1.
Gujarati language
–
Gujarati /ɡʊdʒəˈrɑːti/ is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian state of Gujarat. It is part of the greater Indo-European language family, Gujarati is descended from Old Gujarati. In India, it is the language in the state of Gujarat, as well as an official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra. Gujarati is the language of the Gujjars, who had ruled Rajputana, according to the Central Intelligence Agency,4. 5% of the Indian population speaks Gujarati, which amounts to 54.6 million speakers in India. There are about 65.5 million speakers of Gujarati worldwide, Gujarati was the first language of Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Gujarati is a modern IA language evolved from Sanskrit, Central, in Gujarati/Rajasthani, Western Hindi, and Punjabi/Lahanda/Sindhi, on the basis of innovation of auxiliary verbs and postpositions in Gujarati/Rajasthani. Gujarati/Rajasthani into Gujarati and Rajasthani through development of such characteristics as auxiliary ch-, grammatically, a new plural marker of -o developed. In literature, the quarter of the 19th century saw a series of milestones for Gujarati. The printing was introduced in Gujarati in 1812, the first printed book published was the Gujarati translation of Dabestan-e Mazaheb prepared and printed by Parsi priest Fardunjee Marzban in 1815. 1822, first Gujarati newspaper, Mumbai Samachar, the oldest newspaper in India still in circulation, 1840s, personal diary composition, Nityanondh, Durgaram Mehta. 1845, first modern Gujarati poem, Bapani Piparu, Dalpatram 1851, first essay, Mandaḷī Maḷvāthi Thātā Lābh, Narmadashankar Dave 1866, first original novel, Karaṇ Ghelo, Nandshankar Mehta. 1866, first social novel, Sasu Vahu ni Ladai, Mahipatram Rupram Nilkanth 1866, first autobiography, Mārī Hakīkat,1900, first original short story, Shantidas, Ambalal Desai. Of the approximately 46 million speakers of Gujarati in 1997, roughly 45, however, Gujarati community leaders in Pakistan claim that there are 3 million Gujarati speakers in Karachi. There is an amount of Mauritian population and a large amount of Réunion Island people who are from Gujarati descent among which some of them still speak Gujarati. According to the 2011 census, Gujarati is the seventeenth most spoken language in the Greater Toronto Area, most, with British passports, settled in the UK. Gujarati is offered as a GCSE subject for students in the UK, a distribution of the geographical area can be found in Linguistic Survey of India by George A. Grierson. Gujarati is one of the recognized constitutional languages and fourteen regional languages of India. It is officially recognized in the state of Gujarat, India, in A simplified grammar of the Gujarati language by William Tisdall, two major dialects of Gujarati are mentioned, a standard Hindu dialect and a Parsi dialect
Gujarati language
Gujarati language
–
Distribution of native Gujarati speakers in India
Gujarati language
Gujarati language
–
India Square,
Jersey City,
New Jersey, USA. Gujarati has achieved high linguistic prominence in many urban districts worldwide, including the
New York City Metropolitan Area.
2.
Persian language
–
Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
Persian language
–
Old Persian
Persian language
–
Ferdowsi 's
Shahnameh
Persian language
–
Kalilah va Dimna, an influential work in Persian literature.
3.
Anhilwad Patan
–
Patan, an ancient fortified town, was founded in 745 AD by Vanraj Chavda, the most prominent king of the Chavda Kingdom. He named the city Anhilpur Patan or Anhilwad Patan after his close friend, Patan was established by the Chapotkata ruler Vanaraja in 8th century as Anahilapataka. During 10th-13th century, the city served as the capital of the Chaulukyas, historian Tertius Chandler estimates that Anhilwara was the tenth-largest city in the world in the year 1000, with a population of approximately 100,000. Muhammeds general and later Sultan of Delhi Qutb-ud-din Aybak sacked the city between 1200 and 1210, and it was destroyed by the Allauddin Khilji in 1298, the modern town of Patan later sprung up near the ruins of Anhilwara. During 1304 to 1411, first Patan was the Suba headquarter of Delhi Sultanate, a new fort was built by these Subas, a large portion of which is still intact. The old fort of the Hindu kingdom is nearly vanquished and only a wall can be seen on the way from Kalka to Rani ki vav, in 1411, Sultan Ahmed Shah moved the capital to Ahmedabad. Patan was part of the Baroda state from the century until Indias independence in 1947, when Baroda became part of Bombay state. During the period of the Chaulukya dynasty or Solankis of Patan and it is a richly-sculptured monument, built by Udaymati in memory of her husband, Bhima I. It was probably completed by Udaymati and Karna after his death, a reference to Udaymati building the monument is in the Prabandha Chintamani composed by Merutunga Suri in 1304 AD. It was one of the largest and the most sumptuous structures of its type and it became silted up and much of it is not visible, except for some rows of sculptured panels in the circular part of the well. Among its ruins one pillar still stands which is proof of the elegance of its design, a part of the west well is extant from which it appears that the wall had been built of brick and faced with stone. From this wall project vertical bracket in pairs, this supported the galleries of the well shaft proper and this bracketing is arranged in tiers and is richly carved. There is a small gate below the last step of the well which has a 30 km tunnel which leads to the town of Sidhpur near Patan. It was used as a gateway for king who built the step well in the times of defeat. This stepwell is the oldest and the deepest among the 120 other stepwell in Gujarat, the sculpture of Rani ki vav depicting Lord Vishnus avatars, Hindu Goddesses, Jain idols and their ancestors. Most of the sculpture is in devotion to Vishnu, in the forms of his avatars, around 50–60 years back there used to be ayurvedic plants around this areas which causes the water accumulated in Rani ni vav to be helpful for viral disease, fever. It was included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites on 22 June 2014, Patan is home to the Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University named after the famous polymath Acharya Hemachandra. It was previously known as North Gujarat University, there are many schools and colleges in Patan
Anhilwad Patan
–
Rani ki vav.
Anhilwad Patan
–
Remains of the walls of new fort.
Anhilwad Patan
–
Sahastralinga Tank
4.
Ahmedabad
–
Ahmedabad is the largest city and former capital of Gujarat, which is a state in India. It is the headquarters of the Ahmedabad district and the seat of the Gujarat High Court. With a population of more than 6.3 million and a population of 7.8 million, it is the sixth largest city. Ahmedabad is located on the banks of the Sabarmati River,30 km from the state capital Gandhinagar, Ahmedabad has emerged as an important economic and industrial hub in India. It is the second largest producer of cotton in India, Cricket is a popular sport in Ahmedabad, which houses the 54, 000-seat Sardar Patel Stadium. The effects of liberalisation of the Indian economy have energised the citys economy towards tertiary sector such as commerce. Ahmedabads increasing population has resulted in an increase in the construction, in 2010, it was ranked third in Forbess list of fastest growing cities of the decade. In 2012, The Times of India chose Ahmedabad as Indias best city to live in, as of 2014, Ahmedabads estimated gross domestic product was $119 billion. Ahmedabad has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. The area around Ahmedabad has been inhabited since the 15th century, at that time, Karna, the Chaulukya ruler of Anhilwara, waged a successful war against the Bhil king of Ashaval, and established a city called Karnavati on the banks of the Sabarmati. Solanki rule lasted until the 13th century, when Gujarat came under the control of the Vaghela dynasty of Dholka, Gujarat subsequently came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century. This area finally came under the control of his grandson Sultan Ahmed Shah in 1411 A. D, according to other sources, he named it after himself. Ahmed Shah I laid the foundation of the city on 26 February 1411 at Manek Burj and he chose it as the new capital on 4 March 1411. In 1487, Mahmud Begada, the grandson of Ahmed Shah, fortified the city with an outer wall 10 km in circumference and consisting of twelve gates,189 bastions and over 6,000 battlements. In 1535 Humayun briefly occupied Ahmedabad after capturing Champaner when the ruler of Gujarat, Bahadur Shah, Ahmedabad was then reoccupied by the Muzaffarid dynasty until 1573 when Gujarat was conquered by the Mughal emperor Akbar. During the Mughal reign, Ahmedabad became one of the Empires thriving centres of trade, mainly in textiles, the Mughal ruler Shahjahan spent the prime of his life in the city, sponsoring the construction of the Moti Shahi Mahal in Shahibaug. The Deccan Famine of 1630–32 affected the city, as did famines in 1650 and 1686, Ahmedabad remained the provincial headquarters of the Mughals until 1758, when they surrendered the city to the Marathas. During the period of Maratha Empire governance, the city became the centre of a conflict between two Maratha clans, the Peshwa of Poona and the Gaekwad of Baroda
Ahmedabad
–
Clockwise from topː Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalay at Sabarmati Ashram, Ahmedabad Railway Station, CEPT University, Kankaria Lake and the Kirti Stambh at Hutheesing Temple
Ahmedabad
–
City Walls of Ahmedabad, 1866
Ahmedabad
–
Sabarmati Ashram, established by
Mahatma Gandhi
5.
Champaner
–
Champaner is a historical city in the state of Gujarat, in western India. It is located in Panchmahal district,47 kilometres from the city of Vadodara, the city was briefly the capital of Gujarat. It was founded by Vanraj Chavda, the most prominent king of the Chavda Dynasty and he named it after the name of his friend and general Champa, also known later as Champaraj. By the later 15th century, the Khichi Chauhan Rajputs held Pavagadh fort above the town of Champaner, the young Sultan of Gujarat, Mahmud Begada, deciding to attack Champaner, started towards it with his army on 4 December 1482. After defeating the Champaner army, Mahmud captured the town and besieged Pavagadh, the well-known hill-fortress, above Champaner and he captured the Pavagadh fort on 21 November 1484, after a siege of 20 months. He then spent 23 years rebuilding and embellishing Champaner, which he renamed Muhammadabad, Sultan Begada also built a magnificent Jama Masjid in Champaner, which ranks amongst the finest architectural edifices in Gujarat. BandagiMiyan Syed Khundmeer is located here
Champaner
6.
Hinduism
–
Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
Hinduism
–
Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing
Vedanta and
Yoga in Europe and USA, raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.
Hinduism
–
Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the
Hoysaleswara temple in
Halebidu, representing the
Trimurti:
Brahma,
Shiva and
Vishnu.
Hinduism
–
The
Rigveda is the first and most important Veda and is one of the oldest
religious texts. This Rigveda
manuscript is in
Devanagari.
Hinduism
–
A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life. A typical
Hindu wedding is solemnized before Vedic
fire ritual (shown).
7.
Islam
–
Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
Islam
–
The
Kaaba, in
Mecca,
Hejaz region, today's
Saudi Arabia, is the
center of Islam.
Muslims from all over the world gather there to
pray in unity.
Islam
–
The dome of the
Carol I Mosque in
Constanța,
Romania, topped by the
Islamic crescent
Islam
–
Medallion showing "
Allah " (
God) in
Hagia Sophia,
Istanbul,
Turkey.
Islam
–
An
angel presenting
Muhammad and his companions with a miniature city. In the
Topkapi Palace Library,
Istanbul.
8.
Jainism
–
Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. The central tenet is non-violence and respect all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada and aparigraha, followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha. Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders observe them within their practical limitations, self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. The word Jain derives from the Sanskrit word jina, a human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism. Jains trace their history through a succession of teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira, Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time. With 6-7 million followers, the majority of Jains reside in India, outside of India, some of the largest Jain communities are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the UK, Suriname, Fiji, and the United States. Contemporary Jainism is divided into two sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism, major Jain festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali. The principle of ahimsa is the most fundamental and well-known aspect of Jainism, the everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in avoiding harm to others thoughts, speech. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā, Jains extend the practice of nonviolence and kindness not only towards other humans but towards all living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, if there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products, veganism is encouraged. Jainism has an elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be invisible. Therefore, after humans and animals, insects are the living being offered protection in Jain practice. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed, Jainism teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent
Jainism
–
Sculpture depicting Ahimsa, the fundamental tenet of Jainism (Photo:
Ahinsa Sthal)
Jainism
–
Mahāvīra employed anekānta extensively to explain Jain philosophical concepts (painting from
Rajasthan, ca. 1900)
Jainism
–
Image of
Rishabha, first
tīrthaṅkara of the present Avsarpini era (Photo - Kundalpur, Madhya Pradesh)
Jainism
–
Siddhas (the liberated beings), although they are formless, this is how they are depicted in Jain temples
9.
Absolute Monarchy
–
Absolute monarchy, or despotic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which one ruler has supreme authority that is not restricted by any written laws, legislature, or customs. These are often, but not always, hereditary monarchies, in contrast, in constitutional monarchies, the head of states authority derives from and is legally bounded or restricted by a constitution or legislature. Some monarchies have weak or symbolic legislatures and other bodies that the monarch can alter or dissolve at will. Countries where a monarch still maintains absolute power are Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates, Swaziland, in Ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh wielded absolute power over the country and was considered a living god by his people. In ancient Mesopotamia, many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well, in ancient and medieval India, rulers of the Maurya, Satahavana, Gupta and Chalukya Empires, as well as other major and minor empires, were considered absolute monarchs. In the Khmer Empire, the kings were called Devaraja and Chakravartin, in Kingdom of Siam, the kings were esestablished Somburanaya-sittiraj. Throughout Chinese history, many emperors and one empress wielded absolute power through the Mandate of Heaven, in pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca, who was considered the son of Inti, the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Throughout much of European history, the right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs, such as those of Russia, claimed supreme autocratic power by right. James VI of Scotland and his son Charles I of Scotland and England tried to import this principle, there is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson, argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, a widely held story about Louis XIV of France is that he proclaimed Létat, cest moi. What Louis did say was, The interests of the state come first, when one gives these priority, one labors for ones own good. These advantages to the state redounds to ones glory, although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles, he reigned over France for a long period, and some historians consider him a successful absolute monarch. More recently, revisionist historians have questioned whether Louis reign should be considered absolute, the King of France concentrated in his person legislative, executive, and judicial powers. He was the judicial authority. He could condemn men to death without the right of appeal and it was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them and this law consequently authorized the king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm and his actions largely originated the militaristic streak of the Hohenzollern
Absolute Monarchy
–
Louis XIV of France
Absolute Monarchy
–
Hassanal Bolkiah is the 29th and current
Sultan of Brunei
Absolute Monarchy
–
Salman,
King of Saudi Arabia and
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques.
10.
Battle of Diu (1509)
–
It marks the beginning of European colonialism in Asia. Since Vasco da Gama arrived in 1498, the Portuguese had been fighting Calicut while allying with its local rival Kingdom of Cochin, where they established their headquarters. In 1505, the King of Portugal, Manuel I, sent his first viceroy, Dom Francisco de Almeida with twenty one vessels to strengthen the fledgling Portuguese empire in East Africa, sultan Mahmud Begada of Gujarat allied with the Kozhikkodu Samutiri when Portugal threatened his field. He then asked his partners, the Mamluks, for help. In 1507, Portuguese forces under command of Afonso de Albuquerque had conquered Socotra, at the mouth of the Red Sea and, for a short time, Ormuz in the Persian Gulf. The Mamluks and their European trade partners, the Venetians, had become wealthy from monopolising the flow of spices from India to Europe. Venice broke diplomatic relations with Portugal and started to look for ways to counter its intervention in the Indian Ocean, venice negotiated for Egyptian tariffs to be lowered to facilitate competition with the Portuguese, and suggested that rapid and secret remedies be taken against the Portuguese. The sovereign of Calicut, the Zamorin, had sent an ambassador asking for help against the Portuguese. These vessels, which Venetian shipwrights helped disassemble in Alexandria and reassemble on the Red Sea coast, had to brave the Indian Ocean, the galley warriors could mount light guns fore and aft, but not along the gunwales because these cannon would interfere with the rowers. The native ships, with their sewn wood planks, could carry no heavy guns at all, hence, most of the coalitions artillery was archers, whom the Portuguese could easily outshoot. The Mamluk-Ottoman fleet, called by the Portuguese by the generic term, joined by Gujarat admiral Malik Ayyaz, governor of Diu, they fought for over three days and won the Battle of Chaul. The Mamluk fleet isolated Lourenço de Almeidas ship, but let the others escape and they killed the Portuguese commander and took nine captives back to Diu. The Mirat Sikandari, a Persian account of the Kingdom of Gujarat, having taken the prisoners, they headed to Diu. Enraged at the death of his son, the Portuguese viceroy Francisco de Almeida sought revenge, Diu was a critical outpost in the overall spice trade from India. The Portuguese attempt to trade with India would require the breaking of this strongly defended. In addition to enforcing Portuguese rule, the battle was undertaken as an issue by Portuguese viceroy Francisco de Almeida to avenge the death of his son Lourenço at the hands of the Mirocem. He was so enraged at his sons death that he is supposed to have said, He who ate the chick must also eat the rooster, or pay for it. Francisco de Almeida had rushed to chase the Mamluks fleet because Afonso de Albuquerque arrived on 6 December 1508 with orders from the King of Portugal to replace him as the next viceroy
Battle of Diu (1509)
–
Diu Fort eventually built in 1535 after a defense alliance was sealed between the Portuguese and Sultan
Bahadur Shah by the
Treaty of Bassein (1534), when
Mughal Emperor Humayun waged war to annex the territory. 1521 and 1531 Portuguese attempts to seize the island by force had failed.
Battle of Diu (1509)
–
Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean around early 16th century
Battle of Diu (1509)
–
Diu city and the Portuguese fort (British engraving, 1729).
11.
Siege of Diu
–
The Siege of Diu occurred when an army of the Sultanate of Gujarat, aided by forces of the Ottoman Empire attempted to capture the city of Diu in 1538, then held by the Portuguese. The Portuguese successfully resisted the four month long siege, since 1517, the Ottomans had attempted to combine forces with Gujarat in order to fight the Portuguese away from the Red Sea and in the area of India. Pro-Ottoman forces under Captain Hoca Sefer had been installed by Selman Reis in Diu, Diu in Gujerat, was with Surat, one of the main points of supply of spices to Ottoman Egypt at that time. However, Portuguese intervention thwarted that trade by controlling the traffic in the Red Sea, in 1530, the Venetians could not obtain any supply of spices through Egypt. Under the command of governor Nuno da Cunha, the Portuguese had attempted to capture Diu by force in February 1531, thereafter, the Portuguese waged war on Gujarat, devastating its shores and several cities like Surat. The Portuguese seized the stronghold of Gogala near the city, bahadur Shah had also appealed to the Ottomans to expel the Portuguese, which led to the 1538 expedition. Pasha Suleiman forbade any shipping out of the Red Sea to avoid leaking information to the Portuguese in India, there were delays however due to the Siege of Coron in the Mediterranean, and the Ottoman-Safavid war of 1533-1535. It carried over 400 artillery pieces in total, over 10,000 sailors and rowers and 6,000 soldiers, the Pasha employed a Venetian renegade, Francisco, as captain of 10 galleys, plus 800 Christian mercenaries. In July 20,1538, the armada set sail from Jeddah, at Aden, Pasha Suleiman captured the city after inviting the Sultan, Sheikh Amir bin Dawaud, favourable towards the Portuguese, aboard his ships, then hanging him. Thus, Aden was occupied without a siege and it was the largest Ottoman fleet ever sent into the Indian Ocean. The captain of Diu at the time was the experienced António da Silveira, former captain of Bassein, the Portuguese fortress housed about 3,000 people, of which solely 600 were soldiers. For the following two months the Gujaratis were unable to threaten the besieged with more than a low-intensity bombardment, on September 4, the Ottoman fleet arrived in Diu, catching the Portuguese garrison by surprise and thus blockading the fortress by sea. The janissaries then attempted to scale the walls but are repelled with 50 dead. On September the 14th, four foists from Goa and Chaul arrived with reinforcements, in September 10 the army of Khadjar Safar bombarded the fortlet with Turkish artillery pieces before attempting to assault it with the aid of janissaries but are repelled. Khadjar Safar then ordered a craft be filled with timber, sulphur and tar, with which he hoped to place by the redoubt and smoke the Portuguese out. Realizing his intentions, António da Silveira sent Francisco de Gouveia with a crew on a craft to burn the device with fire bombs under cover from the night. Another assault on September 28 with 700 janissaries failed after a prolonged bombardment, the Portuguese garrison resisted until its captain Pacheco agreed to surrender to the Pasha on October 1, who had granted them safe passage to the fortress unarmed. When they surrendered however, Suleiman promptly had them imprisoned on his galleys, to which da Silveira then dictated out-loud his reply to be sent to the Pasha, ahead of the whole fortress, Most honored captain Pasha
Siege of Diu
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Ottoman fleet in the
Indian Ocean in the 16th century.
Siege of Diu
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An 18th century depiction of the Siege of Diu
Siege of Diu
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Death of
Sultan Bahadur in front of Diu during negotiations with the Portuguese, in 1537. Akbar Nama, end of 16th century.
Siege of Diu
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The
Diu Fort was built by the Portuguese in 1535.
12.
Second Siege of Diu
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The Second Siege of Diu was a siege of the Portuguese Indian city of Diu by the Gujarat Sultanate in 1546. It ended with a major Portuguese victory, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Muslim Sultanate of Gujarat was the principal seapower in India. Gujarat fought the Portuguese fleets in collaboration with the Mamluks, the Portuguese were defeated by a combined Mamluk-Gujarati fleet in 1508, which was in turn destroyed by a Portuguese fleet in the Battle of Diu. By 1536, the Portuguese had gained control of Diu. In 1538, the Ottomans, who had taken over Egypt and Aden and they besieged Diu in 1538, but had to retreat. After the failed siege of 1538, the Gujarati General Khadjar Safar besieged Diu again in an attempt to recapture the island, the siege lasted seven months from 20 April 1546 to 10 November 1546, during which João de Mascarenhas defended Diu. The siege ended when a Portuguese fleet under Governor João de Castro arrived and routed the attackers, Khadjar Safar and his son Muharram Rumi Khan were both killed during the siege. Siege of Diu First Siege of Diu
Second Siege of Diu
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A battle between the Portuguese Armada and Turkish soldiers on horseback in Goa, western India
13.
Akbar
–
Abul-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad, popularly known as Akbar I and later Akbar the Great, was a Mughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. He was the ruler of the Mughal Dynasty in India. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, a strong personality and a successful general, Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of the Indian Subcontinent north of the Godavari river. His power and influence, however, extended over the country because of Mughal military, political, cultural. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a system of administration throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture, holy men of many faiths, poets, architects and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and discussion. Akbars courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centres of the arts, letters, perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterised by Mughal style arts, painting, and architecture. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in outlook, it centred on Akbar as a prophet, for which he drew the ire of the ulema, many of his courtiers followed Din-i-Ilahi as their religion as well, as many believed that Akbar was a prophet. One famous courtier who followed this religion was Birbal. Akbars reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history, during his rule, the Mughal empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a military system and instituted effective political and social reforms. By abolishing the tax on non-Muslims and appointing them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust. He had Sanskrit literature translated, participated in festivals, realising that a stable empire depended on the co-operation. Thus, the foundations for an empire under Mughal rule was laid during his reign. Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Jahangir, defeated in battles at Chausa and Kannauj in 1539–40 by the forces of Sher Shah Suri Mughal emperor Humayun fled westward to Sindh. There he met and married the then 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a teacher of Humauyuns younger brother Hindal Mirza. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born the year on 15 October 1542 at the Rajput Fortress of Umerkot in Sindh
Akbar
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Late 16th century portrait of Akbar by
Manohar
Akbar
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Rejoicing at the birth of the emperor the great 1542
Akbar
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Akbar as a boy
Akbar
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The Mughal Emperor Akbar is depicted training an elephant
14.
Delhi Sultanate
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The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based mostly in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years. Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate sequentially, the Mamluk dynasty, the Khilji dynasty, the Tughlaq dynasty, the Sayyid dynasty, the first four dynasties were of Turkic origin, and the last dynasty was of Afghan origin. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori, was the first sultan of Delhi. Afterwards the Khilji dynasty was able to conquer most of central India. The sultanate reached the peak of its reach during the Tughlaq dynasty. This was followed by due to continuing Hindu-Muslim wars, states such as the Vijayanagara Empire asserting independence. The Delhi Sultanate caused destruction and desecration of politically important temples of South Asia, in 1526 the Sultanate fell, to be succeeded by the Mughal Empire. By 962 AD, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in South Asia were under a wave of raids from Muslim armies from Central Asia. Among them was Mahmud of Ghazni, who raided and plundered kingdoms in north India from east of the Indus river to west of Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030, Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries but retracted each time, only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab. The wave of raids on north Indian and western Indian kingdoms by Muslim warlords continued after Mahmud of Ghazni, the raids did not establish or extend permanent boundaries of their Islamic kingdoms. The Ghurid Sultan Muizz al-Din Muhammad began a war of expansion into north India in 1173. He sought to carve out a principality for himself by expanding the Islamic world, Mu’izz sought a Sunni Islamic kingdom of his own extending east of the Indus river, and he thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Delhi Sultanate. Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence, Muizz al-Din was assassinated in 1206, by Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims in some accounts or by Hindu Khokhars in others. After the assassination, one of Mu’izz slaves, the Turkic Qutbu l-Din Aibak, assumed power, Qutb al-Din Aibak, a slave of Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Aibak was of Cuman-Kipchak origin, and due to his lineage, Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years. After Aibak died, Aram Shah assumed power in 1210, but he was assassinated in 1211 by Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, iltutmishs power was precarious, and a number of Muslim amirs challenged his authority as they had been supporters of Qutb al-din Aibak. After a series of conquests and brutal executions of opposition, he consolidated his power and his rule was challenged a number of times, such as by Qubacha, and this led to a series of wars. Iltumish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers, as well as Ranathambhore and he also attacked, defeated, and executed Taj al-Din Yildiz, who asserted his rights as heir to Muizz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori
Delhi Sultanate
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History of the Turkic peoples Pre-14th century
Delhi Sultanate
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Alai Gate and Qutub Minar were built during Mamluk and Khalji dynasty periods of Delhi Sultanate.
Delhi Sultanate
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Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved his capital to the
Deccan Plateau, ordered Delhi people to move and build a new capital named Daulatabad (shown), then reversed his decision because Daulatabad lacked the river and drinking water supply Delhi had.
Delhi Sultanate
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A base metal coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq that led to an economic collapse.
15.
Tughlaq dynasty
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The Tughlaq dynasty, also referred to as Tughluq or Tughluk dynasty, was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic origin which ruled over the Delhi sultanate in medieval India. Its reign started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, the dynasty expanded its territorial reach through a military campaign led by Muhammad ibn Tughluq, and reached its zenith between 1330 and 1335. Its rule was marked with torture, cruelty and rebellions, resulting in the disintegration of the dynastys territorial reach after 1335 AD. The Khilji dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate before 1320 and its last ruler, Khusro Khan was a Hindu who had converted to Islam and then served Delhi Sultanate as the general of its army. Khusro Khan, along with Malik Kafur, had led military campaigns on behalf of Alauddin Khilji, to expand the Sultanate. However, he lacked the support of the Persian and Afghan nobels, the Muslim aristocracy invited the Turkic origin Ghazi Malik, then the governor in Punjab under the Khiljis, to lead a coup in Delhi and remove Khusro Khan. In 1320, Ghazi Malik launched an attack and killed Khusro Khan to assume power, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq After assuming power, Ghazi Malik rechristened himself as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq - thus starting and naming the Tughlaq dynasty. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq is also referred in scholarly works as Tughlak Shah and he was of Turko-Indian origins, with a Turkic father and a Hindu mother. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq rewarded all those maliks, amirs and officials of Khilji dynasty who had rendered him a service and he punished those who had rendered service to Khusro Khan, his predecessor. He built a city six kilometers east of Delhi, with a fort considered more defensible against the Mongol attacks, in 1321, he sent his eldest son Ulugh Khan, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, to Deogir to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang. His first attempt was a failure, four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again. Arangal fell, was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign. Historic documents state that the Sufi preacher and Ulugh Khan had learnt through messengers that Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq had resolved to remove them from Delhi upon his return, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq along with his favorite son Mahmud Khan died inside the collapsed kushk in 1325 AD, while his eldest son watched. One official historian of Tughlaq court gives an alternate fleeting account of his death, patricide According to many historians such as Ibn Battuta, al-Safadi, Işāmi, and Vincent Smith, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was killed by his son Ulugh Juna Khan, who then assumed power in 1325 AD. Juna Khan rechristened himself as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and ruled for 26 years, Muhammad bin Tughluq During Muhammad bin Tughluqs rule, Delhi Sultanate temporarily expanded to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach. He attacked and plundered Malwa, Gujarat, Mahratta, Tilang, Kampila, Dhur-samundar, Mabar, Lakhnauti, Chittagong, Sunarganw and his distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions all over Indian subcontinent became routine and he raised taxes to levels where people refused to pay any. In Indias fertile lands between Ganges and Yamuna rivers, the Sultan increased the tax rate on non-Muslims by tenfold in some districts
Tughlaq dynasty
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History of the Turkic peoples Pre-14th century
Tughlaq dynasty
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A painting of west gate of Firozabad fort, near Delhi. This fort was built by Feroz Shah Tughlaq in the 1350s, but destroyed by later dynasties.
Tughlaq dynasty
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Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ordered the construction of Tughlakabad, a city near Delhi with fort to protect Delhi Sultanate from Mongol attacks. Above is the Tughlaq fort, now in ruins.
Tughlaq dynasty
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A base metal coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq that led to an economic collapse.
16.
Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
Mughal Empire
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Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire.
Mughal Empire
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Flag
Mughal Empire
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Mughal Army artillerymen during the reign of
Akbar.
Mughal Empire
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Mughal matchlock rifle.
17.
Portuguese India
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The first viceroy, Francisco de Almeida, established his headquarters in Cochin. Subsequent Portuguese governors were not always of viceroy rank, after 1510, the capital of the Portuguese viceroyalty was transferred to Goa. Until the 18th century, the Portuguese governor in Goa had authority over all Portuguese possessions in the Indian Ocean, from southern Africa to southeast Asia. Portugal lost effective control of the enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954, and finally the rest of the territory in December 1961. In spite of this, Portugal only recognised Indian control in 1975, after the Carnation Revolution, the first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498 when Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on Malabar Coast. Anchored off the coast of Calicut, the Portuguese invited native fishermen on board, one Portuguese accompanied the fishermen to the port and met with a Tunisian Muslim. On the advice of this man, Gama sent a couple of his men to Ponnani to meet with ruler of Calicut, over the objections of Arab merchants, Gama managed to secure a letter of concession for trading rights from the Zamorin, Calicuts Hindu ruler. But, the Portuguese were unable to pay the customs duties. Later Calicut officials temporarily detained Gamas Portuguese agents as security for payment and this, however, annoyed Gama, who carried a few natives and sixteen fishermen with him by force. Nevertheless, Gamas expedition was successful beyond all expectation, bringing in cargo that was worth sixty times the cost of the expedition. Matters worsened when the Portuguese factory at Calicut was attacked by surprise by the locals, Cabral also ordered his ships to bombard Calicut for an entire day in retaliation for the violation of the agreement. In Cochin and Cannanore Cabral succeeded in making advantageous treaties with the local rulers, Cabral started the return voyage on 16 January 1501 and arrived in Portugal with only 4 of 13 ships on 23 June 1501. The Portuguese built the Pulicat fort in 1502, with the help of the Vijayanagar ruler, Vasco da Gama sailed to India for a second time with 15 ships and 800 men, arriving at Calicut on 30 October 1502, where the ruler was willing to sign a treaty. Gama this time made a call to expel all Muslims from Calicut which was turned down. He bombarded the city and captured several rice vessels and he returned to Portugal in September 1503. Francisco de Almeida left Portugal with a fleet of 22 vessels with 1,500 men, on 13 September, Francisco de Almeida reached Anjadip Island, where he immediately started the construction of Fort Anjediva. On 23 October, with the permission of the ruler of Cannanore, he started building St. Angelo Fort at Cannanore, leaving Lourenço de Brito in charge with 150 men. Francisco de Almeida then reached Cochin on 31 October 1505 with only 8 vessels left, there he learned that the Portuguese traders at Quilon had been killed
Portuguese India
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Remnants of
St. Thomas Fort in
Tangasseri,
Kollam city
Portuguese India
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Flag
Portuguese India
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Fort St. Angelo,
Cannanore
Portuguese India
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In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Portuguese Eastern empire, the Estado da Índia (State of India), with its capital in Goa, then often called in Europe as the "Rome of the East", included possessions (as subjected areas with a certain degree of autonomy) in all the Asian Subcontinents, East Africa, and in the Pacific
18.
Gujarat
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Gujarat is a state in Western India, sometimes referred to as the Jewel of Western India. It has an area of 196,024 km2 with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and the Arabian Sea and its capital city is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India, the state encompasses some sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the worlds first seaports, Gujarat was known to the ancient Greeks, and was familiar in other Western centres of civilisation through the end of the European Middle Ages. Modern-day Gujarat is derived from Sanskrit term Gurjaradesa, the Gurjar nation, parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat have been known as Gurjaratra or Gurjarabhumi for centuries before the Mughal period. Gujarat was one of the centres of the Indus Valley Civilization. It contains ancient metropolitan cities from the Indus Valley such as Lothal, Dholavira, the ancient city of Lothal was where Indias first port was established. The ancient city of Dholavira is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India, the most recent discovery was Gola Dhoro. Altogether, about 50 Indus Valley settlement ruins have been discovered in Gujarat, the ancient history of Gujarat was enriched by the commercial activities of its inhabitants. There is clear evidence of trade and commerce ties with Egypt, Bahrain. The early history of Gujarat reflects the grandeur of Chandragupta Maurya who conquered a number of earlier states in what is now Gujarat. Pushyagupta, a Vaishya, was appointed governor of Saurashtra by the Mauryan regime and he ruled Giringer and built a dam on the Sudarshan lake. Between the decline of Mauryan power and Saurashtra coming under the sway of the Samprati Mauryas of Ujjain, in the first half of the 1st century AD there is the story of a merchant of King Gondaphares landing in Gujarat with Apostle Thomas. The incident of the cup-bearer killed by a lion might indicate that the city described is in Gujarat. For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century AD, the weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the ruler Rudradaman I of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to the Aparanta region which bordered Punjab, in Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps, the Kshatrapa dynasty was replaced by the Gupta Empire with the conquest of Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya
Gujarat
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Clockwise from top: High Court of Gujarat, Dwarka Beach, Laxmi Vilas Palace, Kankaria Lakefront, Gandhi Ashram, Salt Desert of Kutch
Gujarat
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The docks of ancient Lothal as they are today
Gujarat
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Ancient sophisticated water reservoir at Dholavira
Gujarat
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Rani ki vav 11th century.
19.
Mumbai
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Mumbai is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world, Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2008, Mumbai was named a world city. It is also the wealthiest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West, Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India. The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies, during the mid-18th century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea. Along with construction of roads and railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845. Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development, during the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement. Upon Indias independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State, in 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India and it is also home to some of Indias premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic Energy. The city also houses Indias Hindi and Marathi film and television industry, Mumbais business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living, attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures. The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja, in 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da Índia. This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim, meaning good little bay, in 1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu, Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi. Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include, Mombayn, Bombay, Bombain, Bombaym, Monbaym, Mombaim, Mombaym, Bambaye, Bombaiim, Bombeye, Boon Bay, and Bon Bahia. After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century, Ali Muhammad Khan, imperial diwan or revenue minister of the Gujarat province, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi referred to the city as Manbai. By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, the Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995. According to Slate magazine, they argued that Bombay was a corrupted English version of Mumbai, Slate also said The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region. A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language, the term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai. Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands, Bombay Island, Parel, Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli and it is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited
Mumbai
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Clockwise from top:
Cuffe Parade skyline,
Taj Mahal Palace Hotel,
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus,
Bandra–Worli Sea Link, and the
Gateway of India.
Mumbai
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The temple of local Hindu goddess
Mumbadevi, from whom the city of Mumbai derives its name
Mumbai
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Kanheri Caves served as a centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient times
20.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
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Flag
India
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The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
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Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
21.
Muhammad Shah I
–
Muhammad Shah I was the second ruler of the Bahmani Sultanate, a late medieval kingdom of India. He succeeded his father Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah and his reign was marked by a series of wars between his kingdom and two neighboring kingdoms, the Vijayanagara and the Warangal under Kapaya Nayaka. He was succeeded by his son Alauddin Mujahid Shah, like his father Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammed was involved in wars with Vijayanagara. However he also became embroiled in wars with Warangal, Muhammed died in 1375 from drinking too much
Muhammad Shah I
–
A copper coin of Muhammad Shah 1
22.
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat
–
Sultan Qutb-ud-Din Bahadur Shah, who reigned 1526–1535 and 1536–1537, was a sultan of Gujarat Sultanate, a late medieval kingdom in India. Bahadur Shahs father was Shams-ud-Din Muzaffar Shah II, who had ascended to the throne of the Gujarat Sultanate in 1511, Muzaffar Shah II nominated Sikandar Shah as the heir apparent to the throne. Bahadur Shahs relationship with his brother and father became tense as Sikandar Shah began to assume greater administrative control, fearing for his life, Bahadur Shah fled Gujarat, first seeking refuge with Chittor, and then with Ibrahim Lodi. He was present at the Battle of Panipat, though he did not take part in fighting, the opposition was suppressed immediately and they were executed. After this Bahadur turned against his brothers, his nearest rival Latif was severely wounded in an action, taken prisoner, Mahmud II, the infant son of Muzaffar Shah II, who succeeded Sikandar after his death and three other princes were poisoned. After Bahadur ascended to the throne in 1526, he was requested by the rulers of the Khandesh, in 1528, Bahadur invested the fort of Daulatabad, but later he was forced to retire because of the stiff resistance put up by the Ahmadnagar army. Next year, he started the campaign and overcoming a stiff opposition again besieged Daulatabad. At this point, one of his ally, the ruler of Berar betrayed him, finally, both the rulers of the Ahmadnagar and Berar were forced to sign a humiliating treaty. Next, Bahadur invaded Malwa, Mahmud II literally made no resistance, Malwa was annexed into his kingdom. While, Bahadur was engaged in the siege of Mandu, a strong Portuguese fleet sailed from Bombaim, on February 7,1531 the fleet reached near Shiyal Bet island, which they captured overcoming in spite of strong resistance. On February 16,1531 they started bombarding Diu but could not succeed to any appreciable damage to its fortification. On March 1,1531 Nuno da Cunha left for Goa, leaving a subordinate officer, on December 23,1534 while on board the galleon St. Mattheus he signed the Treaty of Bassein. Based on the terms of the agreement, the Portuguese Empire gained control of the city of Bassein, as well as its territories, islands, and seas. In February,1537 he was killed by the Portuguese while visiting them on a Portuguese ship anchored off the coast of Gujarat and these events were followed by the 1538 Siege of Diu. Bahadur had no son, hence there was uncertainty regarding succession after his death. Muhammad Zaman Mirza, the fugitive Mughal prince made his claim on the ground that Bahadurs mother adopted him as her son, the nobles selected his nephew Miran Muhammad Shah of Khandesh as his successor, but he died on his way to Gujarat. Finally, the nobles selected Mahmud Khan, the son of Bahadurs brother Latif Khan as his successor and he was a great patron of the Hindustani Classical music and its artists, including Baiju Bawra
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat
–
The
Mughal Emperor Humayun, fights Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, in the year 1535.
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat
–
Death of Bahadur Shah in front of Diu during negotiations with the Portuguese, in 1537. Akbar Nama, end of 16th century.
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat
–
A copper coin of Bahadur
23.
Humayun
–
Like his father, Babur, he lost his kingdom early but regained it with the aid of the Safavid dynasty of Persia, with additional territory. At the time of his death in 1556, the Mughal Empire spanned almost one million square kilometres, in December 1530 Humayun succeeded his father as ruler of the Mughal territories in the Indian subcontinent. At the age of 23, Humayun was an inexperienced ruler when he came to power and his half-brother Kamran Mirza inherited Kabul and Lahore, the northernmost parts of their fathers empire. Mirza was to become a rival of Humayun. Humayun lost Mughal territories to the Pashtun noble, Sher Shah Suri, Humayuns return from Persia was accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen and signalled an important change in Mughal court culture. The Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language, there are many stone carvings and thousands of Persian manuscripts in India dating from the time of Humayun. Subsequently, Humayun further expanded the Empire in a short time, leaving a substantial legacy for his son. His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him the title ’Insān-i-Kamil, among the Mughals. The decision of Babur to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India, although it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of Genghis Khan. Unlike most monarchies, which practised primogeniture, the Timurids followed the example of Genghis, although under that system only a Chingissid could claim sovereignty and khanal authority, any male Chinggisid within a given sub-branch had an equal right to the throne. While Genghis Khans Empire had been divided between his sons upon his death, almost every Chinggisid succession since had resulted in fratricide. Timur himself had divided his territories among Pir Muhammad, Miran Shah, Khalil Sultan and Shah Rukh, upon Baburs death, Humayuns territories were the least secure. He had ruled only four years, and not all umarah viewed Humayun as the rightful ruler, indeed, earlier, when Babur had become ill, some of the nobles had tried to install his uncle, Mahdi Khwaja, as ruler. Although this attempt failed, it was a sign of problems to come, when Humayun came to the throne of the Mughal Empire, several of his brothers revolted against him. Another brother Khalil Mirza supported Humayun but was assassinated, the Emperor commenced construction of a tomb for his brother in 1538, but this was not yet finished when Humayun was forced to flee to Persia. Sher Shah destroyed the structure and no work was done on it after Humayuns restoration. Humayun had two rivals for his lands, Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat to the southwest and Sher Shah Suri settled along the river Ganges in Bihar to the east. Humayuns first campaign was to confront Sher Shah Suri, halfway through this offensive Humayun had to abandon it and concentrate on Gujarat, where a threat from Ahmed Shah had to be met
Humayun
–
Mughal Emperor Humayun
Humayun
–
Babur celebrates the birth of Humayun in the
Charbagh of
Kabul.
Humayun
–
The
Mughal Emperor Humayun, fights
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, in the year 1535.
Humayun
–
Raja Todar Mal an ally of
Sher Shah Suri, constructed the
Rohtas Fort to check Humayun's retry from
Persia, and also halt the local
Muslim tribes from joining the claimant emperor.
24.
Ottoman Empire
–
After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting from 1523.
Ottoman Empire
–
Flag (1844–1923)
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Mohács in 1526
Ottoman Empire
–
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the
Holy League of
Charles V under the command of
Andrea Doria at the
Battle of Preveza in 1538.
25.
Portuguese Empire
–
The Portuguese Empire, also known as the Portuguese Overseas, was one of the largest and longest-lived empires in world history and the first colonial empire. It existed for almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002, the first era of the Portuguese empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Initiated by the Kingdom of Portugal, it would eventually expand across the globe, in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the secret design. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts, by 1571, a string of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India and South Asia. This commercial network and the trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth. Though the realms continued to be administered separately, the Council of Portugal ruled the country and its empire from Madrid. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain, the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller population, Portugal was unable to defend its overstretched network of trading posts. Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the era until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the Americas during the early 19th century. The third era represents the stage of Portuguese colonialism after the decolonization of the Americas of the 1820s. The colonial possessions had been reduced to the African coastline, Portuguese Timor, the disastrous 1890 British Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa. Macau was returned to China in 1999, the origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the gradual reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors. There were several motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate. In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast, under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira and Azores were reached and started to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal. Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henrys captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to further along the coast
Portuguese Empire
–
The
Conquest of Ceuta, in 1415, was led by
Henry the Navigator, and initiated the Portuguese Empire.
Portuguese Empire
–
Map of Western Africa by Lázaro Luis (1563). The large castle in West Africa represents the
São Jorge da Mina (Elmina castle).
Portuguese Empire
–
Vasco da Gama 's departure to
India, in 1497
26.
Akbarnama
–
It was written in Persian, the literary language of the Mughals, and includes vivid and detailed descriptions of his life and times. The work was commissioned by Akbar, and written by Abul Fazl and it is stated that the book took seven years to be completed. The original manuscripts contained many miniature paintings supporting the texts, thought to have been illustrated between c, after Akbars death in 1605, the manuscript remained in the library of his son, Jahangir and later Shah Jahan. Today, the manuscript of Akbarnma, with 116 miniature paintings, is at the Victoria. It was bought by the South Kensington Museum in 1896 from Mrs Frances Clarke, soon after, the paintings and illuminated frontispiece were removed from the volume to be mounted and framed for display. The first volume of Akbarnama deals with the birth of Akbar, the history of Timurs family and the reigns of Babur and Humayun, the second volume describes the detailed history of the reign of Akbar till 1602, and records the events during Akbars reign. It also deals with that how Bairam Khan and Akbar won the battle of Panipat against Hemu an Indian warrior, the third volume is named Ā’īn-i-Akbarī, and details the administrative system of the Empire as well as containing the famous Account of the Hindu Sciences. It also deals with Akbars household, army, the revenues and it also produces rich details about the traditions and culture of the people living in India. It is famous for its rich statistical details about things as diverse as crop yields, I know not whether the love of my native land has been the attracting influence or exactness of historical research and genuine truthfulness of narrative. In this section, he expounds the major beliefs of the six major Hindu philosophical schools of thought, and those of the Jains, Buddhists and he also gives several Indian accounts of geography, cosmography, and some tidbits on Indian aesthetic thought. Most of this information is derived from Sanskrit texts and knowledge systems, Abul Fazl admits that he did not know Sanskrit and it is thought that he accessed this information through intermediaries, likely Jains who were favoured at Akbars court. In his description of Hinduism, Abu’l Fazl tries to relate everything back to something that the Muslims could understand, many of the orthodox Muslims thought that the Hindus were guilty of two of the greatest sins, polytheism and idolatry. On the topic of idolatry, Abu’l Fazl says that the symbols and images that the Hindus carry are not idols and he writes that only serving and worshipping God is required. Abul Fazl also describes the Caste system to his readers and he writes the name, rank, and duties of each caste. He then goes on to describe the sixteen subclasses which come from intermarriage among the main four. ”He places the actions and what event they bring about in the next life into four different kinds. First, he writes many of the different ways in which a person from one class can be born into a different class in the next life and he classifies the second kind as the different diseases and sicknesses one suffers from. The third kind is actions which cause a woman to be barren, and the fourth kind deals with money and generosity, or lack thereof. The Ain-i-Akbari is currently housed in the Hazarduari Palace, in West Bengal, the Akbarnama of Shaikh Illahdad Faiz Sirhindi is another contemporary biography of the Mughal emperor Akbar
Akbarnama
–
Akbar on a hunt
Akbarnama
–
Mughal Emperor Akbar crossing the river at night.
27.
History of Gujarat
–
The history of Gujarat, began with settlements of the Indus Valley Civilisation that have been found in the region. With the discovery of large Harappan site of Dholavira in Kutch District, lothal has been established as the oldest known port of the world. Gujarats coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and trading centers in the Nanda, Maurya, Satavahana, after the fall of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat flourished as an independent Hindu/Buddhist states. The Maitraka dynasty, descended from a Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th centuries from their capital at Vallabhi, the Arab rulers of Sindh sacked Vallabhi in 770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. The Gurjara-Pratihara Empire ruled Gujarat after from the 8th to 10th centuries, as well as, for some periods the region came under the control of Rashtrakuta Empire and Pala Empire. In 775 the first Parsi refugees arrived in Gujarat from Greater Iran, during the 10th century, the native Chaulukya dynasty came to power. Under the Chaulukya dynasty, Gujarat reached to its greatest extent, from 1297 to 1300, Allauddin Khilji, the Turkic Sultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat into the Delhi Sultanate. Cambay eclipsed Bharuch as Gujarats most important trade port, the Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when the Mughal emperor Akbar the Great conquered it and annexed it to the Mughal Empire. The port of Surat become the prominent and main port of India during Mughal rule, Gujarat remained a province of the Mughal empire until the Marathas occupied eastern and central Gujarat in the 18th century, Western Gujarat were divided among numerous local rulers. Later in the 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire who dominated the politics of India, pilaji Gaekwad, first ruler of Gaekwad dynasty, established the control over Baroda and much of Gujarat. After the Battle of Panipat in 1761, all Maratha generals established themselves as a government while keeping the nominal authority of the Peshwas of Pune. The British East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwads of Baroda, made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state. Mohandas Gandhi, considered Indias father of the nation, was a Gujarati who led the Indian Independence Movement against the British colonial rule, Gujarat was formed by splitting Bombay state in 1960 on linguistic lines. From 1960 to 1995, Indian National Congress retained power in Gujarat Legislative Assembly while other political parties ruled for incomplete terms in the 1970s and 1990, Bharatiya Janata Party has been in the power since 1998. Several sites of stone age are discovered in riverbeds of Sabarmati, some of such sites are Hirpura, Derol, Kapadvanj, Langhnaj and Shamlaji. The history of human settlement began with settlements of the Indus Valley Civilisation that have been found in the region. With the discovery of large Harappan site of Dholavira in Kutch District, lothal has been established as the oldest known port of the world
History of Gujarat
–
An ancient well, and the city drainage canals
History of Gujarat
–
Gop temple, 6th Century,
Maitraka period,
Jamnagar dist.
History of Gujarat
–
Early Gujarat (BC 250 to 1300 AD)
History of Gujarat
–
Rani ki vav 11th century.
28.
Malwa
–
Malwa is a natural region in west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, the historical Malwa region includes districts of western Madhya Pradesh, the definition of Malwa is sometimes extended to include the Nimar region north of the Vindhyas. The Malwa region had been a political unit from the time of the ancient Malava Kingdom. It has been ruled by several kingdoms and dynasties, including the Avanti Kingdom, the Mauryans, the Malavas, the Guptas, the Paramaras, the Malwa sultans, the Mughals and the Marathas. Malwa continued to be a division until 1947, when the Malwa Agency of British India was merged into Madhya Bharat state of independent India. Although its political borders have fluctuated throughout history, the region has developed its own culture, influenced by the Rajasthani, Marathi. Ujjain had been the political, economic, and cultural capital of the region in ancient times, overall, agriculture is the main occupation of the people of Malwa. The region has one of the important producers of opium in the world. Wheat and soybeans are other important cash crops, and textiles are a major industry, several early stone age or Lower Paleolithic habitations have been excavated in eastern Malwa. The name Malwa is derived from the name of the ancient Indian tribe of Malavas, the name Malava is said to be derived from the Sanskrit term Malav, which means “part of the abode of Lakshmi”. The location of the Malwa or Moholo, mentioned by the 7th-century Chinese traveller Xuanzang, is identified with present-day Gujarat. The region is cited as Malibah in Arabic records, such as Kamilu-t Tawarikh by Ibn Asir, Ujjain, also known historically as Ujjaiyini and Avanti, emerged as the first major centre in the Malwa region during Indias second wave of urbanisation in the 7th century BC. Around 600 BC an earthen rampart was built around Ujjain, enclosing a city of considerable size, Avanti was one of the prominent mahajanapadas of ancient India. The region was conquered by the Maurya Empire in the mid-4th century BC, Ashoka, who was later a Mauryan emperor, was governor of Ujjain in his youth. After the death of Ashoka in 232 BC, the Maurya Empire began to collapse, although evidence is sparse, Malwa was probably ruled by the Kushanas, the Shakas and the Satavahana dynasty during the 1st and 2nd century CE. Ownership of the region was the subject of dispute between the Western Kshatrapas and the Satavahanas during the first three centuries AD, Ujjain emerged a major trading centre during the 1st century AD. Malwa became part of the Gupta Empire during the reign of Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, the Gupta period is widely regarded as a golden age in the history of Malwa, when Ujjain served as the empires western capital
Malwa
–
Mhow cantonment area in Malwa
Malwa
–
Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 BCE.
Malwa
–
Coin showing
Karttikeya and
Lakshmi (Ujjain, circa 150–75 BC)
Malwa
–
Rani Rupmati Pavilion at Mandu, built by
Miyan Bayezid Baz Bahadur (1555–62)
29.
Jorwe
–
Jorwe is a village and an archaeological site located on the Pravara, a tributary of the Godavari River in Sangamner taluka of Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra state in India. This site was excavated in 1950-51 under the direction of Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia and it has historical background in Indian independence movement. Bhausaheb Thorat, known freedom fighter and milestone of Late Bhausaheb Thorat Sahakari Sakhar Karkhana Ltd, as in the preceding culture, it was characterised by a distinct type of painted pottery, a blade-flake industry of chalcedony, as well as tools and ornaments of copper. However, due to the scarcity of the metal, copper was used sparingly and their mixed economy was based on agriculture, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. They cultivated a variety of crops, including cereals and they practised crop rotation because it gave them the facility of irrigation - clear evidence of that has been unearthed at Inamgaon, near Pune. The people of Jorwe lived in rectangular houses with wattle and daub walls. They stored grain in bins and pit silos, cooked food in two armed chulas inside the house and roasted animals in a fire pit in the courtyard. They worshipped a goddess associated with fertility and another headless deity. They believed in life after death, and therefore interred the dead inside the house under the floor, children were buried in two urns that were joined mouth-to-mouth and set horizontally in the pit, while adults were placed in a supine position with the head towards the North. Before the ceremonial burial, the feet were chopped off, possibly because of the fear of the turning into ghosts
Jorwe
–
History
30.
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
The Indus Valley Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread, at its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft, the Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, as of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered, a relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province as well, other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, Harappan Civilisation remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after its first findspot. John wrote, I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway and they were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of the track running from Karachi to Lahore. In 1872–75, Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal and it was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600–2450 BCE.
LACMA
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
Excavated ruins of
Mohenjo-daro, with the
Great Bath in the front
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
Indus Valley pottery, 2500–1900 BCE
31.
Cemetery H culture
–
The Cemetery H culture was a Bronze Age culture in the Punjab, north-western India, from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. It has been related to both the phase of the Harappan civilisation, and the Indo-Aryan migrations. The Cemetery H culture was located in and around the Punjab region in present-day India and it was named after a cemetery found in area H at Harappa. Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE, according to Kennedy and Mallory & Adams, the Cemetery H culture also shows clear biological affinities with the earlier population of Harappa. Some traits of the Cemetery H culture have been associated with the Swat culture, according to Parpola, the Cemetery H culture represents a first wave of Indo-Aryan migration from as early as 1900 BCE, which was followed by a migration to the Punjab c. Together with the Gandhara grave culture and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the distinguishing features of this culture include, The use of cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns and this is completely different from the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. The urn burials and the skeletons were nearly contemporaneous. Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc. sun or star motifs, expansion of settlements into the east. Apparent breakdown of the trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used. Continued use of mud brick for building, cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture, a practice previously described in the Vedas. The Rigveda contains a reference to the practice, in RV10.15.14. Indus Valley Tradition Painted Grey Ware Copper Hoard Culture http, //www. harappa. com harappa. com http, //pubweb. cc. u-tokai. ac. jp/indus/english/3_1_01. html journal
Cemetery H culture
–
Geography of the Rigveda, with
river names; the extent of the
Swat and Cemetery H cultures are indicated.
32.
Vedic period
–
The Vedic period was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, scholars consider Vedic civilisation to have been a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so-called Hindu synthesis. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c.1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda-samhita, which was composed between c and they brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the zone between the Zeravshan River and Iran. It was a mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra, Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug probably borrowed from the BMAC religion and his rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who inhabited this region. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus, the Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices or obey the commandments of gods. Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. Internecine military conflicts between the tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni. The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin. Bharatas lived around the regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab, division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war
Vedic period
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Aryans settling in India
Vedic period
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Vedic period
Vedic period
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Modern replica of utensils and
falcon shaped altar used for
Agnicayana, an elaborate
srauta ritual originating from the
Kuru Kingdom, around 1000 BCE.
Vedic period
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Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli,
Malwa, 1300 BCE.
33.
Janapada
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The Janapadas were the realms, republics and kingdoms of the Indian Vedic period late Bronze Age into the from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE. Concluding with the rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas, most of the states were annexed by more powerful neighbours. The Sanskrit term janapada is a compound term, composed of two words, janas and pada. The word pada means foot, from its earliest attestation, the word has had a meaning of realm, territory. Linguist George Dunkel compares the Greek andrapodon slave, to PIE *pédom fetters, Sanskrit padám, usually taken to mean footprint, trail, diverges in accent from the PIE reconstruction. For the sense of population of the land, padasya janas, a primary meaning of place of the people, janasya padam, would not explain why the compound is of masculine gender. An original dvandva land and people is conceivable, but a dual inflection would be expected, literary evidence suggests that the janapadas flourished between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. The earliest mention of the term occurs in the Aitareya. In the Vedic samhitas, the term denotes a tribe. The janas were headed by a king, the samiti was a common assembly of the jana members, and had the power to elect or dethrone the king. The sabha was an assembly of wise elders, who advised the king. The janas were originally semi-nomadic pastoral communities, but gradually came to be associated with specific territories as they became less mobile, various kulas developed within the jana, each with its own chief. Gradually, the necessities of defence and warfare prompted the janas to form military groupings headed by janapadins and this model ultimately evolved into the establishment of political units known as the janapadas. While some of the janas evolved into their own janapadas, others appear to have mixed together to form a common Janapada, according to the political scientist Sudama Misra, the name of the Panchala janapada suggests that it was a fusion of five janas. Some janas mentioned in the earliest texts do not find a mention in the later texts, Misra theorizes that these smaller janas were conquered by and assimilated into the larger janas. Janapadas were gradually dissolved around 500 BCE and their disestablishment can be attributed to the rise of imperial powers within India, as well as in the Northwest of South Asia by foreign invaders. The Janapada were highest political unit in Ancient India during this period these polities were usually monarchical, the head of a kingdom was called a or king. A chief or priest and a or commander of administrating the army who would assist the king, there were also two other political bodies, the thought to be a council of elders and the a general assembly of the entire people
Janapada
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This detailed map shows the locations of Kingdoms mentioned in the Indian epics.
Janapada
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Late vedic era map showing the boundaries of
Āryāvarta or "Northern India" which contained most of the janapadas others were outside this region in
Dakshinapatha or "Southern India"..
34.
Black and red ware culture
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The black and red ware culture is an early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern Indian subcontinent. It is dated to roughly the 12th – 9th century BCE, BRW pottery is unknown west of the Indus Valley. Recent findings in Northern India show Iron working since 1800 BCE, according to Shaffer, the nature and context of the iron objects involved are very different from early iron objects found in Southwest Asia. It is succeeded by the Painted Grey Ware culture, Mathura, A protohistoric Perspective in D. M. Srinivasan, Mathura, the Cultural Heritage,1989, pp. 171–180, the origins of iron-working in India, new evidence from the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas by Rakesh Tewari India Heritage - Earthenware and Pottery
Black and red ware culture
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Black and Red Ware, Sonkh,
Uttar Pradesh.
Government Museum, Mathura.
35.
Painted Grey Ware culture
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The Painted Grey Ware culture is an Iron Age culture of the Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BCE to 600 BCE. It is contemporary to, and a successor of the Black, but this point of view may change as fresh surveys by archaeologist Vinay Kumar Gupta suggest Mathura was the largest PGW site around 375 hectares in area. Two periods of PGW were identified recently at Ahichhatra, the earliest from 1500 to 800 BCE, total number of PGW sites discovered so far is more than 1100. It probably corresponds to the middle and late Vedic period, i. e. the Kuru-Panchala kingdom and it is succeeded by Northern Black Polished Ware from c. 700-500 BCE, associated with the rise of the great mahajanapada states, the PGW culture cultivated rice, wheat, and barley, and domesticated cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses. Houses were built of wattle-and-daub, mud, or bricks, ranging in size from small huts to large houses with many rooms, there is a clear settlement hierarchy, with a few central towns that stand out amongst numerous small villages. In the 1950s, archaeologist B. B. Lal associated Hastinapura, Mathura, Ahichatra, Kampilya, Barnava, Kurukshetra and other sites of PGW culture with the Mahabharata period and the Aryans. Furthermore, he pointed out that the Mahabharata mentions a flood, however, B. B. Lal considered his theories to be provisional and based upon a limited body of evidence, and he later reconsidered his statements on the nature of this culture. The pottery style of culture is different from the pottery of the Iranian Plateau. In some sites, PGW pottery and Late Harappan pottery are contemporaneous, the archaeologist Jim Shaffer has noted that at present, the archaeological record indicates no cultural discontinuities separating Painted Grey Ware from the indigenous protohistoric culture. However, the continuity of pottery styles may be explained by the fact that pottery was made by indigenous craftsmen even after the Indo-Aryan migration. According to Chakrabarti and other scholars, the origins of the subsistence patterns, towards the end of the period, many of the PGW settlements grew into the large towns and cities of the Northern Black Polished Ware period. Confirmation of this early PGW came when a team of the Archaeological Survey of India led by B. R, kuru Kingdom Panchala Mahajanapadas Bryant, Edwin. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture, the Aryan hypothesis in Indian archaeology. Indian Studies Past and Present 4, 333-358, the Indo-Aryan Invasions, Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. “Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric record from South Asia. ”, in George Erdosy. The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, p. 49-54
Painted Grey Ware culture
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Painted Grey Ware - Sonkh (
Uttar Pradesh) - 1000-600 BCE.
Government Museum, Mathura
Painted Grey Ware culture
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Map of some PGW sites.
36.
Mahajanapada
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A Mahājanapada is one of the sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth centuries BCE to fourth centuries BCE. Two of them were most probably ganas i. e. republics, the 6th century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. Archaeologically, this corresponds in part to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. The term Janapada literally means the foothold of a tribe, the fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the Buddha, the Pre-Buddhist north-west region of the Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Pāṇinis Ashtadhyayi, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry, each of these Janapadas was named after the Kshatriya tribe who had settled therein. Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations which were in existence before the time of the Buddha and they do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara, the more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable. The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharva-Veda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis, the Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of Aryan people. It mentions the cities of ancient India. It was also a center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara and this was the one and only conquest of Bimbisara. The Country of Assaka or the Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or southern India, in Buddhas time, the Assakas were located on the banks of the river Godavari. The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali, which corresponds to Paudanya of Mahabharata, the Ashmakas are also mentioned by Pāṇini. They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat Samhita, the river Godavari separated the country of the Assakas from that of the Mulakas. The commentator of Kautiliyas Arthashastra identifies Ashmaka with Maharashtra, the country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It was located on a high road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka and abutted Avanti, the country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha
Mahajanapada
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This detailed map shows the locations of Kingdoms mentioned in the Indian epics.
Mahajanapada
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Map of the 16 Mahajanapada
37.
Abhira Kingdom
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The Abhira kingdom in the Mahabharata is either of two kingdoms near the Sarasvati river. They were dominated by the Abhiras, sometimes referred to as Surabhira also, modern day Abhira territory lies within Northern areas of Gujarat and Southern Rajasthan, India. King Sivadatta was probably the founder of the Abhira kingdom, Abhiras are mentioned as warriors in support of Duryodhana in Mahabharta war. The Gopas, whom Krishna had offered to Duryodhana to fight in his support when he himself joined Arjunas side, were no other than the Yadavas themselves, ramayana refers to Abhiras as Ugradarshana – Mlecchas and dasyus. The Abhiras also have been described as Vratas, panini mentions these Vratas as robbers. The Abhiras are said to have looted the train of Arjuna, the Pandava, Abhiras are said to have waylaid Arjuna and deprived him of remaining wealth from Dwarka and women somewhere in Punjab. Abhiras who looted Arjuna were the supporters of the Kauravas, and in the Mahabharata, Abhir, Gopa, Gopal and they defeated the hero of Mahabharatha war, and did spare him when he disclosed the identity of the members of the family of Sri Krishna. Ahir Abhira tribe Yadav Kingdoms of Ancient India Sudra Kingdom Saraswati Yaduvanshi Ahirs Kisari Mohan Ganguli, The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa Translated into English Prose, 1883–1896
Abhira Kingdom
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Books (parva s)
38.
Anarta Kingdom
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Anarta is the name of a mythological kingdom of ancient India described in the Mahabharata, roughly forming the northern Gujarat state of India. It was founded by a grandson of Vaivasvata, inter alia the father of the present Manu and of Yama and he built a fortress at Kusasthali, which was later flooded by Varuna. The place remained then for some time as a forest land, before Krishna and it was then ruled by Yadavas after they fled from Mathura of Surasena Kingdom, due to the attacks of Jarasandha, the king of Magadha. The Yadava chiefs like Vasudeva Krishna, Bala Rama, Kritavarma and Satyaki, in Mahabharata, Dwaraka is considered as a capital city of Anarta Kingdom. But some other ancient texts like Mahabhagavata, mentions Dwaraka and Anarta as two independent kingdoms, as per the Purana viz. Bhagavata Purana, Bala Ramas wife Revati was from this kingdom. When Pandavas were exiled to the woods, by the Kauravas, the five sons of Pandavas, born to Draupadi, were sent to Panchala, the kingdom ruled by their maternal grandfather Drupada. They later went to the Anarta Kingdom, ruled by the Yadavas, so that they can stay with their brother and dear friend, Abhimanyu. Vasudeva Krishnas words to Princess Krishna, - Those sons of yours, are devoted to the study of the science of arms, are well-behaved and conduct themselves on the pattern of their righteous friends. Your father and your uterine brothers proffer them a kingdom and territories, safely proceeding to the land of the Anartas, they take the greatest delight in the study of the science of arms. Your sons enter the town of the Vrishnis and take a liking to the people there. And as you would direct them to themselves, or as the respected Kunti would do. Perhaps, she is more careful of them. As Pradyumna is the preceptor of Aniruddha, of Abhimanyu, of Sunitha, and of Bhanu, so he is the preceptor and the refuge of your sons also. And a good preceptor, would give them lessons in the wielding of maces and swords and bucklers, in missiles and in the arts of driving cars and of riding horses. And when your son goes out, in pursuit of sports, each one of them is followed thither by cars and horses and vehicles, Bala Rama, with plough as his weapon, will lead the warriors consisting of bowmen, horsemen, foot-soldiers, cars and elephants. In the fifth book, Chapter 83 of Mahabharata, it is mentioned that Pandavas mother Kunti also stayed for some time in Anarta, after the expiry of the thirteenth year, the five Pandavas took up their abode in one of Virata’s towns called Upaplavya. Arjuna brought over Abhimanyu and Vasudeva Krishna, and also people of the Dasarha race from the Anarta country. Mbh 5.7 Both Duryodhana and Arjuna arrived at the city of Anarta seeking alliance of Yadavas, some Yadava heroes allied with Kauravas while others allied with the Pandavas
Anarta Kingdom
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Books (parva s)
39.
Dwaraka Kingdom
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See Dwarka for the modern city. Not to be confused with the historical Dvaravati kingdom of Thailand, Dvaraka, also known as Dvāravatī is a sacred city in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The name Dvārakā is said to have given to the place by the Hindu god Krishna. Dvārakā is one of the Sapta Puri of Hinduism, in the Mahabharata, it was a city located in what is now Dwarka, formerly called Kushasthali, the fort of which had to be repaired by the Yadavas. In this epic, the city is described as a capital of the Anarta Kingdom, according to the Harivamsa the city was located in the region of the Sindhu Kingdom. In the Gocharya ji krit Krishnacharitmanas out of 3 parts, two parts are Dwariki Krishna & Part 3, in the Hindu epics and the Vaishnava Puranas, Dvārakā is called Dvaravati and is one of seven Tirtha sites for spiritual liberation. The other six are Mathura, Ayodhya, Kashi, Kanchipuram, Avantika, in Harivamsa, Dvārakā is described as largely built on submerged land, released by the ocean. The city was the sporting ground of the King Raivataka called Dvāravāti. Nearby was the mountain range Raivataka, the place of the gods. The city was measured by Brahmins, the foundations of the houses were laid and it was built by Vishwakarman in one day mentally. It had surrounding walls with four main gates and its houses were arranged in lines and the city had high buildings made in gold, which almost touched the sky and could be seen everywhere like clouds. It had an area with a palace for Krishna himself. It was a rich city and the only city on earth which was studded with gems. The following description of Dvaraka during Krishna’s presence there appears in the Srimad-Bhagavatam in connection with the sage Narada’s visit, Dvaraka boasted 900,000 royal palaces, all constructed with crystal and silver and splendorously decorated with huge emeralds. Inside these palaces, the furnishings were bedecked with gold and jewels, traffic moved along a well laid-out system of boulevards, roads, intersections, and marketplaces, and many assembly houses and temples of demigods graced the charming city. The roads, courtyards, commercial streets, and residential patios were all sprinkled with water, in the city of Dvaraka was a beautiful private quarter worshiped by the planetary rulers. Narada Muni entered one of these immense palaces, supporting the palace were coral pillars decoratively inlaid with vaidurya gems. Sapphires bedecked the walls, and the floors glowed with perpetual brilliance, in that palace Tvashta had arranged canopies with hanging strands of pearls, there were also seats and beds fashioned of ivory and precious jewels
Dwaraka Kingdom
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Kesu Kalan and Miskin, "Lord Krishna in the Golden City" (Dvārakā) from the
Harivamsa, ca. 1600, during
Akbar 's reign.
Freer Gallery of Art
Dwaraka Kingdom
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Krishna 's childhood friend,
Sudama bows at the glimpse of Krishna's golden palace in Dvārakā, ca 1775-1790 painting.
40.
Saurashtra Kingdom
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Saurashtra kingdom in the epic Mahabharata is one among the many kingdoms ruled by Yadava kings in the central and western India. It is roughly the southern Gujarat including the peninsular region, the name Surat, a modern city of Gujarat, is derived from the name Saurashtra. The peninsular region forming the southern Gujarat is still known as Saurashtra, Mahabharata, Book 2, Chapter 30, And next turning his forces against the Paurava kingdom, Sahadeva vanquished and reduced to subjection the monarch thereof. And the prince, after this, with great efforts brought Akriti, the virtuous princess, while staying in the kingdom of Saurashtra sent an amiguously flamboyant ambassador unto king Rukmin of Bhishmaka within the territories of Bhojakata. Mahabharata, Book 8, Chapter 45, Karna, when angry with Shalya, rebukes him, Mahabharata, Book 3, Chapter 88, I shall now, O Yudhishthira, describe the sacred spots, and asylums, and rivers and lakes belonging to the Surashtra country. O Yudhishthira, on the sea-coast is the Chamasodbheda, and also Prabhasa, there also is the tirtha called Pindaraka, frequented by ascetics. In that region is a mighty hill named Ujjayanta which conduceth to speedy success, regarding it the celestial Rishi Narada hath recited an ancient sloka. By performing austerities on the hill of Ujjayanta in Surashtra, that abounds in birds and animals. There also is Dwaravati, producing great merit, where dwelleth the illustrious Vasudeva Krishna. Mahabharata, Book 5, Chapter 74, Even as, when Dharma became extinct, Kali was born in the race of Asuras flourishing with prosperity and blazing with energy, so was born Udavarta among the Haihayas. These vile individuals spring up, at the end of each Yuga, in their respective races, Mahabharata, Book 14, Chapter 83, Battle took place between the Arjuna and the Dravidas and Andhras and the fierce Mahishakas and the hillmen of Kolwa. Subjugating those tribes without having to accomplish any fierce feats, Arjuna proceeded to the country of the Surashtras, next he proceeded to the beautiful city of Dwaravati protected by the heroes of the Vrishni race. When the beautiful horse of the Kuru king reached Dwaravati. King Ugrasena, however, soon went out and forbade those youths from doing what they meditated, kisari Mohan Ganguli, The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa Translated into English Prose, 1883-1896
Saurashtra Kingdom
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Books (parva s)
41.
Nanda Empire
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The Nanda dynasty originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India during the 4th century BCE and lasted between 345–321 BCE. At its greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda Dynasty extended from Bengal in the east, to the Punjab region in the west, the rulers of this dynasty were famed for the great wealth which they accumulated. The Nanda Empire was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Maurya Empire and he expanded his territory south of the Vindhya Range into the Deccan Plateau. The Nandas, who usurped the throne of the Shishunaga dynasty c.345 BCE, were thought to be of low origin and he was the son of Mahanandin, and a Shudra mother. The Nanda kings built on the foundations laid by their Haryanka, to achieve this objective they built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry,20,000 cavalry,2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants. According to the Greek historian Plutarch, the size of the Nanda army was larger, numbering 200,000 infantry,80,000 cavalry,8,000 war chariots. A possible indication of Nanda military victories in Kalinga is suggested by the later Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, the existence of a place called Nau Nand Dehra on the Godavari is taken by some scholars as reflecting Nanda rule over the Deccan. The evidence for the extension of Nanda rule into trans-Vindhyan India is not, however, the Nandas were also renowned for their immense wealth. They undertook irrigation projects and invented standardized measures for trade across their empire, the Nanda Dynasty was also mentioned in the ancient Sangam literature of the Tamil people. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described the capital city Pataliputra of the Nanda Dynasty and their unpopularity, possibly due to their financial extortion, facilitated a revolution, leading to their overthrow by Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya. Nevertheless, the greatness attained in the Maurya Age would hardly have been possible but for the achievements of their predecessors, the advisors of the king were fewer in number but were most respected on account of their high character and wisdom. They are mentioned by the Greek observers who wrote about conditions in the fourth century BCE, next to the advisors were the generals of the army. Bhadrasala, one of such generals, is mentioned in the Milinda-Panho, a passage of the Kathasaritsagara refers to the kataka of Nanda in Ayodhya. Mookerji, Radha Kumud, Chandragupta Maurya and his times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0433-3 Panda, Harihar, Raychaudhuri, as a Historian, Northern Book Centre, ISBN 81-7211-210-6 Raychaudhuri, H. C. Political History of Ancient India, From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty, Oxford University Press Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, the Early History of India, Atlantic Publishers and distributors, ISBN 978-81-7156-618-1
Nanda Empire
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Asia in 323 BC, showing borders of the Nanda Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbours.
Nanda Empire
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The Nanda dynasty at its greatest extent under
Dhana Nanda c. 325 BC.
42.
Maurya Empire
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The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between c. 322 and 187 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the side of the Indian subcontinent. The empire was the largest to have existed in the Indian subcontinent. By 316 BCE the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander, Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Macedonian general from Alexanders army, gaining additional territory west of the Indus River. The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of the world in its time and it declined for about 50 years after Ashokas rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace, Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, the population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50–60 million, making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of Antiquity. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware, the Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath has been made the national emblem of India, the Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at Takshashila. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire, meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River, soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Mauryas rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy, on one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, however, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as Sandrokottos, as a young man he is said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, Chanakyas original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandraguptas command. The Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta as well as the Jaina work Parishishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. These men included the general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu. The Macedonians may then have participated, together with other groups, the Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus
Maurya Empire
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Aśoka pillar at Sarnath. ca. 250 BCE.
Maurya Empire
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Maurya Empire at its maximum extent
Maurya Empire
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Ashoka pillar at
Vaishali
Maurya Empire
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Bas relief at
Sanchi Stupa, 3rd century BCE.
43.
Indo-Scythians
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Indo-Scythians is a term used to refer to Scythians, who migrated into parts of central, northern and western South Asia from the middle of the 2nd century BC to the 4th century AD. The first Saka king in south Asia was Maues who established Saka power in Gandhara, Indo-Scythian rule in northwestern India ended with the last Western Satrap Rudrasimha III in 395 CE who was defeated by the Indian Emperor Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Indo-Scythians were defeated by the south Indian Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty, later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century. The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the Indo-Scythian invasion, ancient Roman historians including Arrian and Claudius Ptolemy have mentioned that the ancient Sakas were basically nomads. However, Italo Ronca, in his study of Ptolemys chapter vi, marks the statement, The land of the Sakai belongs to nomads, they have no towns but dwell in forests. The ancestors of the Indo-Scythians are thought to be Sakas tribes, one group of Indo-European speakers that makes an early appearance on the Xinjiang stage is the Saka. According to these ancient sources Modu Shanyu of the Xiongnu tribe of Mongolia attacked the Yuezhi, leaving behind a remnant of their number, most of the population moved westwards. Around 175 BC, the Yuezhi tribes, were defeated by the Xiongnu tribes, there, they displaced the Sakas, who migrated south into Ferghana and Sogdiana. According to the Chinese historical chronicles, The Yuezhi attacked the king of the Sai who moved a distance to the south. The Sakas seem to have entered the territory of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom around 145 BC, the Sakas called home, an area of Southern Afghanistan, called after them Sistan. From there, they expanded into present day Iran as well as northern India, where they established various kingdoms. The region is known as Seistan. The presence of the Sakas in Sakastan in the 1st century BC is mentioned by Isidore of Charax in his Parthian stations, the first Indo-Scythian kingdom in south western Asia was located in Pakistan in the areas from Abiria to Surastrene, from around 110 to 80 BC. They progressively further moved north into Indo-Greek territory until the conquests of Maues, before it there lies a small island, and inland behind it is the metropolis of Scythia, Minnagara. The Indo-Scythians ultimately established a kingdom in the northwest, based in Taxila, in the southeast, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain, but were subsequently repelled in 57 BC by the Malwa king Vikramaditya. To commemorate the event Vikramaditya established the Vikrama era, a specific Indian calendar starting in 57 BC, more than a century later, in AD78 the Sakas would again invade Ujjain and establish the Saka era, marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps kingdom. Maues first conquered Gandhara and Taxila around 80 BCE, but his kingdom disintegrated after his death, in the east, the Indian king Vikrama retook Ujjain from the Indo-Scythians, celebrating his victory by the creation of the Vikrama Era. Indo-Greek kings again ruled after Maues, and prospered, as indicated by the profusion of coins from Kings Apollodotus II, not until Azes I, in 55 BC, did the Indo-Scythians take final control of northwestern India, with his victory over Hippostratos
Indo-Scythians
–
A Scythian horseman from the general area of the
Ili river,
Pazyryk, c 300 BC.
Indo-Scythians
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Territories (full line) and expansion (dotted line) of the Indo-Scythians Kingdom at its greatest extent.
Indo-Scythians
–
The treasure of the royal burial
Tillia tepe is attributed to 1st century BC Sakas in
Bactria.
Indo-Scythians
–
Bearded man with cap, probably Scythian,
Bamiyan, 3rd–4th centuries.
44.
Western Satrap
–
The Western Satraps, Western Kshatrapas, or Kshaharatas were Indo-Scythian rulers of the western and central part of India. They are so named in contrast to the Northern Satraps who ruled around East Punjab, the Western Satraps were contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and were possibly their overlords, and the Satavahana who ruled in Central India. Although they called themselves Satraps on their coins, leading to their designation of Western Satraps. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Saka rulers were defeated by the south Indian Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty, later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century CE. Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years, the word Kshatrapa stands for satrap, itself descended from Old Persian and which means viceroy or governor of a province. The Western Satraps are thought to have started with the rather short-lived Kshaharata dynasty, the term Kshaharata is also known from the 6 CE Taxila copper plate inscription, in which it qualifies the Indo-Scythian ruler Liaka Kusulaka. The Nasik inscription of the 19th year of Sri Pulamavi also mentions the Khakharatavasa, the earliest Kshaharata for whom there is evidence is Abhiraka, whose rare coins are known. He was succeeded by Bhumaka, father of Nahapana, who used on his coins the title of Satrap. Bhumaka was the father of the great ruler Nahapana, according to one of the latters coins and his coins bear Buddhist symbols, such as the eight-spoked wheel, or the lion seated on a capital, a representation of a pillar of Ashoka. Nahapana succeeded to him, and became a powerful ruler. He occupied portions of the Satavahana empire in western and central India, Nahapana held sway over Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Bharuch to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts. His son-in-law, the Saka Ushavadata, is known from inscriptions in Nasik and Karle to have been viceroy of Nahapana, Nahapana is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea under the name Nambanus, as ruler of the area around Barigaza,41. Beyond the gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza and the coast of the country of Ariaca and that part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is called Abiria, but the coast is called Syrastrene. It is a country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature, the metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza. Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the centers of Roman trade with India. The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged,49 and those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi. Goods were also brought down in quantity from Ujjain, the capital of the Western Satraps,48, some make the voyage especially to these market-towns, and others exchange their cargoes while sailing along the coast
Western Satrap
–
Approximate territory of the Western Kshatrapas (35–405).
Western Satrap
–
Coin of
Bhumaka (c. 1st century CE). Obv: Arrow, pellet, and thunderbolt.
Kharoshthi inscription Chaharasada Chatrapasa Bhumakasa: "Ksaharata Satrap Bhumaka". Rev: Capital of a pillar with seated lion with upraised paw, and wheel (
dharmachakra).
Brahmi inscription: Kshaharatasa Kshatrapasa Bhumakasa.
Western Satrap
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Coin of
Nahapana.
British Museum.
Western Satrap
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Coin of the Western Satrap
Chastana (c. 78 CE). Obv: King in profile. The legend typically reads "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA" (corrupted Greek script), transliteration of the Prakrit Raño Kshatrapasa Castana: "King and Satrap Castana". Rev:
Chaitya with moon, star and river.
Brahmi legend Rajno Mahakshatrapasa Ghsamotikaputrasa Casthanasa: "King and Great Satrap Chastana, son of Zamotika.
45.
Vakataka dynasty
–
The Vakataka Empire was a dynasty from the Indian subcontinent that originated from the Deccan in the mid-3rd century CE. They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan, the Vakataka dynasty was a Brahmin dynasty. Little is known about Vindhyashakti, the founder of the family, territorial expansion began in the reign of his son Pravarasena I. It is generally believed that the Vakataka dynasty was divided into four branches after Pravarasena I, two branches are known and two are unknown. The known branches are the Pravarapura-Nandivardhana branch and the Vatsagulma branch, the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II married his daughter into Vakataka royal family and with their support annexed Gujarat from the Saka Satraps in 4th century CE. The Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami in Deccan, the Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. They led public works and their monuments are a visible legacy, the rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena. The founder of the dynasty was Vindhyashakti, whose name is derived from the name of the goddess Vindhya, the dynasty may be originated there. Almost nothing is known about Vindhyashakti, the founder of the Vakatakas, in the Cave XVI inscription of Ajanta he was described as the banner of the Vakataka family and a Dvija. It is stated in this inscription that he added to his power by fighting great battles, but no regal title is prefixed to his name in this inscription. The Puranas say that he ruled for 96 years and he was placed variously at south Deccan, Madhya Pradesh and Malwa. Jayaswal attributes Bagat, a village in the Jhansi district as the home of Vakatakas, but after refuting the theory regarding the northern home of the Vakatakas, V. V. This Grihapati in all probability was the progenitor of Vidhyashakti and it appears from the Puranas that Vindhyasakti was a ruler of Vidisha but that is not considered to be correct. As per Dr Mirashi, who has rejected the identification of Rudra deva in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta with Rudra sena I and he has also pointed out there are no coins of Vakataka and there are no inscriptions of them in the north of Vindhyas. Hence, a home of Vakatakas is correct. However, it is true that they have ruled on some of these places, the next ruler was Pravarasena I, who maintained the realm as a great power, he was the first Vakataka ruler, who called himself a Samrat and conducted wars with the Naga kings. He has become an emperor in his own right, perhaps the only emperor in the dynasty, with his kingdom embracing a portion of North India. He carried his arms to the Narmada in the north and annexed the kingdom of Purika which was being ruled by a king named Sisuka, in any case, he certainly ruled from Bundelkhand in the north to the present Andhra Pradesh in the south
Vakataka dynasty
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Ruins of Nandivardhana fort
Vakataka dynasty
–
Remains of the Pravareshvara Shiva temple built by Pravarasena II at
Mansar
Vakataka dynasty
–
The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of
Ajanta Caves, built under the patronage of the Vatsagulma branch of the Vakataka rulers.
Vakataka dynasty
–
Bird's Eye View of Ajanta Caves.
46.
Kushan Empire
–
The Kushan Empire was a syncretic empire, formed by Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. Emperor Kanishka was a patron of Buddhism, however, as Kushans expanded southward. The Kushans were one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation, the Kushans possibly used the Greek language initially for administrative purposes, but soon began to use Bactrian language. Kanishka sent his armies north of the Karakoram mountains, capturing territories as far as Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkant, in the Tarim Basin of modern-day Xinjiang, China. A direct road from Gandhara to China remained under Kushan control for more than a century, encouraging travel across the Karakoram, the Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, Aksumite Empire and Han China. The Kushan empire fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, in the 4th century, the Guptas, an Indian dynasty also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Sasanian kingdoms were overwhelmed by invaders from the north. Historian H. G. Rawlinson states that the Kushana Period is a prelude to the age of Guptas. Chinese sources describe the Guishuang, i. e, as the historian John E. Hill has put it, For well over a century. There have been arguments about the ethnic and linguistic origins of the Da Yuezhi, Kushans, and the Tochari. The five tribes constituting the Yuezhi are known in Chinese history as Xiūmì, Guìshuāng, Shuāngmǐ, Xìdùn, the Yuezhi reached the Hellenic kingdom of Greco-Bactria around 135 BC. The displaced Greek dynasties resettled to the southeast in areas of the Hindu Kush, some traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the area of Bactria and Sogdiana. Archaeological structures are known in Takht-I-Sangin, Surkh Kotal, and in the palace of Khalchayan, various sculptures and friezes are known, representing horse-riding archers, and significantly men with artificially deformed skulls, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan. The Chinese first referred to people as the Yuezhi and said they established the Kushan Empire. On the ruins of ancient Hellenistic cities such as Ai-Khanoum, the Kushans are known to have built fortresses, the earliest documented ruler, and the first one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler, was Heraios. He calls himself a tyrant on his coins, and also exhibits skull deformation and he may have been an ally of the Greeks, and he shared the same style of coinage. Heraios may have been the father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises, Ban Gus Book of Han tells us the Kushans divided up Bactria in 128 BC. He invaded Anxi, and took the Gaofu region and he also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda and Jibin
Kushan Empire
–
Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under
Kanishka the Great (dotted line), according to the
Rabatak inscription.
Kushan Empire
–
History of Afghanistan
Kushan Empire
–
Head of a Kushan prince (Khalchayan palace,
Uzbekistan).
Kushan Empire
–
A Buddhist devotee in Kushan dress, Mathura, 2nd century. The Kushan dress is generally depicted as quite stiff, and it is thought it was often made of leather (Francine Tissot, "Gandhara").
47.
Gupta Empire
–
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire founded by Sri Gupta. The empire existed at its zenith from approximately 320 to 550 CE, the peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty, the high points of the period is great cultural developments which took place during the reign of Chandragupta II. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era, strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. The earliest available Indian epics are also thought to have committed to written texts around this period. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, a minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by Vardhana ruler Harsha, who established his empire in the first half of the 7th century, according to many historians, the Gupta dynasty was a Vaishya dynasty. Historian Ram Sharan Sharma asserts that the Vaishya Guptas appeared as a reaction against oppressive rulers, brannigan, the rise of the Gupta Empire was one of the most prominent violations of the caste system in ancient India. There is controversy among scholars about the homeland of the Guptas. Jayaswal has pointed out that the Guptas were originally inhabitants of Prayaga, Uttar Pradesh, in north India, another scholar, Gayal supported the theory of Jaiswal, suggesting that the original home of the Guptas was Antarvedi embracing the regions of Oudh and Prayag. However another historian of this time in Indian history, Ganguli, has offered a different view about the original Gupta homeland, according to him the Guptas homeland is further south, the Murshidabad region of Bengal, and not Magadha in Bihar. He based his theory on the statement of the Chinese Buddhist monk, Yijing, fleet and other historians however criticize Gangulis theory because Sri Gupta ruled during the end of the 3rd century, but Yijing placed him at the end of the 2nd century. Hence the theory of historians, who have provided their views based on the accounts of Yijing, are considered less valid than theories based on sources such as coinage. From these theories, several conflicting opinions about the original homeland, according to Allan and a few other scholars, the Guptas were initially concentrated in the region of Magadha and from there they extended their sway to Bengal. According to other groups, the homeland of the Guptas was Varendri or the Varendra Bhumi in Bengal. Whatever the theory is, the rule of the Guptas initiated the Golden Age in history of ancient India, bengali historians like HC Raychoudhuri the Guptas originated from the Varendri region which is now part of Rangpur and Rajshahi Division of modern-day Bangladesh. DC Ganguly, on the hand, considers the surrounding region of Murshidabad as the original home of the Guptas. The most likely time for the reign of Sri Gupta is c, the Murundas who were feudal lords of Kushans provided or granted land to Srigupta
Gupta Empire
–
Meditating
Buddha from the Gupta era, 5th century AD.
Gupta Empire
–
The Gupta Empire at its greatest extent.
Gupta Empire
–
Queen Kumaradevi and King
Chandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son
Samudragupta, 335–380.
Gupta Empire
–
Coin of Samudragupta, with Garuda pillar.
British Museum.
48.
Maitraka
–
The Maitraka dynasty ruled Gujarat in western India from c.475 to 767. The first two Maitraka rulers Bhatarka and Dharasena I used only the title of Senapati, the third ruler Dronasimha declared himself as the Maharaja. King Guhasena stopped using the term Paramabhattaraka Padanudhyata along his name like his predecessors and he was succeeded by his son Dharasena II, who used the title of Mahadhiraja. His son, the next ruler Siladitya I, Dharmaditya was described by Hiuen Tsang as a monarch of great ability and of rare kindness. Siladitya I was succeeded by his younger brother Kharagraha I, virdi copperplate grant of Kharagraha I proves that his territories included Ujjain. During the reign of the ruler, Dharasena III, north Gujarat was included in this kingdom. Dharasena II was succeeded by son of Kharagraha I, Dhruvasena II. He married the daughter of Harshavardhana and his son Dharasena IV assumed the imperial titles of Paramabhattaraka Mahrajadhiraja Parameshvara Chakravartin. Sanskrit poet Bhatti was his court poet, the next powerful ruler of this dynasty was Siladitya III. During the reign of Siladitya V, Arabs probably invaded this kingdom, the last known ruler of this dynasty was Siladitya VII. The Maitrakas ruled from their capital at Vallabhi and they came under the rule of Harsha in the mid-7th century, but retained local autonomy, and regained their independence after Harshas death. Maitraka rule ended in the second or third quarter of the 8th century by various scholars, there is no agreement among the scholars as to who these barbarians were. The name Maitraka is said to derive from Mithra, the Sun or Sun deity, the Maitrakas, the worshippers of Mitra/Mithra i. e. Sun-worshippers identified with the Mihiras. When I-Tsing, another Chinese traveller, visited Vallabhi in the last quarter of 7th century, gunamati and Sthiramati were two famous Buddhist scholars of Vallabhi at the middle of 7th century. Vallabhi was famous for its catholicity and the students all over the country, including the Brahmana boys, visited it to have higher education in secular. We are told that the graduates of Valabhi were given higher executive posts, chaulukya dynasty Conquests of Siladitya in the south by S. Srikanta Sastri
Maitraka
–
Gop temple, 6th Century, Maitraka period, Jamnagar dist.
49.
Empire of Harsha
–
The Empire of Harsha was an ancient Indian empire founded and ruled by Emperor Harsha from the capital Kannauj. It existed from 606 to 647 and at its height covered all of the North India, Prabhakarvardhana, the ruler of Thanesar, who belonged to the Pushyabhuti family, extended his control over neighbouring states. Rajyashri, the sister of Rajyavardhana and Harsha, had married the Maukhari king, Grahavarman, some time later, Grahavarman was killed by the ruler of the Malava kingdom, who also kidnapped Rajyashri. Rajyavardhana, who had succeeded his father as king at Thanesar, marched against the Malava king, around 606 CE, Rajyavardhana died, perhaps murdered at a meeting by Shashanka, ruler of the Gauda kingdom. It was after the death of Rajyavardhana that Harsha succeeded to the throne, the Empire of Harsha revived the past glory of the Gupta Empire in northern India. The economy of northern India prospered and his capital at Kanauj became a centre of trade. During his early career he possessed a force of 5,000 elephants,20,000 cavalry and 50,000 infantry and with this he overran northern India. After the conquest of almost the entire of northern India, his resources were so increased that he could field an army with 100,000 cavalry and 60,000 elephants. His long run of victories was broken when he was defeated by Pulakesi II of the Chalukya dynasty. According to Dr. Shreenand L. Bapat, Registrar, Bhandarkar Oriental Research institute, Pune and his information is based on a copperplate inscription of Pulakeshin II discovered recently. The administration of Harsha was similar to the Gupta Empire and he was just in his administration and punctilious in exercising his responsibilities. There was no forced labour and everyone was free to busy himself with his own affairs, Harsha built for the benefit of the poor throughout his Empire in both the towns and rural parts Rest-Houses which provided food, drink and medicine. Harsha was continually travelling up and down his wide dominions to see with his own eyes how the people were ruled in his Empire, the merchants travelled freely in his Empire and officials were paid regularly. The taxes were light and one-sixth of the produce was charged as land revenue. Today a mound 1 km long and 750 m wide known as Harsh ka Tila in Thanesar has ruins of structures built during the reign of Harsha. Amongst the archaeological finds from the mound include Painted Grey Ware shreds in the pre-Kushana levels, economy under the Empire of Harsha became increasingly more locally self-sufficient and feudal in nature as trade and commerce receded. This is reflected in the decline of trade centres, paucity of coins and near complete disappearance of trader, diminishing trade and commerce affected handicraft and other industries through want of demand, and affected agriculture although not directly. As a result of the lack of trade, the need to produce goods for sale externally vanished
Empire of Harsha
–
The Empire of Harsha at its greatest extent.
Empire of Harsha
–
Palace ruins at "Harsh ka tila" mound area spread over 1 km.
Empire of Harsha
–
Harsha Ka Tila ruins
Empire of Harsha
–
Ruins of Harsha a Tila warehouse.
50.
Gurjara-Pratihara
–
The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty, also known as the Pratihara Empire, was an Indian imperial power that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-7th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj, the Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Caliphate campaigns in India, under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. Nagabhata II was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly, under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. The expansion once again triggered the struggle for the control of the Indian Subcontinent, known as the Tripartite Struggle, with the Rashtrakuta Empire. During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta, Gurjara-Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style temples. The greatest development of Gurjara-Pratihara style of building took place at Khajuraho. The power of the Pratiharas was weakened by dynastic strife and it was further diminished as a result of a great raid from the Deccan, led by the Rashtrakuta ruler Indra III, who about 916 sacked Kannauj. Under a succession of rather obscure rulers, the Pratiharas never regained their former influence and their feudatories became more and more powerful, one by one throwing off their allegiance until by the end of the 10th century the Pratiharas controlled little more than the Gangetic Doab. Their last important king, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018, the origin of the dynasty and the meaning of the term Gurjara in its name is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation Pratihara for their clan, the Imperial Pratiharas could have emphasized their Kshatriya, instead of Gurjara, identity for political reasons. However, at local levels Pratiharas were not wary of projecting their tribal identity and they claimed descent from the legendary hero Lakshmana, who is said to have acted as a pratihara for his brother Rama. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri theorized that the ancestors of the Pratiharas served the Rashtrakutas, multiple inscriptions of their neighbouring dynasties describe the Pratiharas as Gurjara. The term Gurjara-Pratihara occurs only in the Rajor inscription of a ruler named Mathanadeva. Another Pratihara king named Hariraja is also mentioned as a ferocious Gurjara in the Kadwaha inscription, according to one school of thought, Gurjara was the name of the territory originally ruled by the Pratiharas, gradually, the term came to denote the people of this territory. An opposing theory is that Gurjara was the name of the tribe to which the dynasty belonged, several historians consider Gurjaras to be the ancestors of the modern Gurjar or Gujjar tribe. The proponents of the tribal designation theory argue that the Rajor inscription mentions the phrase, here, the term Gurjara obviously refers to a group of people rather than a region. The Pampa Bharata refers the Gurjara-Pratihara king Mahipala as a Gurjara king, Rama Shankar Tripathi argues that here Gurjara can only refer to the kings ethnicity, and not territory, since the Pratiharas ruled a much larger area of which Gurjara-desha was only a small part
Gurjara-Pratihara
–
Varaha (the boar-headed
Vishnu avatar), on a Pratihara coin. 850–900 CE.
British Museum.
India
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the 
