with either gut, nylon or steel strings and distinguished from other chordophones by its construction and tuning. There are three types of modern acoustic guitar, the classical guitar, the steel-string acoustic guitar, and the archtop guitar. The tone of a guitar is produced by the strings vibration, amplified by the hollow body of the guitar. The term finger-picking can also refer to a tradition of folk, blues, bluegrass. The acoustic bass guitar is an instrument that is one octave below a regular guitar. Early amplified guitars employed a body, but a solid wood body was eventually found more suitable during the 1960s and 1970s. As with acoustic guitars, there are a number of types of guitars, including hollowbody guitars, archtop guitars and solid-body guitars. The electric guitar has had a influence on popular culture. The guitar is used in a variety of musical genres worldwide. It is recognized as an instrument in genres such as blues, bluegrass, country, flamenco, folk, jazz, jota, mariachi, metal, punk, reggae, rock, soul. The term is used to refer to a number of chordophones that were developed and used across Europe, beginning in the 12th century and, later, in the Americas. The modern word guitar, and its antecedents, has applied to a wide variety of chordophones since classical times. Many influences are cited as antecedents to the modern guitar, at least two instruments called guitars were in use in Spain by 1200, the guitarra latina and the so-called guitarra morisca. The guitarra morisca had a back, wide fingerboard. The guitarra Latina had a sound hole and a narrower neck. By the 14th century the qualifiers moresca or morisca and latina had been dropped, and it had six courses, lute-like tuning in fourths and a guitar-like body, although early representations reveal an instrument with a sharply cut waist
10.
Arpeggio
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A broken chord is a chord broken into a sequence of notes. A broken chord may repeat some of the notes from the chord, an arpeggio is a type of broken chord where the notes that compose a chord are played or sung in a rising or descending order. An arpeggio may also more than one octave. The word arpeggio comes from the Italian word arpeggiare, which means to play on a harp, even though the notes of an arpeggio are not played or sung all together at the same time, listeners hear the sequence of notes as forming a chord. When an arpeggio also contains passing tones that are not part of the chord, Arpeggios enable composers writing for monophonic instruments that play one note at a time, to voice chords and chord progressions in musical pieces. Arpeggios and broken chords are used to help create rhythmic interest. A notable example of which is the Alberti bass figuration which was used in piano music from the Classical music period. With an Alberti bass, rather play the notes of a chord all at once. An arpeggio is a group of notes which are played one after the other, executing an arpeggio requires the player to play the sounds of a chord individually to differentiate the notes. The notes all belong to one chord, the chord may, for example, be a simple chord with the 1st, 3rd, and 5th notes of the scale in it. An arpeggio for the chord of C major going up two octaves would be the notes, an arpeggio is a type of broken chord. Other types of broken chords play chord notes out of sequence or more than one note, Arpeggios can rise or fall for more than one octave. Students of musical instruments and singers learn how to play and sing scales and they are often a requirement for music examinations. An arpeggiated chord means a chord which is spread, i. e. the notes are not played at the same time, arpeggiated chords are often used in harp and piano music. An arpeggiated chord may be written with a vertical line in front of the chord. It is spread from the lowest to the highest note, occasionally, composers such as Béla Bartók have asked for them to be played from top to bottom. This is shown by adding an arrow pointing down, some ostinato figures consist of arpeggios. Any instrument may employ arpeggiation, but the instruments use arpeggios most often
11.
Popular music
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Popular music is music with wide appeal that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training and it stands in contrast to both art music and traditional or folk music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of music, although since the beginning of the recording industry. Traditional music forms such as blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller. The original application of the term is to music of the 1880s Tin Pan Alley period in the United States, although popular music sometimes is known as pop music, the two terms are not interchangeable. Popular music songs and pieces typically have easily singable melodies, in the 2000s, with songs and pieces available as digital sound files, it has become easier for music to spread from one country or region to another. Some popular music forms have become global, while others have an appeal within the culture of their origin. Through the mixture of genres, new popular music forms are created to reflect the ideals of a global culture. The examples of Africa, Indonesia and the Middle East show how Western pop music styles can blend with local traditions to create new hybrid styles. Sales of recordings or sheet music are one measure, middleton and Manuel note that this definition has problems because multiple listens or plays of the same song or piece are not counted. Manuel states that one criticism of music is that it is produced by large media conglomerates and passively consumed by the public. He claims that the listeners in the scenario would not have been able to make the choice of their favorite music, moreover, understandings of popular music have changed with time. A societys popular music reflects the ideals that are prevalent at the time it is performed or published, david Riesman states that the youth audiences of popular music fit into either a majority group or a subculture. The majority group listens to the commercially produced styles while the subcultures find a minority style to transmit their own values and this allows youth to choose what music they identify with, which gives them power as consumers to control the market of popular music. Form in popular music is most often sectional, the most common sections being verse, chorus or refrain, other common forms include thirty-two-bar form, chorus form *, and twelve-bar blues. Popular music songs are rarely composed using different music for each stanza of the lyrics, the verse and chorus are considered the primary elements. Each verse usually has the melody, but the lyrics change for most verses. The chorus usually has a phrase and a key lyrical line which is repeated
12.
Guitar tunings
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Guitar tunings assign pitches to the open strings of guitars, including acoustic guitars, electric guitars and classical guitars, among others. Tunings can be described by the pitches that are denoted by notes in Western music. By convention, the notes are ordered from lowest-pitched string to the highest-pitched, Tuning is described in how-to manuals for guitarists. Standard tuning defines the pitches as E, A, D, G, B. Standard tuning is used by most guitarists, and frequently used tunings can be understood as variations on standard tuning, “Nonstandard” tunings are also called “alternative” or “alternate”. Some tunings are used for songs by professional musicians. There are hundreds of such tunings, which are minor variants of established tunings. Communities of guitarists who share a tradition often use the same or similar tunings. The hundreds of alternative tunings have been classified into a number of categories, “open”. Modal, dropped, and many other tunings are mentioned in the supplementary list of guitar tunings, Standard tuning is the tuning most frequently used on a 6-string guitar and musicians assume this tuning by default if a specific alternate or scordatura is not mentioned. It consists of the notes, E2-A2-D3-G3-B3-E4. The letter gives the name of each note, and the number indicates in which octave the pitch lies. The fifth string is tuned to 110 Hz, exactly two octaves below the standard reference pitch of 440 Hz. Tuning forks and electronic tuners that match these frequencies are commonly available, Tuning forks which provide the pitch of the high E string are also common. The guitar is conventionally an equal-tempered instrument, the frets are positioned logarithmically, creating equally-tempered pitches along each string. However, guitarists who tune by ear will typically tune “clean” so that dissonant beating between particular strings is minimized, in this way, open intervals can be more consonant. This is known as just intonation, which is at variance with equal temperament, when the guitar is tuned in this way, open tunings theoretically allow for certain chords to be more consonant. Standard tuning provides reasonably simple fingering for playing standard scales and basic chords in all major and minor keys, the open notes of the second and third strings are separated by a four-semitone interval
13.
Classical guitar
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The classical guitar is the member of the guitar family used in classical music. It is an acoustical wooden guitar with strings made of nylon, the traditional classical guitar has twelve frets clear of the body and is held on the left leg, so that the hand that plucks or strums the strings does so near the back of the soundhole. The modern steel string guitar, on the hand, usually has fourteen frets clear of the body and is commonly played off the hip. Examples of early guitars include the early romantic guitar. Classical guitar strings once made of catgut are now made of polymers as nylon. A guitar family tree may be identified, the flamenco guitar derives from the modern classical, but has differences in material, construction and sound. Todays modern classical guitar was established by the designs of the 19th-century Spanish luthier. Cultural baroque court music, 19th century opera and its influences, 19th century folk songs, Latin American music, thus over recent decades we have become accustomed to specialist artists with expertise in the art of vihuela, lute, Baroque guitar, 19th-century guitar, etc. Different types of guitars have different sound aesthetics, e. g. different colour-spectrum characteristics, different response and these guitars in turn sound different from the Torres models used by Segovia, that are suited for interpretations of romantic-modern works such as Moreno Torroba. When considering the guitar from a perspective, the musical instrument used is just as important as the musical language. As an example, It is impossible to play a historically informed de Visee or Corbetta on a classical guitar. The reason is that the guitar used courses, which are two strings close together, that are plucked together. This gives baroque guitars an unmistakable sound characteristic and tonal texture that is an part of an interpretation. Additionally the sound aesthetic of the guitar is very different from modern classical type guitars. However, they are considered to emphasize the fundamental too heavily for earlier repertoire, Some attribute this to the popularity of Segovia, considering him the catalyst for change toward the Spanish design and the so-called modern school in the 1920s and beyond. Some people consider it to have been influence of Segovia. It was the 19th century classical guitarist Francisco Tárrega who first popularized the Torres design as a solo instrument. Vihuela, renaissance guitars and baroque guitars have a bright sound - rich in overtones -, later in Spain a style of music emerged that favored a stronger fundamental, With the change of music a stronger fundamental was demanded and the fan bracing system was approached
14.
Interval (music)
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In music theory, an interval is the difference between two pitches. In Western music, intervals are most commonly differences between notes of a diatonic scale, the smallest of these intervals is a semitone. Intervals smaller than a semitone are called microtones and they can be formed using the notes of various kinds of non-diatonic scales. Some of the very smallest ones are called commas, and describe small discrepancies, observed in some tuning systems, Intervals can be arbitrarily small, and even imperceptible to the human ear. In physical terms, an interval is the ratio between two sonic frequencies, for example, any two notes an octave apart have a frequency ratio of 2,1. This means that successive increments of pitch by the same result in an exponential increase of frequency. For this reason, intervals are often measured in cents, a derived from the logarithm of the frequency ratio. In Western music theory, the most common naming scheme for intervals describes two properties of the interval, the quality and number, examples include the minor third or perfect fifth. These names describe not only the difference in semitones between the upper and lower notes, but also how the interval is spelled, the importance of spelling stems from the historical practice of differentiating the frequency ratios of enharmonic intervals such as G–G♯ and G–A♭. The size of an interval can be represented using two alternative and equivalently valid methods, each appropriate to a different context, frequency ratios or cents, the size of an interval between two notes may be measured by the ratio of their frequencies. When a musical instrument is tuned using a just intonation tuning system, Intervals with small-integer ratios are often called just intervals, or pure intervals. Most commonly, however, musical instruments are tuned using a different tuning system. As a consequence, the size of most equal-tempered intervals cannot be expressed by small-integer ratios, for instance, an equal-tempered fifth has a frequency ratio of 2 7⁄12,1, approximately equal to 1.498,1, or 2.997,2. For a comparison between the size of intervals in different tuning systems, see section Size in different tuning systems, the standard system for comparing interval sizes is with cents. The cent is a unit of measurement. If frequency is expressed in a scale, and along that scale the distance between a given frequency and its double is divided into 1200 equal parts, each of these parts is one cent. In twelve-tone equal temperament, a system in which all semitones have the same size. Hence, in 12-TET the cent can be defined as one hundredth of a semitone
15.
Perfect fourth
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In classical music from Western culture, a fourth is a musical interval encompassing four staff positions, and the perfect fourth is a fourth spanning five semitones. For example, the interval from C to the next F is a perfect fourth, as the note F lies five semitones above C. Diminished and augmented fourths span the same number of staff positions, the perfect fourth may be derived from the harmonic series as the interval between the third and fourth harmonics. The term perfect identifies this interval as belonging to the group of perfect intervals, so called because they are neither major nor minor, up until the late 19th century, the perfect fourth was often called by its Greek name, diatessaron. Its most common occurrence is between the fifth and upper root of all major and minor triads and their extensions. A perfect fourth in just intonation corresponds to a ratio of 4,3, or about 498 cents, while in equal temperament a perfect fourth is equal to five semitones. A helpful way to recognize a fourth is to hum the starting of the Bridal Chorus from Wagners Lohengrin. Other examples are the first two notes of the Christmas carol Hark, the Herald Angels Sing or El Cóndor Pasa, and, for a descending perfect fourth, the second and third notes of O Come All Ye Faithful. The perfect fourth is a perfect interval like the unison, octave, and perfect fifth, in common practice harmony, however, it is considered a stylistic dissonance in certain contexts, namely in two-voice textures and whenever it appears above the bass. Conventionally, adjacent strings of the bass and of the bass guitar are a perfect fourth apart when unstopped, as are all pairs. Sets of tom-tom drums are also tuned in perfect fourths. The 4,3 just perfect fourth arises in the C major scale between G and C, play The use of perfect fourths and fifths to sound in parallel with and to thicken the melodic line was prevalent in music prior to the European polyphonic music of the Middle Ages. In the 13th century, the fourth and fifth together were the concordantiae mediae after the unison and octave, in the 15th century the fourth came to be regarded as dissonant on its own, and was first classed as a dissonance by Johannes Tinctoris in his Terminorum musicae diffinitorium. In practice, however, it continued to be used as a consonance when supported by the interval of a third or fifth in a lower voice. Modern acoustic theory supports the medieval interpretation insofar as the intervals of unison, octave, the octave has the ratio of 2,1, for example the interval between a at A440 and a at 880 Hz, giving the ratio 880,440, or 2,1. The fifth has a ratio of 3,2, and its complement has the ratio of 3,4, ancient and medieval music theorists appear to have been familiar with these ratios, see for example their experiments on the Monochord. In early western polyphony, these simpler intervals were generally preferred, however, in its development between the 12th and 16th centuries, In the earliest stages, these simple intervals occur so frequently that they appear to be the favourite sound of composers. Later, the more complex intervals move gradually from the margins to the centre of musical interest
16.
Major third
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In classical music from Western culture, a third is a musical interval encompassing three staff positions, and the major third is a third spanning four semitones. Along with the third, the major third is one of two commonly occurring thirds. It is qualified as major because it is the larger of the two, the major third spans four semitones, the third three. The major third may be derived from the series as the interval between the fourth and fifth harmonics. The major scale is so named because of the presence of this interval between its tonic and mediant scale degrees, the major chord also takes its name from the presence of this interval built on the chords root. The older concept of a made a dissonantly wide major third with the ratio 81,64. The septimal major third is 9,7, the major third is 14,11. A helpful way to recognize a third is to hum the first two notes of Kumbaya or of When the Saints Go Marching In. A descending major third is heard at the starts of Goodnight, Ladies and Swing Low, in equal temperament three major thirds in a row are equal to an octave. This is sometimes called the circle of thirds, in just intonation, however, three 5,4 major thirds are less than an octave. For example, three 5,4 major thirds from C is B♯, the difference between this just-tuned B♯ and C, like that between G♯ and A♭, is called a diesis, about 41 cents. The major third is classed as an imperfect consonance and is considered one of the most consonant intervals after the unison, octave, perfect fifth, a diminished fourth is enharmonically equivalent to a major third. For example, B–D♯ is a third, but if the same pitches are spelled B and E♭. B–E♭ occurs in the C harmonic minor scale, the major third is used in guitar tunings. For the standard tuning, only the interval between the 3rd and 2nd strings is a third, each of the intervals between the other pairs of consecutive strings is a perfect fourth. In an alternative tuning, the tuning, each of the intervals are major thirds. Decade, compound just major third Ear training List of meantone intervals Doubling the cube, 21/3 = 3√2
17.
Major triad
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In music theory, a major chord is a chord that has a root note, a major third above this root, and a perfect fifth above this root note. When a chord has these three notes alone, it is called a major triad, in Western classical music from 1600 to 1820 and in Western pop, folk and rock music, a major chord is usually played as a triad. The major triad, along with the triad, is one of the basic building blocks of tonal music. It is considered consonant, stable, or not requiring resolution, in Western music, a minor chord, in comparison, sounds darker than a major chord. Major triads with notes, such as major seventh chord, are also called major chords. Major seventh chords are used in jazz and occasionally in rock music, in jazz, major chords may also have other chord tones added, such as the ninth and the thirteenth scale degrees. A minor chord differs from a chord in having a minor third above the root instead of a major third. A minor chord can also be described as a third with a major third on top, in contrast to a major chord. They both contain fifths, because a major third plus a minor third equals a perfect fifth, an augmented chord is like a major chord, but with a raised fifth. An C augmented chord consists of the notes C, E and G♯. Augmented chords are used in jazz, play An example of a major chord is the C major chord, which consists of the notes C, E and G. In harmonic analysis or on a sheet, a C major chord is usually notated C. A root position C major chord contains C, E and G, a first inversion C Major chord contains E as its lowest note, followed by a G and C above the E. A second inversion C major chord contains G as its lowest note, the additional notes above the bass note can be in any order and the chord still retains its inversion identity. For example, a C major chord which went from lowest to highest note E, followed by C and G above the E, in this table, the chord names are in the leftmost column. The chords are given in root position, for a given chord name, the following three columns indicate the individual notes that make up this chord. Thus in the first row, the chord is C major, most pianos and electric pianos and synthesizer keyboards are tuned to equal temperament. In equal temperament, each semitone is the distance apart. Another tuning system that is used is just intonation, in just intonation, a major chord is tuned to the frequency ratio 4,5,6
18.
Root note
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In music theory, the concept of root is the idea that a chord can be represented and named by one of its notes. It is linked to harmonic thinking—to the idea that vertical aggregates of notes can form a single unit and it is in this sense that one speaks of a C chord or a chord on C—a chord built from C and of which the note C is the root. When a C chord is referred to in Classical music or popular music without a reference to what type of chord it is, it is assumed a C major triad, which contains the notes C, E and G. The root needs not be the note, the lowest note of the chord, the concept of root is linked to that of the inversion of chords. In this concept, chords can be inverted while still retaining their root, in tertian harmonic theory, that is in a theory where chords can be considered stacks of third intervals, the root of a chord is the note on which the subsequent thirds are stacked. For instance, the root of a such as C Major is C. Regardless of whether a chord is in position or in an inversion. Four-note seventh chords have four possible positions, five-note ninth chords know five positions, etc. but the root position always is that of the stack of thirds, and the root is the lowest note of this stack. With chord types, such as chords with added sixths or chords over pedal points, more than one possible chordal analysis may be possible. For example, in a piece of music, the notes C, E, G, A, sounded as a chord. Deciding which note is the root of this chord could be determined by considering context, and its low note considered as the root, or as an inversion of the same, second, fourth, sixth, etc. in which cases the upper note is the root. Johannes Lippius, in his Disputatio musica tertia and Synopsis musicae novae, is the first to use the triad, he also uses the term root. Thomas Campion, A New Way of Making Fowre Parts in Conterpoint, London, c1618, notes that chords are in first inversions, the bass is not. a true base. Campion’s true base is the root of the chord, full recognition of the relationship between the triad and its inversions is generally credited to Jean-Philippe Rameau’s Traité d’harmonie. The concept of root has some basis in the properties of harmonic sounds. When two notes or more notes from the series are played at the same time, people sometimes perceive the fundamental note of the series. This property has been used in building for the production of low notes by resultant tones. Andreas Werckmeister’s Harmonologia describes the major triad in root position and in first inversion in terms of the harmonic series, but this description cannot be extended to the minor triad
19.
Perfect fifth
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In music theory, a perfect fifth is the musical interval corresponding to a pair of pitches with a frequency ratio of 3,2, or very nearly so. In classical music from Western culture, a fifth is the interval from the first to the last of five notes in a diatonic scale. The perfect fifth spans seven semitones, while the diminished fifth spans six, for example, the interval from C to G is a perfect fifth, as the note G lies seven semitones above C. Play The perfect fifth may be derived from the series as the interval between the second and third harmonics. In a diatonic scale, the dominant note is a fifth above the tonic note. The perfect fifth is more consonant, or stable, than any other interval except the unison and it occurs above the root of all major and minor chords and their extensions. Until the late 19th century, it was referred to by one of its Greek names. Its inversion is the perfect fourth, the octave of the fifth is the twelfth. The term perfect identifies the perfect fifth as belonging to the group of perfect intervals, so called because of their simple pitch relationships and their high degree of consonance. However, when using correct enharmonic spelling, the fifth in Pythagorean tuning or meantone temperament is actually not a perfect fifth. The perfect unison has a pitch ratio 1,1, the perfect octave 2,1, the perfect fourth 4,3, within this definition, other intervals may also be called perfect, for example a perfect third or a perfect major sixth. In terms of semitones, these are equivalent to the tritone, the justly tuned pitch ratio of a perfect fifth is 3,2, meaning that the upper note makes three vibrations in the same amount of time that the lower note makes two. The just perfect fifth can be heard when a violin is tuned, if adjacent strings are adjusted to the ratio of 3,2, the result is a smooth and consonant sound. Keyboard instruments such as the piano normally use a version of the perfect fifth. In 12-tone equal temperament, the frequencies of the perfect fifth are in the ratio 7 or approximately 1.498307. An equally tempered fifth, defined as 700 cents, is about two cents narrower than a just perfect fifth, which is approximately 701.955 cents. Kepler explored musical tuning in terms of ratios, and defined a lower imperfect fifth as a 40,27 pitch ratio. His lower perfect fifth ratio of 1.4815 is much more imperfect than the equal temperament tuning of 1.498, the perfect fifth is a basic element in the construction of major and minor triads, and their extensions
20.
Fretboard
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The fingerboard is an important component of most stringed instruments. It is a thin, long strip of material, usually wood, the strings run over the fingerboard, between the nut and bridge. To play the instrument, a musician presses strings down to the fingerboard to change the vibrating length and this is called stopping the strings. Depending on the instrument and the style of music, the musician may pluck, on some instruments, notes can be sounded by the fretting hand alone, such as with hammer ons, an electric guitar technique. The word fingerboard in other languages sometimes occurs in musical directions, in particular, the direction sul tasto for bowed string instruments to play with the bow above the fingerboard. This reduces the prominence of upper harmonics, giving a more ethereal tone, a fingerboard may be fretted, having raised strips of hard material perpendicular to the strings, which the player presses the strings against to stop the strings. On modern guitars, frets are made of metal. Frets let the player stop the string consistently in the same place, as well, frets do not dampen string vibrations as much as fingers alone on an unfretted fingerboard. Frets may be fixed, as on a guitar or mandolin, or movable, fingerboards may also be unfretted, as they usually are on bowed instruments, where damping by the finger is of little consequence because of the sustained stimulation of the strings by the bow. Unfretted fingerboards allow a more control over subtle changes in pitch than fretted boards. Fingerboards may also be, though uncommon, a hybrid of these two, such a construction is seen on the sitar, where arched frets attach at the edges of a smooth fingerboard, unfrettable strings run inside the frets, while frettable ones run outside. A double dot or some other variation marks the 12th fret, variations on the standard dot shape can make a guitar more distinctive. Position markers are sometimes made luminescent to make more visible on stage. Position markers are sometimes repeated on the edge of the fingerboard for easy viewing. Over time, strings wear frets down, which can cause buzzing, fixing this occasionally requires replacing the frets—but more often they just need dressing. In fret dressing, a luthier levels and polishes the frets, stainless steel guitar frets may never need dressing, because of the density of the material. Not having frets carefully and properly aligned with the fingerboard can cause severe intonation issues, the ultimate way of determining the source of a buzz and detuning problem is to measure the levelness of the frets. A straightedge positioned on the neck in the lie of one of the strings should show nearly level frets, on bowed string instruments, the fingerboard is usually made of ebony, rosewood or other hardwood
21.
Folk guitar
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The steel-string acoustic guitar is a modern form of guitar that descends from the classical guitar, but is strung with steel strings for a brighter, louder sound. It is often referred to simply as a guitar, though the nylon-strung classical guitar is also sometimes called an acoustic guitar. The most common type is called a flat top guitar, to distinguish it from the more specialized archtop guitar. The standard tuning for a guitar is E-A-D-G-B-E, although many players, particularly fingerpickers, use alternate tunings, such as open G, open D. There are many variations in construction and materials used in steel-string guitars, different combinations of woods and construction elements affect the timbre or tone of the guitar. Many players and luthiers are convinced that a well-made guitars tone improves over time, acoustic guitars are commonly constructed in several different body types. The proportion and overall size of two parts helps determine the overall tonal balance and native sound of a particular body style – the larger the body. The 00, also called the Double-Oh or the Grand Concert and it has the thinnest soundbox and the smallest overall size of the major styles, making it very comfortable to play but also one of the quietest. Its smaller size makes it suitable for younger or smaller-framed players and these guitars are commonly called parlor steels as they are well-suited to smaller rooms. Martins 00-xxx series and Taylors x12 series are common examples, the Grand Auditorium guitar, sometimes called the 000 or the Triple-Oh, is very similar in design to the Grand Concert, but slightly wider and deeper. Many 000-style guitars also have a back panel to increase the volume of space in the soundbox without making the soundbox deeper at the edges. Eric Claptons signature Martin guitar, for example, is of this style, Martins 000-xxx series and Taylors x14 series are well-known examples of the Grand Auditorium style. The Dreadnought style was designed by Martin Guitars to produce a deeper sound than classic-style guitars and this body styles combination of a small profile with a deep sound has made it immensely popular, and it has since been copied by virtually every major steel-string luthier. Martins D series guitars, such as the highly-prized D-28, are examples of the Dreadnought. This comes at the expense of being oversized, with a very deep sounding box, the foremost example of this style is the Gibson J-200, but like the Dreadnought, most guitar manufacturers have at least one jumbo model. Any of these body type can optionally incorporate a cutaway, a cutaway guitar has a redesigned upper bout that removes a section of the soundbox on the underside of the neck, hence the name cutaway. This allows for access to the frets that are located on top of the soundbox past the heel of the neck. The tradeoff is reduced soundbox volume, and often a change in bracing, the 12-string guitar replaces each single string with a course of two strings
22.
English guitar
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The English guitar or guittar, is a stringed instrument – a type of cittern, which was popular in many places in Europe from around 1750–1850. The instrument was known in Norway as a guitarre and France as cistre or guitarre allemande. There are many examples in Norwegian museums, like the Norsk Folkemuseum and British, including the Victoria, the English guitar has a pear-shaped body, a flat base, and a short neck. The instrument is related to the Portuguese guitar and the German waldzither. Early examples had tuning pegs, but many examples have what are commonly referred to now as Preston tuners. It usually had ten strings in a repetitive open C tuning, of which the highest eight are paired in four courses, C E GG cc ee gg. The English guitar may have influenced the development and tuning of the Russian guitar, which has seven strings tuned to open G in thirds with two fourths, D, G, B, D, g, b, d
23.
Russian guitar
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The Russian guitar is an acoustic seven-string guitar that was developed in Russia toward the end of the 18th century, it shares most of its organological features with the Spanish guitar. It is known in Russian as the semistrunnaya gitara, or affectionately as the semistrunka and these guitars are most commonly tuned to an Open G chord as follows, D2 G2 B2 D3 G3 B3 D4. In classical literature, the lowest string occasionally is tuned down to the C and it is true that Sychra was very influential in creating the school of Russian guitar playing. He left over a thousand compositions, seventy-five of which were republished in the 1840s by Stellovsky, some of these were published yet again in the Soviet Union in 1926. Construction of the Russian is very similar to that of the western 6-string guitar except for the additional string, woods used and internal bracing layouts are also similar. There are two types of Russian guitar, the classical model and the gypsy model. The classical model closely resembles the western 6-string classical guitar, and has nylon or gut strings, the gypsy model is steel strung, and resembles the western 6-string steel-string acoustic guitar, although more size and shape variations are found among gypsy guitars. A two-necked version of the Russian guitar was also popular, these guitars usually had 11 or 12 strings—one neck with seven fretted strings. There are also some specimens that were built with an oval body. The head or headstock is located at the end of the guitar neck farthest from the body, modern instruments are fitted with machine head tuners, though older instruments sometimes used friction pegs. The traditional tuner layout is 4+3, with four tuners on the side of the head. The nut is a small strip traditionally of bone, but plastic, brass, headstock, fingerboard, and truss rod, all attached to a long wooden extension which collectively constitutes the neck. The wood used to make the fretboard usually differs from the wood in the rest of the neck, the neck joint or heel is the point at which the neck is attached to the body of the guitar. The fingerboard is made of hardwood, fitted with metal frets of brass or steel, fret spacing almost always follows the western twelve tone equal temperament system. The surface of the fingerboard may be flat or curved slightly, inlayed position markers are common, and appear in the same locations as 6-string guitars. The sound board is made of spruce or cedar. Overall proportions of classical seven string instruments nylon string) are similar to those of 6-string guitars, gypsy instruments may be proportioned similarly, but also may often feature a narrower upper bout, and an enlarged sound hole. Both traditionally shaped instruments and instruments with cut-away bodies are available, the bridge is made of a hardwood similar to that used for the fingerboard, and the bridge saddle is usually bone or sometimes plastic, on old instruments, ivory was sometimes used
24.
Twelve-bar blues
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The 12-bar blues or blues changes is one of the most prominent chord progressions in popular music. The blues progression has a form in lyrics, phrase, chord structure. In its basic form, it is based on the I-IV-V chords of a key. The blues can be played in any key, mastery of the blues and rhythm changes are critical elements for building a jazz repertoire. In the key of C, one basic blues progression is as follows, a basic example of the progression would look like this, using T to indicate the tonic, S for the subdominant, and D for the dominant, and representing one chord. In Roman numeral analysis the tonic is called the I, the sub-dominant the IV, using said notations, the chord progression outlined above can be represented as follows. The first line takes four bars, as do the two lines, for a total of twelve bars. However, the vocal or lead phrases, though they come in threes. This overlap between the grouping of the accompaniment and the vocal is part of what creates interest in the twelve bar blues, handy, the Father of the Blues, codified this blues form to help musicians communicate chord changes. The length of sections may be varied to create eight-bar blues or sixteen-bar blues, seventh chords are often used just before a change, and more changes can be added. Basic jazz blues progression Play In jazz, 12-bar blues progressions are expanded with moving substitutions, the cadence uniquely leads to the root by perfect intervals of fourths. The Bebop blues, Play This progression is similar to Charlie Parkers Nows the Time, Billies Bounce, Sonny Rollinss Tenor Madness and it is a bop soloists cliche to arpeggiate this chord from the 3 up to the ♭9. Minor blues Play There are also minor 12-bar blues, such as John Coltranes Equinox and Mr. P. C. made famous by Lil Green with Big Bill Broonzy and then Peggy Lee with the Benny Goodman Orchestra. The chord on the scale degree may be major or minor, in which case it fits a dorian scale along with the minor i7 and iv7 chords. Major and minor can also be mixed together, a characteristic of the music of Charles Brown. While the blues is most often considered to be in strophic form with a verse-chorus pattern. Handys St. Louis Blues However, many using the blues chord progression have lyrics that are not in the three-line form. For instance, Im Moving On has a verse in the first four bars, Im movin on, Ill soon be gone You were flyin too high for my little old sky So Im movin on
25.
Steel guitar
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Steel guitar is a type of guitar or the method of playing the instrument. The term steel guitar is often used to describe any metal body resophonic guitar. Steel guitar can describe, The slide technique of playing guitar is generally by using a steel bar. Dobro is also a name of one of the leading manufacturers of resonator guitars. A specialized instrument built for playing in steel guitar fashion and these are of several types, Lap steel guitar, which may be, Lap slide guitar, with a conventional wooden guitar box. The square-necked variety of resonator guitar, the technique was invented and popularized in Hawaii. Thus, the lap steel guitar is known as the Hawaiian guitar, particularly in documents from the early 20th century. Steel guitar tunings tend to feature close intervals whereas slack key tunings more often contain 4ths and 5ths, dobro is a brand of resonator guitars, but the word is most often used to describe bluegrass instruments of several different brands. Bottleneck guitar may have developed from Steel guitar technique. The slide is almost never slanted, common bottleneck tunings are open D and E chords. A steel guitar is one designed to be played in steel-guitar fashion, historically, these have been of many types, but two dominate, Resonator guitars, particularly the square-necked variety which can be played only in steel guitar fashion. Electric instruments, starting with electric lap steel guitars and developing through the steel guitar to the pedal steel guitar. The lap steel guitar typically has 6 strings and may have various tunings, originally the standard EBGDAE tuning was changed to allow open i. e. major chord tunings to accommodate using the straight steel bar and not require changing string gauges. Hawaiian tunings evolved from A Major and E Major to E7, C sharp Minor, C sharp Minor 9th, F sharp Minor 9th, B11th and the popular E 13th. Jerry Byrd is credibly the originator of the C6+A7 tuning ECAGEC sharp which allows a wider ranging of chording for Hawaiian and it differs from a conventional or Spanish guitar in having a higher action and often a neck that is square in cross section. The frets, unused in steel style playing, may be replaced by markers, there are three main types, Lap slide guitars, which are acoustic instruments but may have electric pickups for amplification in addition. Resonator guitars, which are acoustic instruments but may have pickups for amplification in addition. Electric lap steel guitars, which are solid body
26.
Equal temperament
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An equal temperament is a musical temperament, or a system of tuning, in which the frequency interval between every pair of adjacent notes has the same ratio. In equal temperament tunings, the interval is often found by dividing some larger desired interval, often the octave. That resulting smallest interval, 1⁄12 the width of an octave, is called a semitone or half step, the standard pitch has not always been 440 but has varied and generally risen over the past few hundred years. For example, some music has been written in 19-TET and 31-TET, in Western countries, when people use the term equal temperament without qualification, they usually mean 12-TET. To avoid ambiguity between equal temperaments that divide the octave and ones that divide some other interval, the equal division of the octave. According to this system, 12-TET is called 12-EDO, 31-TET is called 31-EDO. Other instruments, such as wind, keyboard, and fretted instruments, often only approximate equal temperament. Some wind instruments that can easily and spontaneously bend their tone, most notably trombones, use tuning similar to string ensembles, the two figures frequently credited with the achievement of exact calculation of equal temperament are Zhu Zaiyu in 1584 and Simon Stevin in 1585. Kenneth Robinson attributes the invention of equal temperament to Zhu Zaiyu, Zhu Zaiyu is quoted as saying that, in a text dating from 1584, I have founded a new system. I establish one foot as the number from which the others are to be extracted, altogether one has to find the exact figures for the pitch-pipers in twelve operations. Kuttner disagrees and remarks that his claim cannot be considered correct without major qualifications, kuttner proposes that neither Zhu Zaiyu or Simon Stevin achieved equal temperament, and that neither of the two should be treated as inventors. The origin of the Chinese pentatonic scale is traditionally ascribed to the mythical Ling Lun, allegedly his writings discussed the equal division of the scale in the 27th century BC. However, evidence of the origins of writing in this period in China is limited to rudimentary inscriptions on oracle bones, an approximation for equal temperament was described by He Chengtian, a mathematician of Southern and Northern Dynasties around 400 AD. He came out with the earliest recorded approximate numerical sequence in relation to equal temperament in history,900849802758715677638601570536509.5479450, historically, there was a seven-equal temperament or hepta-equal temperament practice in Chinese tradition. Zhu Zaiyu, a prince of the Ming court, spent thirty years on research based on the equal temperament idea originally postulated by his father and he described his new pitch theory in his Fusion of Music and Calendar 乐律融通 published in 1580. An extended account is given by Joseph Needham. Similarly, after 84 divisions the length was divided by a factor of 128,84 =27 =128, according to Gene Cho, Zhu Zaiyu was the first person to solve the equal temperament problem mathematically. Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit in China recorded this work in his personal journal, in 1620, Zhus work was referenced by a European mathematician
27.
Regular tuning
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Among alternative guitar-tunings, regular tunings have equal musical intervals between the paired notes of their successive open strings. Guitar tunings assign pitches to the strings of guitars. Tunings can be described by the pitches that are denoted by notes in Western music. By convention, the notes are ordered from lowest to highest, the standard tuning defines the string pitches as E, A, D, G, B, and E. Between the open-strings of the standard tuning are three perfect-fourths, then the major third G-B, and the fourth perfect-fourth B-E. Regular tunings thus appeal to new guitarists and also to jazz-guitarists. On the other hand, some conventional major/minor system chords are easier to play in standard tuning than in regular tuning, the class of regular tunings has been named and described by Professor William Sethares. Setharess 2001 chapter Regular tunings is the source for this article. This articles descriptions of particular regular-tunings use other sources also and this summary of standard tuning also introduces the terms for discussing alternative tunings Standard tuning has the following open-string notes, E2-A2-D3-G3-B3-E4. In standard tuning, the separation of the second, and third string is by a major-third interval, chords cannot be shifted around the fretboard in the standard tuning E-A-D-G-B-E, which requires four chord-shapes for the major chords. There are separate chord-forms for chords having their root note on the third, fourth, fifth, alternative tuning refers to any open-string note-arrangement other than standard tuning. Such alternative tuning arrangements offer different chord voicing and sonorities, as with other scordatura tuning, regular tunings may require re-stringing the guitar with different string gauges. FOr example, all-fifths tuning has been difficult to implement on conventional guitars, even a common approximation to all-fifths tuning, new standard tuning, requires a special set of strings. With standard tuning, and with all tunings, chord patterns can be moved twelve frets down, for the standard tuning, there is exactly one interval of a third between the second and third strings, and all the other intervals are fourths. In contrast, regular tunings have equal intervals between the strings, in contrast, regular tunings have constant intervals between their successive open-strings. Regular tunings have symmetrical scales all along the fretboard and this makes it simpler to translate chords into new keys. For the regular tunings, chords may be moved diagonally around the fretboard, Regular tunings thus appeal to new guitarists and also to jazz-guitarists, whose improvisation is simplified by regular intervals. On the other hand, particular traditional chords may be difficult to play in a regular tuning than in standard tuning
28.
Major-thirds tuning
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Among alternative tunings for guitar, a major-thirds tuning is a regular tuning in which each interval between successive open strings is a major third. Other names for major-thirds tuning include major-third tuning, M3 tuning, all-thirds tuning, by definition, a major-third interval separates two notes that differ by exactly four semitones. The Spanish guitars tuning mixes four perfect fourths and one major-third and this tuning, which is used for acoustic and electric guitars, is called standard in English, a convention that is followed in this article. For each M3 tuning, the open strings form a triad in two octaves. For guitars with six strings, every major-third tuning repeats its three open-notes in two octaves, so providing many options for fingering chords, by repeating open-string notes and by having uniform intervals between strings, major-thirds tuning simplifies learning by beginners. These features also facilitate advanced guitarists improvisation, precisely the aim of jazz guitarist Ralph Patt when he began popularizing major-thirds tuning between 1963 and 1964. In standard tuning, the successive open-strings mix two types of intervals, four perfect-fourths and the third between the G and B strings, E-A-D-G-B-E. Only major thirds occur as open-string intervals for major-thirds tuning, which is also called major-third tuning, all-thirds tuning, a popular M3 tuning has the open strings G♯-C-E-G♯-C-E, in which the low G♯ is a major third above the low E of standard tuning. Consequently, a string for the low E is often added to restore the standard E-E range. While M3 tuning can use standard sets of strings, specialized string gauges have been recommended. Besides this M3 tuning, which has the notes, there are exactly three other M3 tunings, which have distinct sets of open-note pitch classes. The other major-thirds tunings respectively have the notes, and. Major-thirds tunings require less hand-stretching than other tunings, because each M3 tuning packs the octaves twelve notes into four consecutive frets, the major-third intervals allow major chords and minor chords to be played with two–three consecutive fingers on two consecutive frets. Every major-thirds tuning is regular and repetitive, two properties that facilitate learning by beginners and improvisation by advanced guitarists, in major-thirds tuning, the chromatic scale is arranged on three consecutive strings in four consecutive frets. Consequently, three hand-positions partition the fingerboard of classical guitar, which has exactly 12 frets, only two or three frets are needed for the guitar chords—major, minor, and dominant sevenths—which are emphasized in introductions to guitar-playing and to the fundamentals of music. Each major and minor chord can be played on two successive frets on three successive strings, and therefore each needs only two fingers, other chords—seconds, fourths, sevenths, and ninths—are played on only three successive frets. For fundamental-chord fingerings, major-thirds tunings simplicity and consistency are not shared by standard tuning, each major-thirds tuning repeats its open-notes after every two strings, which results in two copies of the three open-strings notes, each in a different octave. This repetition again simplifies the learning of chords and improvisation and this advantage is not shared by two popular regular-tunings, all-fourths and all-fifths tuning
29.
All-fourths tuning
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Among alternative tunings for the guitar, all-fourths tuning is a regular tuning. In contrast, the tuning has one irregularity—a major third between the third and second strings—while having perfect fourths between the other successive strings. The standard tunings irregular major-third is replaced by a fourth in all-fourths tuning. Among regular tunings, this all-fourths tuning best approximates the standard tuning, in all guitar tunings, the higher-octave version of a chord can be found by translating a chord by twelve frets higher along the fretboard. In every regular tuning, for example in all-fourths tuning, chords, for all-fourths tuning, all twelve major chords are generated by two chords, the open F major chord and the D major chord. The regularity of chord-patterns reduces the number of positions that need to be memorized. Jazz musician Stanley Jordan plays guitar in all-fourths tuning, he has stated that all-fourths tuning simplifies the fingerboard, among all regular tunings, all-fourths tuning E-A-D-G-C-F is the best approximation of standard tuning, which is more popular. An advantage of standard tuning is that it has many six-string chords, all-fourths tuning is traditionally used for the bass guitar, it is also used for the bajo sexto. All-fourths tuning is related to all-fifths tuning. All-fourths tuning is based on the fourth, and all-fifths tuning is based on the perfect fifth. These perfect-fourth and perfect-fifth intervals are termed inverse intervals in music theory, consequently, chord charts for all-fifths tunings may be used for left-handed all-fourths tuning. Scordatura, alternative tunings of stringed instruments commons, Category, Perfect fourths tuning charts and diagrams for P4 tuning Denyer, special contributors Isaac Guillory and Alastair M. Crawford. Guitar in fourths, Guitar tuning with all strings in perfect fourth intervals apart, retrieved 14 October 2012 – via HighBeam Research. Madison, Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin, Department of Electrical Engineering,2010 PDF version by Bill Sethares. Guitar in fourths, A manual for playing, sixty guitar chords for all-fourths tuning, An introductory tutorial about chords on a guitar tuned to all fourths
30.
All-fifths tuning
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Among guitar tunings, all-fifths tuning refers to the set of tunings in which each interval between consecutive open strings is a perfect fifth. All-fifths tuning is also called fifths, perfect fifths, or mandoguitar, the conventional tuning has an interval of 2 octaves between lowest and highest string. All-fifths tuning is a tuning in intervals of perfect fifths like that of a mandolin or a violin and it was used by jazz guitarist Carl Kress in the form B♭-F-c-g-d-a. Guitar Craft, which has succeeded by Guitar Circle, has taught Fripps tuning to 3,000 students. All-fifths tuning is related to all-fourths tuning. All-fifths tuning is based on the fifth, and all-fourths tuning is based on the perfect fourth. The perfect-fifth and perfect-fourth intervals are termed inverse intervals in music theory, consequently, chord charts for all-fourths tunings may be used for left-handed all-fifths tuning. All fourths Perfect fifth Guitar tunings Sethares, William A, madison, Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin, Department of Electrical Engineering. 2010 PDF version by Bill Sethares, special contributors Isaac Guillory and Alastair M. Crawford. Guitar Tunings - Guitar School Online Entering The Fifth Dimension
31.
Improvisation
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Improvisation is the term for the action of improvising. In a technical context, this can mean adapting a device for use other than that which it was designed for, or building a device from unusual components in an ad-hoc fashion. Improvisation, within the context of performing arts, is a spontaneous performance without specific or scripted preparation. The skills of improvisation can apply to different faculties, across all artistic, scientific, physical, cognitive, academic. Musical improvisation is usually defined as the composition of music, without prior preparation, improvisational comedy is a theatre art performed throughout the world and has had on-again, off-again status throughout history. Dance improvisation is frequently used as a choreographic tool, choreography is also frequently used as a tool for improvisation. Improvisation also exists outside the arts, Improvisation in engineering is to solve a problem with the tools and materials immediately at hand. Improvised weapons are used by guerrillas, insurgents and criminals. Improvisation in engineering is to solve a problem with the tools and materials immediately at hand, engineering improvisations may be needed because of emergencies, embargo, obsolescence of a product and the loss of manufacturer support, or just a lack of funding appropriate for a better solution. Users of motor vehicles in parts of Africa develop improvised solutions where it is not feasible to obtain manufacturer-approved spare parts. The popular television program MacGyver used as its gimmick a hero who could solve almost any problem with jury rigged devices from everyday materials, a Swiss Army knife and some duct tape. Improvisation can be thought of as an on the spot or off the cuff spontaneous moment of sudden inventiveness that can just come to mind, body, no preparation or training is needed. However, improvisation in any life or art form, can more often if it is practiced as a way of encouraging creative behavior. That practice includes learning to use ones intuition, as well as learning a technical understanding of the necessary skills and this can result in the invention of new thought patterns, new practices, new structures or symbols, and/or new ways to act. Improvisation was originally used on dramatic television. Techniques of improvisation are used in training for performing arts or entertainment, for example, music, theatre. To extemporize or ad lib is basically the same as improvising, colloquial terms such as lets play it by the ear, take it as it comes, and make it up as we go along are all used to describe improvisation. Where the improvisation is intended to solve a problem on a temporary basis and this applies to the field of engineering
32.
Voicing (music)
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In music theory, voicing is the manner in which one distributes, or spaces, notes and chords among the various instruments or simultaneous vertical placement of notes in relation to each other. In triad chords, close root position voicing is the most compact voicing, with the notes in major third intervals, close and open harmony are harmony constructed from close- and open-position chords, respectively. Many composers, as developed and gained experience, became more enterprising. For example, the theme from the movement of Beethoven’s early Piano Sonata No. 10, presents chords mostly in closed position, Whereas in the theme of the Arietta movement that concludes his last Piano Sonata No,32, Op.111 as simplicity itself … its widely-spaced harmonization creates a mood of almost mystical intensity. Ravel’s Pavane de la Belle au Bois Dormant from his 1908 suite Ma Mère lOye exploits the delicate transparency of voicing afforded through the medium of the piano duet, four hands can cope better that two when it comes to playing widely spaced chords. The two chords that open and close Stravinskys Symphony of Psalms have distinctive sonorities arising out of the voicing of the notes, austin remarks, The first and last chords of the Symphony of Psalms are famous. The doubling number of an octave is the number of individual voices assigned to each pitch within the chord, for example, in the three images in the introduction above only one pitch is doubled, the G in the rightmost image. One nomenclature for describing classes of voicings is the drop-n terminology, such as drop-2 voicings, drop-2-and-4 voicings. This systems views voicings as being built from the top down, the implicit, non-dropped, default voicing in this system is where all voices are in the same octave, with the individual voices being numbered from the top down. The highest voice is the first voice or voice 1, the second-highest voice is voice 2, etc. There is no provision in this nomenclature for having more than one voice on the same pitch, a dropped voicing is where one or more voices are lowered by an octave relative to the default state. Dropping the first voice is undefined, a drop-1 voicing would still have all voices in the same octave, there is no provision in this nomenclature for indicating the dropping of voices by two or more octaves or for having the same pitch represented in multiple octaves. A drop-2 voicing is where the voice is lowered by an octave. These are the drop-2-and-4 voicings for G7, G D F B, F B D G, D G B F, various drop combinations are possible, given enough voices, such as drop-3, drop-2-and-3, drop-5, drop-2-and-5, drop-3-and-5, etc. Blind octave Consecutive fifths Open chord Partial voicing
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Timbre
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The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre include spectrum and envelope. Singers and instrumental musicians can change the timbre of the music they are singing/playing by using different singing or playing techniques, for example, a violinist can use different bowing styles or play on different parts of the string to obtain different timbres. On electric guitar and electric piano, performers can change the timbre using effects units, in simple terms, timbre is what makes a particular musical sound have a different sound from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness. For instance, it is the difference in sound between a guitar and a playing the same note at the same volume. Experienced musicians are able to distinguish between different instruments of the type based on their varied timbres, even if those instruments are playing notes at the same pitch. Tone quality and tone color are synonyms for timbre, as well as the attributed to a single instrument. However, the texture can also refer to the type of music, such as multiple. The sound of an instrument may be described with words such as bright, dark, warm, harsh. There are also colors of noise, such as pink and white, in visual representations of sound, timbre corresponds to the shape of the image. The Acoustical Society of America Acoustical Terminology definition 12, Timbre has been called. the psychoacousticians multidimensional waste-basket category for everything that cannot be labeled pitch or loudness. Many commentators have attempted to decompose timbre into component attributes, the richness of a sound or note a musical instrument produces is sometimes described in terms of a sum of a number of distinct frequencies. The lowest frequency is called the frequency, and the pitch it produces is used to name the note. The dominant frequency is the frequency that is most heard, for example, the dominant frequency for the transverse flute is double the fundamental frequency. Other significant frequencies are called overtones of the frequency, which may include harmonics. Harmonics are whole number multiples of the frequency, such as ×2, ×3, ×4. There are also sometimes subharmonics at whole number divisions of the fundamental frequency, most instruments produce harmonic sounds, but many instruments produce partials and inharmonic tones, such as cymbals and other indefinite-pitched instruments. When the tuning note in an orchestra or concert band is played, each instrument in the orchestra or concert band produces a different combination of these frequencies, as well as harmonics and overtones. The sound waves of the different frequencies overlap and combine, the timbre of a sound is also greatly affected by the following aspects of its envelope, attack time and characteristics, decay, sustain, release and transients
34.
Harmony (music)
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In music, harmony considers the process by which the composition of individual sounds, or superpositions of sounds, is analysed by hearing. Usually, this means simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches, or chords, the study of harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them. Harmony is often said to refer to the aspect of music, as distinguished from melodic line. In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms, in many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern, and jazz, chords are often augmented with tensions. A tension is an additional member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass. Typically, in the common practice period a dissonant chord resolves to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between the consonant and dissonant sounds, in simple words, that occurs when there is a balance between tense and relaxed moments. The term harmony derives from the Greek ἁρμονία, meaning joint, agreement, concord, from the verb ἁρμόζω, to fit together, the term was often used for the whole field of music, while music referred to the arts in general. In Ancient Greece, the term defined the combination of contrasted elements, in the Middle Ages the term was used to describe two pitches sounding in combination, and in the Renaissance the concept was expanded to denote three pitches sounding together. Aristoxenus wrote a work entitled Harmonika Stoicheia, which is thought the first work in European history written on the subject of harmony, the underlying principle behind these texts is that harmony sanctions harmoniousness by conforming to certain pre-established compositional principles. Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the ambiguity of the term in modern use, ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations or from the point of view of musical texture (distinguishing between harmonic and contrapuntal. The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in music theory and this is usually accounted for by the replacement of horizontal writing, common in the music of the Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the vertical element of composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation, as Carl Dahlhaus puts it, It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the structure of chords but also their movement, like music as a whole, harmony is a process. Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice may show bias towards European musical traditions, pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration. Nevertheless, emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias, the conception of musics that live in oral traditions as something composed with the use of improvisatory techniques separates them from the higher-standing works that use notation. Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated by this process of prior composition, some traditions of Western music performance, composition, and theory have specific rules of harmony. This model provides that the seventh and ninth are not dissonant
35.
Music theory
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Music theory is the study of the practices and possibilities of music. The term is used in three ways in music, though all three are interrelated. The first is what is otherwise called rudiments, currently taught as the elements of notation, of key signatures, of time signatures, of rhythmic notation, Theory in this sense is treated as the necessary preliminary to the study of harmony, counterpoint, and form. The second is the study of writings about music from ancient times onwards, Music theory is frequently concerned with describing how musicians and composers make music, including tuning systems and composition methods among other topics. However, this medieval discipline became the basis for tuning systems in later centuries, Music theory as a practical discipline encompasses the methods and concepts composers and other musicians use in creating music. The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory in this sense may be found in oral and written music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artifacts. In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of music theory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music making. Many cultures, at least as far back as ancient Mesopotamia and ancient China, have also considered music theory in more formal ways such as written treatises, in modern academia, music theory is a subfield of musicology, the wider study of musical cultures and history. Etymologically, music theory is an act of contemplation of music, from the Greek θεωρία, a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a person who researches, teaches, or writes articles about music theory is a music theorist. University study, typically to the M. A. or Ph. D level, is required to teach as a music theorist in a US or Canadian university. Methods of analysis include mathematics, graphic analysis, and especially analysis enabled by Western music notation, comparative, descriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used. See for instance Paleolithic flutes, Gǔdí, and Anasazi flute, several surviving Sumerian and Akkadian clay tablets include musical information of a theoretical nature, mainly lists of intervals and tunings. The scholar Sam Mirelman reports that the earliest of these dates from before 1500 BCE. Further, All the Mesopotamian texts are united by the use of a terminology for music that, much of Chinese music history and theory remains unclear. The earliest texts about Chinese music theory are inscribed on the stone and they include more than 2800 words describing theories and practices of music pitches of the time. The bells produce two intertwined pentatonic scales three tones apart with additional pitches completing the chromatic scale, Chinese theory starts from numbers, the main musical numbers being twelve, five and eight. Twelve refers to the number of pitches on which the scales can be constructed, the Lüshi chunqiu from about 239 BCE recalls the legend of Ling Lun. On order of the Yellow Emperor, Ling Lun collected twelve bamboo lengths with thick, blowing on one of these like a pipe, he found its sound agreeable and named it huangzhong, the Yellow Bell
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Musical scale
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In music theory, a scale is any set of musical notes ordered by fundamental frequency or pitch. A scale ordered by increasing pitch is a scale. Some scales contain different pitches when ascending than when descending, for example, the Melodic minor scale. Due to the principle of equivalence, scales are generally considered to span a single octave. A musical scale represents a division of the space into a certain number of scale steps. A measure of the width of each scale step provides a method to classify scales, based on their interval patterns, scales are put into categories including diatonic, chromatic, major, minor, and others. A specific scale is defined by its interval pattern and by a special note. The tonic of a scale is the selected as the beginning of the octave. Typically, the name of the scale specifies both its tonic and its interval pattern, for example, C major indicates a major scale with a C tonic. Scales are typically listed from low to high, most scales are octave-repeating, meaning their pattern of notes is the same in every octave. An octave-repeating scale can be represented as an arrangement of pitch classes. The distance between two notes in a scale is called a scale step. The notes of a scale are numbered by their steps from the root of the scale, for example, in a C major scale the first note is C, the second D, the third E and so on. Two notes can also be numbered in relation to other, C and E create an interval of a third. A single scale can be manifested at many different pitch levels, for example, a C major scale can be started at C4 and ascending an octave to C5, or it could be started at C6, ascending an octave to C7. As long as all the notes can be played, the octave they take on can be altered, the pitch distances or intervals among the notes of a scale tell us more about the sound of the music than does the mere number of tones. The notes of a scale form intervals with each of the notes of the chord in combination. A 5-note scale has 10 of these intervals, a 6-note scale has 15, a 7-note scale has 21
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Major scale
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The major scale or Ionian scale is one of the most commonly used musical scales, especially in Western music. It is one of the diatonic scales, like many musical scales it is made up of seven notes, the eighth duplicates the first at double its frequency so that it is called a higher octave of the same note. In Carnatic music, it is known as Dheerasankarabharanam, and in Hindustani classical music it is known as Bilaval, a major scale is a diatonic scale. The sequence of intervals between the notes of a scale is, whole, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half where whole stands for a whole tone. A major scale may be seen as two tetrachords separated by a whole tone. Each tetrachord consists of two whole tones followed by a semitone, whole, whole, half, seven sharps or flats make major keys that may be more conveniently spelled with five flats or sharps. The term major scale is used in the names of some other scales whose first, third. The harmonic major scale has a minor sixth and it differs from the harmonic minor scale only by raising the third degree. The melodic major scale is the mode of the jazz minor scale. It is the Ionian scale with a sixth and minor seventh. The combined scale that goes as Ionian ascending and as melodic major descending is also called melodic major, the double harmonic major scale has a minor second and a minor sixth. It is the mode of the Hungarian minor scale. Ionian mode Major and minor Listen to and download harmonised Major scale piano MP3s The major scale for guitar in one position, with derivation
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C major
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C major is a major scale based on C, with the pitches C, D, E, F, G, A, and B. Its key signature has no flats and no sharps, C majors relative minor is A minor and its parallel minor is C minor. C major is one of the most common key signatures used in western music, most transposing instruments playing in their home key are notated in C major, for example, a clarinet in B♭ sounding a B-flat major scale is notated as playing a C major scale. The white keys of the piano correspond to the C major scale, among brass instruments, the contra-bass tuba is in C. A pedal harp tuned to C major has all of its pedals in the middle position, there are no black keys in the C major scale, thus it doesnt fit the natural positions of the fingers well. Twenty of Joseph Haydns 104 symphonies are in C major, making it his second most often used key, of the 134 symphonies mistakenly attributed to Haydn that H. C. Robbins Landon lists in his catalog,33 are in C major, more than any other key. Before the invention of the trumpet, Haydn did not write trumpet and timpani parts in his symphonies. H. C. Robbins Landon writes that it wasnt until 1774 that Haydn uses trumpets, most of Haydns symphonies in C major are labelled festive and are of a primarily celebratory mood. Many Masses and settings of Te Deum in the Classical era were in C major, mozart wrote most of his Masses in C major and so did Haydn. Of Franz Schuberts two symphonies in the key, the first is nicknamed the Little C major and the second the Great C major, many musicians have pointed out that every musical key conjures up specific feelings. This idea is explored in a radio program called The Signature Series. American popular songwriter Bob Dylan claimed the key of C major to be the key of strength, french composers such as Marc-Antoine Charpentier and Rameau generally thought of C major as a key for happy music, but Hector Berlioz in 1856 described it as serious but deaf and dull. Ralph Vaughan Williams was impressed by Sibeliuss Symphony No.7 in C major, however, C major was a key of great importance in Sibeliuss previous symphonies. Claude Debussy, noted for composing music that avoided a particular key center, once said, in musical catalogs that sort the musical pieces by key, whether they go by semitones or along the circle of fifths, they almost always begin with those pieces in C major. A notable modern use of the key is Terry Rileys In C, johann Sebastian Bach Toccata, Adagio and Fugue in C major, BWV564 Cello Suite No. 3, BWV1009 Ludwig van Beethoven Symphony No,1, Op.21 Piano Sonata No. 21, K.467 Piano Concerto No,25, K.503 Piano Sonata No. 16, K.545 String Quartet No,41, K.551 Sergei Prokofiev Piano Concerto No.3 Maurice Ravel Boléro Franz Schubert Wanderer Fantasy, Op.15 D.760 Symphony No
39.
Scale (music)
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In music theory, a scale is any set of musical notes ordered by fundamental frequency or pitch. A scale ordered by increasing pitch is a scale. Some scales contain different pitches when ascending than when descending, for example, the Melodic minor scale. Due to the principle of equivalence, scales are generally considered to span a single octave. A musical scale represents a division of the space into a certain number of scale steps. A measure of the width of each scale step provides a method to classify scales, based on their interval patterns, scales are put into categories including diatonic, chromatic, major, minor, and others. A specific scale is defined by its interval pattern and by a special note. The tonic of a scale is the selected as the beginning of the octave. Typically, the name of the scale specifies both its tonic and its interval pattern, for example, C major indicates a major scale with a C tonic. Scales are typically listed from low to high, most scales are octave-repeating, meaning their pattern of notes is the same in every octave. An octave-repeating scale can be represented as an arrangement of pitch classes. The distance between two notes in a scale is called a scale step. The notes of a scale are numbered by their steps from the root of the scale, for example, in a C major scale the first note is C, the second D, the third E and so on. Two notes can also be numbered in relation to other, C and E create an interval of a third. A single scale can be manifested at many different pitch levels, for example, a C major scale can be started at C4 and ascending an octave to C5, or it could be started at C6, ascending an octave to C7. As long as all the notes can be played, the octave they take on can be altered, the pitch distances or intervals among the notes of a scale tell us more about the sound of the music than does the mere number of tones. The notes of a scale form intervals with each of the notes of the chord in combination. A 5-note scale has 10 of these intervals, a 6-note scale has 15, a 7-note scale has 21
40.
C (musical note)
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In terms of musical pitch, C or Do is the first note of the fixed-Do solfège scale. When the A440 pitch standard is used to tune a musical instrument, Middle C is designated C4 in scientific pitch notation because of the notes position as the fourth C key from left on a standard 88-key piano keyboard. Another system known as scientific pitch assigns a frequency of 256 Hz but, while numerically convenient, other note-octave systems, including those used by some makers of digital music keyboards, may refer to Middle C differently. In MIDI, Middle C is note number 60, the C4 designation is the most commonly recognized in auditory science, and in musical studies it is often used in place of the Helmholtz designation c. While the expression Middle C is generally clear across instruments and clefs, C4 may be called Low C by someone playing a Western concert flute, which has a higher and narrower playing range than the piano, while C5 would be Middle C. This technically inaccurate practice has led some pedagogues to encourage standardizing on C4 as the definitive Middle C in instructional materials across all instruments, in vocal music, the term Soprano C, sometimes called High C or Top C, is the C two octaves above Middle C. It is so named because it is considered the defining note of the voice type. It is C6 in scientific notation and c in Helmholtz notation. The term Tenor C is sometimes used in music to refer to C5. In organ music, the term Tenor C can refer to an organ builders term for small C or C3, in stoplists it usually means that a rank is not full compass, omitting the bottom octave. For the frequency of each note on a piano, see piano key frequencies. Pythagorean,701.955 ×12 =8423.46 =23.46 = B♯+++ ET,700 ×12 =8400 =0 = B♯ = C1200 ×7 =8400 =0 = C This difference,23.46 cents, is known as the Pythagorean comma. Piano key frequencies A440 C major C minor Root
41.
A (musical note)
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La or A is the sixth note of the fixed-Do solfège. Its enharmonic equivalents are B which is a semitone above A♭. A is generally used as a standard for tuning, when the orchestra tunes, the oboe plays an A and the rest of the instruments tune to match that pitch. Every string instrument in the orchestra has an A string, from each player can tune the rest of their instrument. A is also used in combination with a number to label the pitch standard, the number designates the frequency in hertz. A lower number equals a lower pitch, by an international treaty signed in 1939, modern pitch is standardized at A-440. However, tuning has varied over time, geographical region, or instrument maker, in 17th-century Europe, tunings ranged from about A-374 to A-403, approximately two to three semitones below A-440. Historical examples exist of instruments, tuning forks, or standards ranging from A-309 to A-455.3, although the official standard today is A-440, some orchestral groups and chamber groups prefer to tune a little higher, at A-442 or even A-444. Baroque pitch is usually cited as A-415, which is a lower than modern pitch. A0 is the lowest note on the standard piano, the octaves follow A1, A2, etc. A7 is a few pitches lower than C8, the highest note on the standard piano. The note A is not considered to be a milestone or mark to hit with voice as, for example, Tenor C is
42.
Chromatic scale
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The chromatic scale is a musical scale with twelve pitches, each a semitone above or below another. On a modern piano or other equal-tempered instrument, all the semitones have the same size, in other words, the notes of an equal-tempered chromatic scale are equally spaced. An equal-tempered chromatic scale is a nondiatonic scale having no tonic because of the symmetry of its equally spaced notes, the most common conception of the chromatic scale before the 13th century was the Pythagorean chromatic scale. Due to a different tuning technique, the twelve semitones in this scale have two different sizes. Thus, the scale is not perfectly symmetric, many other tuning systems, developed in the ensuing centuries, share a similar asymmetry. Equally spaced pitches are provided only by equal temperament tuning systems, the term chromatic derives from the Greek word chroma, meaning color. Chromatic notes are understood as harmonically inessential embellishments, shadings. The chromatic scale may be notated in a variety of ways, ascending and descending, The chromatic scale has no set spelling agreed upon by all. Its spelling is, however, often dependent upon major or minor key signatures, the images above, therefore, are only examples of chromatic scale notations. As an abstract entity, the chromatic scale is usually notated such that no scale degree is used more than twice in succession. The ancient Chinese chromatic scale is called Shí-èr-lǜ, however, it should not be imagined that this gamut ever functioned as a scale, and it is erroneous to refer to the Chinese chromatic scale, as some Western writers have done. The series of twelve known as the twelve lü were simply a series of fundamental notes from which scales could be constructed. The Indian solfège, i. e. sargam, makes up the notes of the chromatic scale with respective sharps. The total chromatic is the set of all pitch classes. An array is a succession of aggregates and these are 19-EDO just intonation approximations. In Pythagorean tuning the chromatic scale is tuned as follows, with higher than their enharmonic flats. The 12 golden notes of music Hewitt, Michael
43.
Perfect unison
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In music, unison is two or more musical parts sounding the same pitch or at an octave interval, usually at the same time. Rhythmic patterns which are homorhythmic are also called unison, two pitches that are the same or two that move as one. Unison or perfect unison may refer to the interval formed by a tone and its duplication, for example C–C, as differentiated from the second, C–D, in the unison the two pitches have the ratio of 1,1 or 0 half steps and zero cents. This is because a pair of tones in unison come from different locations or can have different colors, voices with different colors have, as sound waves, different waveforms. These waveforms have the fundamental frequency but differ in the amplitudes of their higher harmonics. The unison is considered the most consonant interval while the near unison is considered the most dissonant, the unison is also the easiest interval to tune. The unison is abbreviated as P1, a point is the beginning of a line, although, it is not itself a line. But a line is not composed of points, since a point has no length, width, or depth that can be extended, or joined to another point. So a unison is only the beginning of consonance or interval, it is neither consonance nor interval, several singers singing a melody together. In orchestral music unison can mean the simultaneous playing of a note by different instruments, either at the pitch, or in a different octave, for example, cello. Typically a section string player plays unison with the rest of the section, thus, in the divisi first violins the outside players might play the top note of the chord, while the inside seated players play the middle note, and the second violins play the bottom note. At the point where the first violins no longer play divisi, when several people sing together, as in a chorus, the simplest way for them to sing is to sing in one voice, in unison. If there is an instrument accompanying them, then the instrument must play the notes being sung by the singers. Otherwise the instrument is considered a voice and there is no unison. If there is no instrument, then the singing is said to be a cappella, Music in which all the notes sung are in unison is called monophonic. From this sense can be derived another, figurative, sense, if people do something in unison it means they do it simultaneously, in tandem. Related terms are univocal and unanimous, monophony could also conceivably include more than one voice which do not sing in unison but whose pitches move in parallel, always maintaining the same interval of an octave. A pair of notes sung one or a multiple of an octave apart are almost in unison, when there are two or more voices singing different notes, this is called part singing
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Consonance
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In music, consonance and dissonance form a structural dichotomy in which the terms define each other by mutual exclusion, a consonance is what is not dissonant, and reciprocally. However, a finer consideration shows that the forms a gradation. Consonance is associated with sweetness, pleasantness and acceptability and dissonance with harshness, unpleasantness, as Hindemith stressed, The two concepts have never been completely explained, and for a thousand years the definitions have varied. The opposition can be made in different contexts, In acoustics or psychophysiology, in modern times, it usually is based on the perception of harmonic partials of the sounds considered, to such an extent that the distinction really holds only in the case of harmonic sounds. In music, even if the opposition often is founded on the preceding, objective distinction, it often is subjective, conventional, cultural. A major second would be considered dissonant if it occurred in a J. S, Bach prelude from the 1700s, however, the same interval may sound consonant in the context of a Claude Debussy piece from the early 1900s or an atonal contemporary piece. For this reason, consonance and dissonance have been considered particularly in the case of Western polyphonic music, most historical definitions of consonance and dissonance since about the 16th century have stressed their pleasant/unpleasant, or agreeable/disagreeable character. In addition, the oppositions pleasant/unpleasant or agreeable/disagreeable evidence a confusion between the concepts of dissonance and of noise and these include, Frequency ratios, with ratios of lower simple numbers being more consonant than those that are higher. Many of these definitions do not require exact integer tunings, only approximation, coincidence of partials, with consonance being a greater coincidence of partials. By this definition, consonance is dependent not only on the width of the interval between two notes, but also on the spectral distribution and thus sound quality of the notes. Thus, a note and the note one octave higher are highly consonant because the partials of the note are also partials of the lower note. Although Helmholtzs work focused almost exclusively on harmonic timbres and also the tunings, subsequent work has generalized his findings to embrace non-harmonic tunings, fusion, perception of unity or tonal fusion between two notes. A stable tone combination is a consonance, consonances are points of arrival, rest, an unstable tone combination is a dissonance, its tension demands an onward motion to a stable chord. Thus dissonant chords are active, traditionally they have been considered harsh and have expressed pain, grief, in Western music, dissonance is the quality of sounds that seems unstable and has an aural need to resolve to a stable consonance. Both consonance and dissonance are words applied to harmony, chords, and intervals and, by extension, to melody, tonality, and even rhythm and metre. Nevertheless, the ideas of dissonance, consonance, and resolution exist in some form in all musical traditions that have a concept of melody, harmony. Dissonance being the complement of consonance it may be defined, as above, as non-coincidence of partials, lack of fusion or pattern matching, or as complexity. For many musicians and composers, the ideas of dissonance
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