1.
Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
2.
Mid North Coast
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The Mid North Coast is a country region in the north-east of the state of New South Wales, Australia. Of these Taree, Armidale, Port Macquarie and Coffs Harbour are the commercial centres, all with large shopping centres, public facilities. Kempsey and Forster-Tuncurry are considered semi-major commercial centres, smaller towns that are popular tourist spots are North Haven, South West Rocks, Urunga and Pacific Palms. The region has a climate and is known for its beaches. Major industries are farming, logging and tourism, the following local government areas are contained within the region, The Coffs Coast extends from the village of Brooms Head in the north and as far south as the small seaside town of Scotts Head. It includes the Sandon, Bellinger, Coffs and Nambucca River catchments/drainage basins. The Coffs Coast services a regional catchment of over 200,000 people, with about 68,000 living in the City of Coffs Harbour,13,000 in the Bellingen Shire, the area has younger population, with the average age being 33 years of age. The area is becoming known for Internet Start ups - with companies like Google, Altassian, three bus services run throughout the region, Sawtell Coaches, Busways, and Ryans Bus Service. Sawtell Coaches run various services throughout Coffs Harbour city and to the suburbs of Boambee, Busways run services throughout Coffs Harbour city down south as far as Scotts Head and west into Bellingen. Ryans Bus services run throughout Coffs Harbour City and run North to Woolgoolga on a regular basis, there are several railway stations on the Coffs Coast serviced by 3 trains, the Grafton, the Casino and the Brisbane XPT trains. Each run north and south once a day, stations include Coffs Harbour, Sawtell, Urunga, Nambucca Heads and Macksville. Rail is the fastest and cheapest way to get to either Sydney, Newcastle, regions of New South Wales Local Government Directory
3.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
4.
Southern Hemisphere
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The Southern Hemisphere is the half sphere of Earth which is south of the equator. It contains all or parts of five continents, four oceans and its surface is 80. 9% water, compared with 60. 7% water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32. 7% of Earths land. Due to the tilt of Earths rotation relative to the Sun, September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox. The South Pole is in the middle of the southern hemispherical region, Southern Hemisphere climates tend to be slightly milder than those at similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, except in the Antarctic which is colder than the Arctic. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much land, water heats up. In the Southern Hemisphere the sun passes from east to west through the north, sun-cast shadows turn anticlockwise throughout the day and sundials have the hours increasing in the anticlockwise direction. Cyclones and tropical storms spin clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect, the southern temperate zone, a subsection of the Southern Hemisphere, is nearly all oceanic. Forests in the Southern Hemisphere have special features which set apart from those in the Northern Hemisphere. Both Chile and Australia share, for example, unique species or Nothofagus. The eucalyptus is native to Australia but is now planted in Southern Africa and Latin America for pulp production and, increasingly. Approximately 800,000,000 humans live in the Southern Hemisphere and this is due to the fact that there is significantly less land in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere. Africa Antarctica Asia Australia South America Zealandia Media related to Southern Hemisphere at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Ficus virens
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Ficus virens is a plant of the genus Ficus found in India, southeast Asia, through Malaysia and into Northern Australia. Its common name is white fig, it is known as pilkhan. Like many figs, its fruits are edible, one of the most famous specimens of this tree is the Curtain Fig Tree of the Atherton Tableland, near Cairns, a popular tourist attraction. Ficus virens var. sublanceolata occurs the subtropical rainforest of northeastern New South Wales and it is a medium-sized tree which grows to a height of 24–27 metres in New Delhi and up to 32 metres tall in wetter areas. It is a fig tree belonging to the group of known as strangler figs. This tree has become popular as a tree in and around the cities of New Delhi. It has two marked growth periods in its Indian environment, in spring, and in the time of the monsoon rains, the new leaves are a beautiful shade of reddish pink and very pleasing to the eye. This is a massive tree in which the size of the crown can sometimes exceed the height of the tree. The oldest and most massive trees in Delhi can be seen inside the complex of the Humayuns Tomb. The leaves are known in Thai cuisine as phak lueat and they are eaten boiled as a vegetable in Northern Thai curries. Australian Plant Name Index, IBIS database, centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government
6.
Dreamtime
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Dreamtime is a term devised by early anthropologists to refer to a religio-cultural worldview attributed to Australian Aboriginal beliefs. It was originally used by Francis Gillen, quickly adopted by his colleague Baldwin Spencer and thereafter popularised by A. P. Elkin and they were often distinct from gods as they did not control the material world and were not worshipped, but only revered. The term is based on a rendition of the indigenous word alcheringa, used by the Aranda people of Central Australia, william Stanner remarked, why the blackfellow thinks of dreaming as the nearest equivalent in English is a puzzle. It has been argued that the meaning is closer to eternal. By the 1980s, Dreamtime and the Dreaming had acquired their own currency in popular culture, the station-master, magistrate and amateur ethnographer Francis Gillen first used the terms in an ethnographical report in 1896. With Baldwin Spencer Gillen, he published in 1899 a major work, in that work, they spoke of the Alcheringa as the name applied to the far distant past with which the earliest traditions of the tribe deal. In the Arrernte tongue, the verb for to dream was altjirerama. The noun is the rare word altjirrinja, of which Spencer and Gillen gave a corrupted transcription. The native, they concluded, knows nothing of dreamtime as a designation of a period of their history. Related entities are known as Mura-mura by the Dieri and as Tjukurpa in Pitjantjatjara and this is because in Dreamtime an individuals entire ancestry exists as one, culminating in the idea that all worldly knowledge is accumulated through ones ancestors. Many Indigenous Australians also refer to the Creation time as The Dreaming, the Dreamtime laid down the patterns of life for the Aboriginal people. Creation is believed to be the work of culture heroes who traveled across a land, creating sacred sites. In this way, songlines were established, some of which could travel right across Australia, the dreaming and travelling trails of the Spirit Beings are the songlines. The signs of the Spirit Beings may be of spiritual essence, physical remains such as petrosomatoglyphs of body impressions or footprints, Dreaming existed before the life of the individual begins, and continues to exist when the life of the individual ends. Both before and after life, it is believed that this exists in the Dreaming and is only initiated into life by being born through a mother. The spirit of the child is culturally understood to enter the fetus during the fifth month of pregnancy. When the mother felt the move in the womb for the first time. Upon birth, the child is considered to be a special custodian of that part of their country and is taught the stories and songlines of that place, as Wolf states, A black fella may regard his totem or the place from which his spirit came as his Dreaming
7.
Nambucca River
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Nambucca River, an open and trained mature wave dominated barrier estuary, is located in the Mid North Coast region of New South Wales, Australia. The river descends 594 metres over its 87 kilometres course, adjacent to the towns of Bowraville, Macksville, the Nambucca River area has a fine subtropical climate, high rainfall and fertile volcanic soils. It was originally covered by rainforest, much of which has cleared, although some rainforests remain in several national parks. The lowlands along the river are used for farming, Nambucca River is transversed by the Pacific Highway and the North Coast railway line, near Macksville. List of rivers of Australia Rivers of New South Wales Taylors Arm Slim Dusty Nambucca River catchment
8.
Clarence River (New South Wales)
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The Clarence River, a mature wave dominated, barrier estuary, is situated in the Northern Rivers district of New South Wales, Australia. The river reaches its mouth at its confluence with the Coral Sea in the South Pacific Ocean, on its journey it passes through the towns of Tabulam and Copmanhurst, the city of Grafton, and the towns of Ulmarra, and Maclean. The river features many large islands, including Woodford, Chatsworth, Ashby, Warregah and Harwood islands. The river supports a large prawn trawling and fishing industry, the Clarence River system is an extensive east coast drainage with many tributaries of differing size. Apart from the Murray River, it is the largest river in mainland Australia south of the Tropic of Capricorn and its basin is, together with the very similarly-sized Hawkesbury, Australias largest Pacific watershed south of Bundaberg. The climate of most of the basin is subtropical, though the highest areas with cooler weather are of the temperate Cfb type, annual rainfall ranges from 1,600 millimetres on the coast at Yamba down to 1,080 millimetres in the shielded valley at Grafton. At higher altitudes, rainfall may reach 2,000 millimetres on exposed slopes, most of the high areas actually receive no more rain than Grafton though variability from year to year is less. Temperatures are generally warm, with maxima in lower area ranging from 27 °C in January to 19 °C in July. In the highlands, however, temperatures are cooler and in July range from lows of around 2 °C to maxima around 13 °C - though in January days remain very warm at around 25 °C. At Grafton, the peaked at a new record height of 8.1 metres. Two years earlier, the river peaked 7.6 metres, on both occasions, the citys levee was credited with preventing more severe flooding. The local historical society has published an account of newspaper reports documenting flooding of the river from the late 1800s to 2011, tourism is also a significant industry in the Clarence Valley generating around A$457million per annum and employing around 2500 people. Most of the Clarence basin is forested, with important areas of remnant subtropical. Only in alluvial areas where soils are less leached is there major agricultural development, in areas the chief industries are cattle rearing. Of particular interest is the island town of Harwood, where a Sperry New Holland factory. Harwood is also the location of the sugar mill, the Harwood Sugar Mill built in 1873 and is the oldest Australian mill still operational. The sugar mill is situated on the due to its importance in transporting sugar cane from farms in the surrounding area in previous times. Harwood is just after the Harwood Bridge on part of Australias National Highway from Sydney, Port Macquarie, the Aboriginal people of the lower reaches call the river Breimba or Berrinbah
9.
Grafton, New South Wales
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The city of Grafton is the seat of Local Government, the Federal and State Government administrative centre, and the commercial hub of the Clarence River Valley. Established in 1851, Grafton features many buildings and tree-lined streets. It is located approximately 630 kilometres north of the New South Wales State capital, Sydney,340 km south of Brisbane, Queensland, as at June 2015, Grafton had a population of 18,689. Before European settlement, the Clarence River marked the border between the Bundjalung and Gumbaynggirr peoples, and so descendants of both groups can now be found in the Grafton region. Grafton, like other settlements in the area, was first opened up to white settlement by the cedar-getters. An escaped convict, Richard Craig, discovered the district in 1831, with the wealth of red gold cedar just waiting for exploitation, he was given a pardon and one hundred pounds to bring a party of cedar-getters on the cutter Prince George to the region. Word of such wealth to be had did not take long to spread and one of the arrivals was pioneer John Small on the Susan in 1838, the Settlement was established shortly after. In 1851, Governor FitzRoy officially named the town Grafton, after his grandfather, the Duke of Grafton, Grafton was proclaimed a city in 1885. Local industries include logging, beef cattle, fishing/prawning, sugar, manufacturing and this bridge is a one of a kind and is a major feature on the Clarence River in Grafton. Grafton has a subtropical climate with significantly more rainfall and higher temperatures in summer than in winter. Rainfall is lower than in stations directly on the coast, Grafton gets around 115.2 clear days on an annual basis. Grafton like many NSW regional centres, is affected by heatwaves in the summer months, on 12 February 2017 Grafton recorded a maximum temperature of 46.3, the towns highest recorded temperature since records began. Grafton is known and promoted as the Jacaranda City, in reference to its tree-lined streets, inaugurated in 1935, Jacaranda is held each October/November. A half-day public holiday is observed locally on the first Thursday of November, a half-day public holiday is also observed for the Grafton Cup horse race, held each year on the second Thursday in July. It is the point of the citys annual Racing Carnival—Australias largest and richest non-metropolitan Carnival—which takes place over a fortnight in that month. Grafton is the birthplace of renowned country music players. Local artist Troy Cassar-Daley received four Golden Guitar awards at the 2006 Tamworth Country Music Awards—the largest and most prestigious music awards in Australia. At the same event Samantha McClymont, the 2005/2006 Grafton Jacaranda Queen and sister of Brooke McClymont, christ Church Cathedral, designed by John Horbury Hunt, was consecrated in 1884 and is the seat of the Anglican Diocese of Grafton
10.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
11.
Norman Tindale
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Norman Barnett Tindale AO was an Australian anthropologist, archaeologist, entomologist and ethnologist. The family returned to Perth, and in 1917 moved to Adelaide where Tindale took up a position as a cadet at the Adelaide Public Library. Shortly after this, Tindale lost the sight in one eye in a gas explosion which occurred while assisting his father with photographic processing. In January 1919 he secured a position at the South Australian Museum as Entomologists Assistant to Arthur Mills Lea and he had already published thirty-one papers on entomological, ornithological and anthropological subjects before receiving his Bachelor of Science degree at the University of Adelaide in March 1933. Tindale is best remembered for his work mapping the various groupings of Indigenous Australians. This interest began with a trip to Groote Eylandt where an Anindilyakwa man gave Tindale very detailed descriptions of which land was his. This led Tindale to question the orthodoxy of the time which was that Aboriginal people were purely nomadic and had no connection to any specific region. While Tindales methodology and his notion of the tribe have been superseded. Quite a number of now-important record films were made by Tindale, in 1942 Tindale joined the Royal Australian Air Force and was assigned the rank of Wing Commander. He had previously tried to enlist in the Australian army at the outbreak of WWII but was rejected due to his damaged eyesight, in 1967, at the age of sixty-six, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Colorado. He was eventually honoured with a doctorate by the Australian National University in 1980, during 1993 Tindale received unofficial confirmation of his appointment as an Officer of the Order of Australia, this was presented posthumously, to his widow Muriel. Also in 1993, the South Australian Museum Boards named a public gallery in his honour, Tindale published extensively, both as sole author and collaborator. Note that the archives contain 2,804 items related to Dr Tindale
12.
Nymboida River
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The Nymboida River, a perennial stream of the Clarence River catchment, is located in the Northern Rivers region of New South Wales, Australia. The Nymboida River rises in the foothills of the Barren Mountain, on the slopes of the Great Dividing Range, within Bellinger River National Park. Annual high rainfall on the Dorrigo Plateau produces strong river flows during most seasons, the river descends 1,250 metres over its 165-kilometre course. The river is also a stronghold for the endangered Eastern Freshwater cod where it is common in several reaches. Several companies offer organised rafting trips on the river
13.
Urunga, New South Wales
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Urunga is a small town on in the Mid North Coast region of New South Wales, Australia, in Bellingen Shire. It is famous for its surf spots, at the 2011 census, Urunga had a population of 3,020. The town is south of Coffs Harbour and Sawtell and north of Nambucca Heads, the place name, Urunga, is derived from the Gumbaynggir word Yurūnga, which is derived from the word for long yurūn in reference to long white sands. There are two streets, and both a bowling club and a golf club. A weekly 6-a-side soccer competition is held on Thursdays at the Oval on Morgo Street, Urunga is a fishing ground, with bream being the main sport fish. The Urunga boardwalk, leading over the tidal Urunga Lagoon then out to the beach, was rebuilt in 1988, the full boardwalk was completed in 2007. In November 2010, a section of boardwalk was completed. This extension finishes at the mouth of the river and has taken the length of the boardwalk to almost 1 kilometre, hungry Head,4 km to the south is the only patrolled beach in Urunga. Urunga railway station opened on the North Coast line in 1923, Urunga celebrates with a small annual festival called Toast Urunga in September. Urunga Public School Bellinger Magic - the official guide to the Bellinger region VISITNSW. com - Urunga
14.
Coffs Harbour
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Coffs Harbour, in Australia, is a coastal city located on the Mid North Coast of New South Wales about 540 km north of Sydney, and 390 km south of Brisbane. It is one of the largest urban centres in the North Coast region, Coffs Harbour won an international Bloom award for population 20, 001–75,000 in 2002. In addition an Enhancement of the Landscape in 2004 from the same organisation, Coffs Harbours economy was once based mainly on bananas, now being superseded by blueberries as well as tourism and fishing. The wider region is known as the Bananacoast, the city has a campus of Southern Cross University, a public and a private hospital, several radio stations, and three major shopping centres. Coffs Harbour is near numerous national parks, including a national park. There are regular passenger flights each day to Sydney and Melbourne departing from Coffs Harbour Airport, Coffs Harbour is also accessible by road, by NSW TrainLink trains, and by regular bus services. Coffs Harbour is a city along the Pacific Highway between Newcastle and The Gold Coast. It has become a service centre for those living between South West Rocks in the south and Grafton to the north. Sawtell,10 km south along Hogbin Drive from the city has become a suburb of Coffs Harbour. The surrounding region is dominated by resorts and apartments with hinterland hills and mountains covered by forests, banana plantations. It is the place in New South Wales where the Great Dividing Range meets the Pacific Ocean. The Bananacoast Community Credit Union is headquartered in Coffs Harbour, the city is relatively sunny, receiving 122.1 clear days annually, higher than Brisbane and Cairns. Summers are warm, wet and humid, winters are mild, pleasant and drier. By the early 1900s, the Coffs Harbour area had become an important timber production centre, before the opening of the North Coast Railway Line, the only way to transport large items of heavy but low value, such as timber, was by coastal shipping. This meant sawmillers on the North Coast were dependent on jetties either in rivers or off beaches for exporting their timber, timber tramways were constructed to connect the timber-getting areas, the sawmills and jetties built into the ocean at Coffs Harbour. Coffs Harbour owes its name to John Korff, who named the area Korffs Harbour when he was forced to shelter from storm in the area in 1847. Its name was changed by the surveyor for the crown when he reserved land in the area during 1861. Coffs Harbour was the hub for a thriving banana industry, one of the biggest attractions is the Big Banana, one of the first of Australias Big Things, with the Worlds Largest Banana celebrating the regions best known export
15.
Bellingen, New South Wales
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Bellingen is a small town on Waterfall Way on the Mid North Coast of New South Wales, Australia. It is approximately halfway between the major Australian cities of Sydney and Brisbane and it is the seat of Bellingen Shire and has a mixture of valley, plateau and coastal environments. The township lies on the Bellinger River, in 1841, Government surveyor, Clement Hodgkinson visited the area. When naming newly discovered places, he preferred to use existing native place names rather than foreign ones, so he used the Gumbaynggir name for river, the name has also been reported as meaning clean water, winding river, quoll and cheeky fellow. Originally, Bellingen was pronounced Billingen, where the ng was pronounced as in sing, when it came time to write the word, the Aboriginal voice and the European ear combined to give a spelling of Billingen, Billengen, Bellengen or Bellingen. European usage has altered the pronunciation to the current Bellin-jen. The Bellinger Valley including Bellingen was first settled by Kooris – the Gumbaynggir people – long before European settlement, the first European into the Bellinger Valley was the stockman William Myles who arrived in 1840 looking for new valleys north of Kempsey and the Macleay River. The following year Myles, accompanied by Surveyor Clement Hodgkinson explored the valley and by 1842 there were cedar cutters at the mouth of the Bellinger River, in July 1843 the first cargo of red cedar from the Bellinger valley was transported to Sydney. In 1845 it was estimated there were 300 Aborigines living in the Bellinger Valley. The cedar was hauled down to the river by teams of bullocks or horses, so rich was the area in cedar that it was estimated that over 2 million feet of cedar were being extracted each year. In 1864 a site was set apart and reserved for the village of Bellingen, a period of rapid growth ensued. By the early 1900s, red cedar supplies were virtually depleted, the cleared areas were turned into prime farming land and the valley became a dairying centre. Black Jimmy is reported to be the last full-blood member of the Bellinger Gumbaynggir People, black Jimmy died in 1922 and is buried in Bellingen Cemetery. The Gumbaynggir People still live in the area of Bellingen, the dairy industry crashed in the 1960s with the rise of the European Common Market, when export prices fell and the margarine industry finally overcame laws restricting its production levels. Dairy farming still continues to a lesser extent, rainforest logging ceased altogether in 1975. Sclerophyll forest logging is still carried out, but to a lesser extent than in the past. In 1950, Bellingen came to fame with the birth of the Sara Quads. From the 1970s until the present, alternative life-stylers purchased land in the area, numerous intentional communities were established, many of which are still in existence
16.
Woolgoolga, New South Wales
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Woolgoolga is a town on the Mid North Coast of New South Wales, Australia. It is on the Pacific Highway, approximately 550 km north of Sydney and 365 km south of Brisbane, the closest city to Woolgoolga is Coffs Harbour, which lies 25.8 km to the south. Woolgoolga has two beaches on the Pacific Ocean, the area has long been a centre of banana growing in New South Wales, but this industry has declined in the face of competition from Queensland and overseas. Recent times have seen many banana plantations replaced by blueberries after banana sales slumped in the late 1990s, timbergetting and sawmilling was established in 1883. A government jetty was constructed in 1892 upon which tramways were laid and these led to sawmills in the town which in turn were connected by light railway to the Jesse Simpson Range forest areas. The jetty was demolished over a period from 1952 to 1956. Woolgoolga had a population of 5,050 people in 2011, the median age of all persons in 45 years. Notably, from the Census data,653 persons speak Punjabi at home,661 persons practice Sikhism, permanent European settlement occurred in the 1870s. Prior to this, the area was inhabited by the Gumbaingirr Aboriginal tribe and it is believed that the name of the town derives from the word Weelgoolga, which was used by the local Aborigines to describe the area, and the lilly-pilly trees that grew there. The name Woogoolga was gazetted in 1888, and changed to the current name of Woolgoolga in 1966, Woolgoolga was an early centre of Sikh migration to Australia. Some Sikhs began to settle in Woolgoolga during World War II, after the war they were able to acquire leasehold and freehold banana plantations. Woolgoolga has the largest regional Sikh/Punjabi population in Australia, and they are now said to own 90% of the farms and are also diversifying into blueberries. Woolgoolgas coastal location and temperate climate make it a popular tourist destination, the town is bypassed by the Pacific Highway and many travellers break their journey in Woolgoolga. The Sydney 2000 Olympics torch relay passed through Woolgoolga, as did the 2006 Commonwealth Games Queens Baton Relay, in 2011, the area hosted Rally Australia, the 10th round of the World Rally Championship. It hosted stages 22 and 25 at Plum Pudding, Curryfest was inaugurated in 2006, to celebrate the culture of the local Sikh community. The festival was run by the Woolgoolga Chamber of Commerce. This occurred in the two years of 2007 and 2008, however the festival became incorporated into its own identity for 2009. The event still uses the name and backing of the Chamber of Commerce but now partially pays for the event itself, Woolgoolga has a pub and a number of cafes and restaurants
17.
Nambucca Heads, New South Wales
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Nambucca Heads is a town on the Mid North Coast of New South Wales, Australia in Nambucca Shire. It is located on a ridge, north of the estuary of the Nambucca River near the Pacific Highway and its 2011 population was 6,137, including 602 indigenous persons and 5,180 Australian-born persons in the Shire. The place name is derived from a word meaning entrance to the waters. It is a holiday and retirement destination. The town is located on the North Coast railway line, and is served by the three daily XPT services, Nambucca Heads is the current and historical homeland of the Gumbaynggirr people. Gumbaingirr lands stretch from Pillar Valley, Tyndale, Grafton and Copmanhurst in the north, to Glen Innes, Guyra and Black Mountain to the west, the Nambucca River separated the Gumbaynggirr from the Dunghutti Ngaku. The name Nambucca comes from an Aboriginal word, ngambugka, variously translated as winding or crooked river, europeans may have explored the area in 1818, and John Oxley surveyed the area in 1820. The cutting of Australian red cedar had started in the area by 1842 and it is believed that the first house was built in 1867, when about 50 people had settled in the valley to cut cedar or grow corn. The site of the town was surveyed in 1874 and the first hotel and it was proclaimed a village in 1885. The North Coast railway was extended from Taree to South Grafton in 1915, Nambucca Heads has one of the oldest surf lifesaving clubs in Australia and also invented junior surf lifesaving known as Nippers. Radio Stations 2CS-FM, Star FM, 2MC-FM, Triple J, 2NVR FM The Nambucca Valleys community radio station, 2NVR105. 9FM, focuses on the Macksville, Bowraville, Nambucca Heads, newspapers Midcoast Observer, Hibiscus Happynings, Guardian News, Coffs Coast Advocate. It is serviced by six NSW TrainLink trains per day
18.
Armidale, New South Wales
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Armidale is a city in the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia. Armidale had an population of 23,674 as at 30 June 2015. It is the centre for the Northern Tablelands region. It is approximately halfway between Sydney and Brisbane at the junction of the New England Highway and Waterfall Way, Armidale traditional owners are Anaiwan people. Many Gumbaynggirr people have settled in Armidale since colonisation, a short distance to the east of Armidale are heavily forested steep gorges dropping down to the eastern coastal plain. Large parts of the highlands are covered by Palaeozoic aged metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, intruding into these meta-sediments are granite plutons which decompose to form sandy soil, slightly deficient in nutrients. There are also basalt flows which are fertile for the soil substrates. Those areas away from the deep gorge country tend to display gently undulating terrain mainly used for pastures, to the west is Mount Yarrowyck Nature Reserve. The coastal plain can be reached directly at Coffs Harbour via Waterfall Way to Dorrigo and Bellingen on the Bellinger River, Armidale has a noted problem with air pollution caused by the use of solid fuel domestic wood heaters during the winter months. A local retired doctor said he is so concerned by the wood smoke situation, Armidale has a subtropical highland climate influence. Armidales elevation gives it a climate, but the summers are still very warm. Winters are long and cool, with frosty nights. Snowfall is extremely rare, on only one day in every three years. The presence of four seasons, unlike most of the rest of Australia, is the reason for the New England moniker. Summers are characterised by warm to very warm days followed almost always by cool, sometimes cold, thunderstorms often produce heavy falls of rain and occasionally hail in the afternoons and early evenings, also bringing a sudden drop in temperature. Unlike nearby coastal areas, Armidale does not usually high humidity levels making most of the summer days quite comfortable. Temperatures exceed 30 °C on average of 13 days per year, the highest temperature recorded at Armidale Airport was 37.0 °C, recorded in January 2014. As the leaves turn yellow and fall, day temperatures are still warm, particularly in March
19.
Clement Hodgkinson
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Clement Hodgkinson was a notable English naturalist, explorer and surveyor of Australia. He was Victorian Assistant Commissioner of Crown Lands and Survey from 1861 to 1874, qualified as a civil engineer, Hodgkinson left England in 1839 intending to become a pastoralist. After his arrival, he bought into a station near Kempsey. A year later, the New South Wales colonial government hired Hodgkinson to survey, in March 1841 he explored the upper reaches of the Nambucca and Bellinger rivers, becoming in the process the first European to make contact with the local Aborigines there. He then followed the Macleay, Clarence, Hastings, Richmond and Tweed river valleys, visiting Port Macquarie, Brisbane, after returning to England, he published an account of his explorations, Australia, from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay, in 1845. In it he included observations about the Aboriginal tribal life he had witnessed, the luxuriant and vigorous character of the brush, on alluvial land, in the northern part of the territory of New South Wales, cannot be surpassed in any tropical region. When this brushland is cleared, and cultivated, its fertility seems inexhaustible, Hodgkinson concluded the chapter on his encounter with the Aborigines with the following observation. When Hodgkinson later returned to the valley, members of the Yarrahappinni accompanied him to assure the locals that his intentions were benign, Hodgkinson must have appreciated his first stint exploring Australia. In the 1850s he again journeyed from England to the colony of Victoria. In 1854 his wife, Amelia Diana Hunt, gave birth to a son, a year later his first wife was dead at the age of 26. In 1857 he married Anne Smart and they subsequently had several children, in 1852, Hodgkinson joined the Survey Office as a draftsman and was appointed as District Surveyor for Victoria in 1855. As part of his duties, the township of Warrandyte was laid out in 1856. In 1857-1858 he was the Surveyor General of Victoria and this started an extensive period of landscape design of Melbournes parks and gardens including, Prepared a plan in 1862 for the Flagstaff gardens. Designed and oversaw the development of the Fitzroy Gardens, willow trees were planted around an ornamental pond. Awarded the task of designing the St Kilda recreational reserve, known today as Alma Park in 1867, made minor changes to Edward La Trobe Batemans design of the Carlton Gardens after the colonial government resumed control of the site from the Melbourne City Council. Soon afterwards, the gardens were redesigned for the 1880 Melbourne International Exhibition by the Melbourne architect Joseph Reed. The Carlton Gardens are now a listed World Heritage Site, other notable parks include Princes Park in Maryborough, which was a combined effort by a trio of important landscape designers in Victoria, Clement Hodgkinson, William Guilfoyle and Hugh Linaker. In 1873, Hodkingson accepted the position of Inspector General of Metropolitan Parks and Reserves, during his retirement he landscaped the Melbourne General Cemetery and in March 1882, joined the Melbourne Public Parks and Gardens Committee
20.
Bellinger River
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Bellinger River, an open and trained mature wave dominated, barrier estuary, is located in the Mid North Coast region of New South Wales, Australia. The river descends 1,150 metres over its 109 kilometres course, parts of the Bellinger River are contained within the Bellinger River National Park and the New England National Park. Other land uses in the valley include livestock grazing and forestry, waterfall Way is located adjacent to the middle reaches of the Bellinger River, and towards its mouth, the river is transversed by the Pacific Highway, near Raleigh. A rare Australian turtle, the Emydura macquarii, has a distribution in the upper Bellinger River above Thora. Clement Hodgkinson was the first European to explore the area in March 1841, rivers of New South Wales List of rivers of Australia Bellinger River & Coffs Harbour catchments
21.
Squatting
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Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential—that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. Author Robert Neuwirth suggested in 2004 that there were one billion squatters globally and he forecasts there will be two billion by 2030 and three billion by 2050. Yet, according to Kesia Reeve, squatting is largely absent from policy and academic debate and is rarely conceptualised, as a problem, as a symptom, Squatting can be related to political movements, such as anarchist, autonomist, or socialist. It can be a means to conserve buildings or to provide housing, while these settlements may, in time, grow to become both legalised and indistinguishable from normal residential neighbourhoods, they start off as squats with minimal basic infrastructure. Thus, there is no sewage system, drinking water must be bought from vendors or carried from a nearby tap, besides being residences, some squats are used as social centres or host give-away shops, pirate radio stations or cafés. In Spanish-speaking countries, squatters receive several names, such as okupas in Spain, Chile or Argentina, Squatting by necessity is in itself a political issue, therefore also a statement or rather a response to the political system causing it. During the period of recession and increased housing foreclosures in the 2000s, squatting became far more prevalent in Western. In some cases, need-based and politically motivated squatting go hand in hand, conservational – i. e. preserving monuments because the authorities have let them decay Political – e. g. Property law and the state have traditionally favored the property owner, however, in many cases where squatters had de facto ownership, laws have been changed to legitimize their status. Anarchist Colin Ward comments, Squatting is the oldest mode of tenure in the world and this is as true of the Queen with her 176,000 acres as it is of the 54 percent of householders in Britain who are owner-occupiers. They are all the recipients of stolen land, for to regard our planet as a commodity offends every conceivable principle of natural rights. U. K. police official Sue Williams, for example, has stated that Squatting is linked to Anti-Social Behaviour and can cause a great deal of nuisance, in some cases there may also be criminal activities involved. The public attitude toward squatting varies, depending on legal aspects, socioeconomic conditions, in particular, while squatting of municipal buildings may be treated leniently, squatting of private property often leads to strong negative reaction on the part of the public and authorities. Adverse possession is a method of acquiring title to property through possession for a period under certain conditions. Countries where this principle exists include England and the United States, however, some non-common law jurisdictions have laws similar to adverse possession. For example, Louisiana has a doctrine called acquisitive prescription. There are large communities in Kenya, such as Kibera in Nairobi. An estimated 1,000 people live in the Grande Hotel Beira in Mozambique, the Zabbaleen settlement and the City of the Dead are both well-known squatter communities in Cairo
22.
Red Rock, New South Wales
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At the 2006 census, Red Rock had a population of 274 people. It is primarily a village and most of the houses remain empty throughout the year except in school holidays. There is a club, community centre, bowling club. The area has beaches and the river is also good for swimming, kayaking and snorkeling. The southern beach can be dangerous and isnt recommended for children and it is easy to cross the estuary and explore the National Park to the north. The area was first settled in the 19th century by farmers at what is now Corindi Beach, the headland is reputedly the sight of a massacre of Gumbaynngir indigenous people in the 19th century. A memorial has been erected at the base of the headland to commemorate this, aboriginal women tend to avoid the site. The massacre began at Blackadders Creek when mounted police entered the camp and they started shooting and then pursued the survivors to the Corindi River where they continued shooting. Some people were driven off the headland. The headland may have been named Red Rock because the river went red from the blood of the indigenous people, there are local sports clubs in the Red Rock area including, Corindi/Red Rock Breakers Football Club Bowling Club Surf Life Saving Club
23.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
24.
Canberra
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Canberra is the capital city of Australia. With a population of 381,488, it is Australias largest inland city, the city is located at the northern end of the Australian Capital Territory,280 km south-west of Sydney, and 660 km north-east of Melbourne. A resident of Canberra is known as a Canberran, the site of Canberra was selected for the location of the nations capital in 1908 as a compromise between rivals Sydney and Melbourne, Australias two largest cities. It is unusual among Australian cities, being a planned city outside of any state, similar to Washington, D. C. in the United States. Following an international contest for the design, a blueprint by American architects Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin was selected. The Griffins plan featured geometric motifs such as circles, hexagons and triangles, the citys design was influenced by the garden city movement and incorporates significant areas of natural vegetation that have earned Canberra the title of the bush capital. Although the Australian Capital Territory is now self-governing, the Commonwealth Government retains some influence through the National Capital Authority, the Australian Armys officer corps is trained at the Royal Military College, Duntroon and the Australian Defence Force Academy is also located in the capital. The ACT is independent of any state to prevent any one state from gaining an advantage by hosting the seat of Commonwealth power, the ACT has voting representation in the Commonwealth Parliament, and has its own independent Legislative Assembly and government, similar to the states. Compared to the averages, the unemployment rate is lower. Property prices are high, in part due to comparatively restrictive development regulations. An 1830s map of the region by Major Mitchell indeed does mark the Sullivans Creek floodplain between two mountains as Nganbra. Nganbra or Nganbira could readily have been anglicised to the name Canberry, survey plans of the district dated 1837 refer to the area as the Canberry Plain. Although popularly pronounced /ˈkænbərə/ or /ˈkænbɛrə/, the pronunciation at its official naming in 1913 was /ˈkæn. brə/. Before white settlement, the area in which Canberra would eventually be constructed was seasonally inhabited by Indigenous Australians, archaeological evidence of settlement in the region includes inhabited rock shelters, rock paintings and engravings, burial places, camps and quarry sites, and stone tools and arrangements. Artefacts suggests early human activity occurred at some point in the area 21,000 years previously, European exploration and settlement started in the Canberra area as early as the 1820s. There were four expeditions between 1820 and 1824, white settlement of the area probably dates from 1823, when a homestead or station was built on what is now the Acton peninsula by stockmen employed by Joshua John Moore. He formally applied to purchase the site on 16 December 1826, on 30 April 1827, Moore was told by letter that he could retain possession of 1,000 acres at Canberry. The European population in the Canberra area continued to grow throughout the 19th century
25.
Aboriginal Tent Embassy
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The Aboriginal Tent Embassy is a semi-permanent assemblage where residing activists claim to represent the political rights of Aboriginal Australians. It is made up of signs and tents on the lawn opposite Old Parliament House in Canberra and it is not considered an official embassy by the Australian Government. On 26 January 1972, four Aboriginal men arrived in Canberra from Sydney to establish the Aboriginal Embassy by planting a beach umbrella on the lawn in front of Parliament House, the Embassy was established in response to the McMahon Coalition Governments refusal to recognise Aboriginal land rights. The beach umbrella was soon replaced by tents and Aboriginal people. Legal title and mining rights to all other presently existing reserve lands, the preservation of all sacred sites throughout Australia. Legal title and mining rights to areas in and around all Australian capital cities, compensation money for lands not returnable to take the form of a down-payment of six billion dollars and an annual percentage of the gross national income. The demands were rejected, and in July 1972, following an amendment to the relevant ordinance, police moved in, removed the tents, in October 1973, around 70 Aboriginal protesters staged a sit-in on the steps of Parliament House and the Tent Embassy was re-established. The sit-in ended when Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam agreed to meet with protesters, in May 1974 the embassy was destroyed in a storm but was re-established in October. In February 1975 Aboriginal activist Charles Perkins negotiated the removal of the embassy with the Government. The Fraser Government subsequently enacted the Aboriginal Land Rights Act in 1976, in March 1976, the Aboriginal Embassy was established in a house in the nearby Canberra suburb of Red Hill, however, this closed in 1977. For a short period in 1979, the embassy was re-established as the National Aboriginal Government on Capital Hill, on the twentieth anniversary of its founding, the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was re-established on the lawns of Old Parliament House. Despite being a source of controversy, with many calls for its removal. As well as pressure, the Aboriginal Tent Embassy has also been under attack from criminal elements. Some local Aboriginal Ngunnawal people have called for the eviction of residents of the tent embassy. This sacred fire was made by Kevin Buzzacott and lit by Wiradjuri man Paul Coe at the Canberra Tent Embassy in 1998. There have been a number of fires at the site. In August 2005, the Federal Government announced a review into Canberras Aboriginal tent embassy and they consulted with the Aboriginal communities around Australia to determine what shape the tent embassy should take in future. The group was headed by Minister Jim Lloyd and contained a number of Aboriginal Elders from around Australia, professional mediators Callum Campbell and Tom Stodulka were called in to facilitate the process and consult with indigenous and non-indigenous Australians, to obtain and represent their views
26.
Gamilaraay
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The Kamilaroi is one of the four largest indigenous nations in Australia. The Kamilaroi language is classified in the Pama–Nyungan family of Australian languages, the Kamilaroi Highway, Sydney Ferries Limiteds vehicular ferry Kamilaroi, and a cultivar of Durum wheat have all been named after the Kamilaroi people. The language is no longer spoken, though parts have bneen reconstructed by late field work. Robert M. W. Dixon and his student Peter Austin recorded some around Moree, while Corinne Williams wrote a thesis on the Yuwaaliyaay dialect spoken at Walgett, the Gamilaroi were hunters and gatherers with a band-level social organization. Important vegetable foods were yams and other roots, as well as a sterculia grain, insect larvae, frogs, and eggs of several different animals were also gathered. Various birds, kangaroos, emus, iguanas, possums, echidnas, dingo pups were regarded as a delicacy. Fish were also consumed, as were crayfish, mussels, men typically hunted, cleaned, and prepared the game for cooking. Women did the cooking, in addition to fishing and gathering. Individual Kamilaroi did not eat animals that were their totems, the Gamilaroi or Gomilaroi from the word Kamil or Gamil meaning no, are a large nation of Aborigines consisting of many tribes. The Gamilaroi are the second largest Aboriginal nation on the side of Australia. The nation was made up of smaller family groups who had their own parcels of land to sustain them. One of the great Kings of this tribe was Red Chief, the last link with tribal law and custom in Mungindi would be the forebear of the present Cubby family, who was the last known Respected Elder in the tribe. The Kamilaroi were regarded as fierce warriors and there is evidence of intertribal warfare. The Northern Gamilaroi people have a cultural connection with the Bigambul people. Kamilaroi tradition includes Baiame, the ancestor or patron god, the Baiame story tells how Baiame came down from the sky to the land, and created rivers, mountains, and forests. He then gave the people their laws of life, traditions, songs and he also created the first initiation site. This is known as a bora, a place where boys were initiated into manhood, when he had finished, he returned to the sky, and people called him the Sky Hero or All Father or Sky Father. He is said to be married to Birrahgnooloo, who is identified as an emu
27.
Sovereignty
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Sovereignty is understood in jurisprudence as the full right and power of a governing body to govern itself without any interference from outside sources or bodies. In political theory, sovereignty is a term designating supreme authority over some polity. It is a basic principle underlying the dominant Westphalian model of state foundation, derived from Latin through French souveraineté, its attainment and retention, in both Chinese and Western culture, has traditionally been associated with certain moral imperatives upon any claimant. The concept of sovereignty has been discussed throughout history, and is still actively debated and it has changed in its definition, concept, and application throughout, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The current notion of state sovereignty contains four aspects consisting of territory, population, authority, Sovereignty is a hypothetical trade, in which two potentially conflicting sides, respecting de facto realities of power, exchange such recognitions as their least costly strategy. The Roman jurist Ulpian observed that, The imperium of the people is transferred to the Emperor, the Emperor is not bound by the law. Emperor is the law making and abiding force, Ulpian was expressing the idea that the Emperor exercised a rather absolute form of sovereignty, although he did not use the term expressly. Classical Ulpians statements were known in medieval Europe, but sovereignty was an important concept in medieval times, Medieval monarchs were not sovereign, at least not strongly so, because they were constrained by, and shared power with, their feudal aristocracy. Furthermore, both were strongly constrained by custom, Sovereignty existed during the Medieval Period as the de jure rights of nobility and royalty, and in the de facto capability of individuals to make their own choices in life. 1380–1400, the issue of sovereignty was addressed in Geoffrey Chaucers Middle English collection of Canterbury Tales. The story revolves around the knight Sir Gawain granting to Dame Ragnell, his new bride, what is purported to be wanted most by women and we desire most from men, From men both lund and poor, To have sovereignty without lies. For where we have sovereignty, all is ours, Though a knight be ever so fierce and it is our desire to have master Over such a sir. Jean Bodin, partly in reaction to the chaos of the French wars of religion, in his 1576 treatise Les Six Livres de la République Bodin argued that it is inherent in the nature of the state that the sovereign must have both great and perpetual authority. Bodin rejected the notion of transference of sovereignty from people to the ruler, however, although he is often connected with absolutism, Bodin held some moderate opinions on how government should in practice be carried out. Thus, Bodin’s sovereign was restricted by the law of the state. Bodin believed that “the most divine, most excellent, and the form most proper to royalty is governed partly aristocratically and partly democratically”. With his doctrine that sovereignty is conferred by law, Bodin predefined the scope of the divine right of kings. During the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of sovereignty gained both legal and moral force as the main Western description of the meaning and power of a State
28.
Gary Foley
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Gary Edward Foley is an Australian Aboriginal Gumbainggir activist, academic, writer and actor. He is best known for his role in establishing the Aboriginal Tent Embassy in Canberra in 1972 and he also co-wrote and acted in the first indigenous Australian stage production, Basically Black. Gary Edward Foley was born in 1950 in Grafton, New South Wales and he was expelled from school on the basis of race at the age of 15 and arrived in Redfern in 1967. He worked as a draftsman and became involved in the black power movement active in that suburb. Foley played a role in organising protests against the Springboks in 1971 as a result of the Apartheid policies in South Africa. In 1972, Foley was appointed a public officer in the Department of Aboriginal Affairs. He was fired from the Department after just six weeks, after three warnings, and then secretary Barrie Dexter urged ASIO to spy on Foley, Foley co-founded the Aboriginal Tent Embassy in 1972 outside Parliament House to highlight Aboriginal disadvantage. The Tent Embassy is still in place despite ongoing controversy and has been nominated for the heritage list and it helped raise the profile of Aboriginal issues prior to the election of the Whitlam Government. He was also involved in the formation of the Aboriginal Legal Service in Redfern and he also co-wrote and appeared in Basically Black, the first Aboriginal stage production in 1972. In 1978, he was part of a group that took Aboriginal films to the Cannes Film Festival and he also starred in the film Backroads, appeared in Dogs in Space and made guest appearances on television shows A Country Practice and The Flying Doctors. Foley set up the first Aboriginal Information Centre in London, on returning to Australia, he organised protests against the Brisbane Commonwealth Games held in 1982. He was the first indigenous director of the Aboriginal Arts Board of the Australia Council between 1983 and 1986 and held leadership positions in the Aboriginal community. In 1988, he organised Aboriginal protests against the Australian Bicentenary in 1988 before becoming a consultant to the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody. He ran as an independent candidate for the seat of Jagajaga at the 1993 federal election in protest against the closure of Northlands Secondary College, Foley completed a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University of Melbourne in 2000 before completing a first class honours degree in 2002. In 2001, he was appointed curator at Museum Victoria. In April 2005, he resigned in protest over the Dja Dja Wurrung barks scandal and he also maintains the Kooriweb site on Aboriginal history and was formerly a senior lecturer at Swinburne University. He currently works as a professor at Victoria University, Foley participated in the Melbourne Free University project. In 2015 Foley received the Red Ochre Award
29.
Australian Senate
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The Australian Senate is the upper house of the bicameral Parliament of Australia, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Chapter I, there are a total of 76 senators,12 senators are elected from each of the six states and two from each of the two autonomous internal territories. Senators are popularly elected under the single vote system of proportional representation. As a result of proportional representation, the features a multitude of parties vying for power. Senators normally serve fixed terms, unless the Senate is dissolved earlier in a double dissolution. Following a double half the state senators serve terms ending on the third 30 June following the election with the rest serving three years longer. The term of the territory senators expires at the time as there is an election for the House of Representatives. The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act of 1900 established the Senate as part of the new system of government in newly federated Australia. From a comparative perspective, the Australian Senate exhibits distinctive characteristics. Unlike upper Houses in other Westminster system governments, the Senate is not a body with limited legislative power. Rather it was intended to play – and does play – an active role in legislation, the Constitution intended to give less populous states added voice in a Federal legislature, while also providing for the revising role of an upper house in the Westminster system. In practice, however, most legislation in the Australian Parliament is initiated by the Government and it is then passed to the Senate, which has the opportunity to amend the bill or refuse to pass it. In the majority of cases, voting takes place along party lines, since 2015, armed officers of the Australian Federal Police have been placed on duty to protect both chambers of the Federal Parliament. The system for electing senators has changed several times since Federation, the original arrangement involved a first-past-the-post block voting or winner takes all system, on a state-by-state basis. This was replaced in 1919 by preferential block voting, block voting tended to produce landslide majorities and even wipe-outs. For instance, from 1920 to 1923 the Nationalist Party of Australia had 35 of the 36 senators, and from 1947 to 1950, the Australian Labor Party had 33 of the 36 senators. From the 1984 election, group ticket voting was introduced in order to reduce a high rate of voting that arose from the requirement that each candidate be given a preference. As a result of the changes, voters may assign their preferences for parties above the line, or individual candidates below the line, both above and below the line voting now use optional preferential voting
30.
Greg Inglis
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Greg Inglis is an Australian professional rugby league footballer currently playing for the South Sydney Rabbitohs of the National Rugby League. Inglis is a back, having played in several positions during his career. He originally played on the wing or in the centres for the Storm, Inglis representative matches for Queensland and Australia have been as a winger, centre, and fullback. Inglis was born in Kempsey, New South Wales to a family of Indigenous Australian heritage and he began playing rugby league at a very young age for the Bowraville Tigers in New South Wales. While living in Macksville, he grew up with local, close friend. Later that year he moved to Brisbane, Queensland and continued to play football for Wavell State High School. While in Year 11 at Brisbanes Wavell State High School, Inglis played for the Australian Schoolboys team in 2004 and was attracting media attention as an NRL star of the future. He played his first under 18s game for the Brisbane Wombats in 2004, before the end of the 2004 season the Storm had added Inglis to their full-time playing roster for the following year. Inglis played for Melbourne during 2005s pre-season in a match against the Brisbane Broncos. Inglis scored 194 points for the Norths Devils in the Queensland Cup, Inglis would go on to play a month later at fullback in Round 10 against the South Sydney Rabbitohs, scoring a try in the Storms 38-12 win at Sydney Football Stadium. Inglis played at fullback when Billy Slater was on Origin duty, at the 2005 Dally M Awards Inglis was nominated for the Rookie of the Year, but lost to Parramattas Tim Smith. The Storm went on to reach the finals that season and in a match against the Brisbane Broncos. With the game still in the balance, Billy Slater was helped from the field with an ankle injury, after being on the field for five minutes, he crossed the Broncos line untouched to score the match-winning try. The Storm then lost in the Semi-Finals to the North Queensland Cowboys 16–24, Season 2006 saw Inglis continue to play primarily in the fullback role as his counterpart Billy Slater was suspended after he began the season at centre. After scoring 9 tries in 9 games, Inglis was selected in the line up in the Queensland State of Origin team. Inglis selection for the Queensland Rugby League State of Origin series team in 2006 created controversy which lingers nearly a decade later, Inglis was born and raised in Bowraville, New South Wales, and played his first senior football in New South Wales. Leading rugby league statistician David Middleton provided information that Inglis should be playing for NSW, the matter was resolved when the ARL gave Inglis the green light to play for Queensland Rugby League, because it allowed the QRLs submission that his first senior football was at Wavell High. However, Inglis went on to begin his State of Origin career with the Maroons, lining up alongside Storm teammates Cameron Smith, a few early errors were soon forgotten when Inglis scored two tries and saved one
31.
Troy Cassar-Daley
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Troy Cassar-Daley is a country musician from New South Wales, Australia. He released his first EP, Dream Out Loud, in 1994 and was nominated for his first Golden Guitar for Best Male Vocalist the same year. He won the ARIA Music Award for Best Country Album in 2006 and he has been a regular at the Tamworth Country Music Festival, the Deadly Awards and a visitor to Nashville, Tennessee, where he performed in the Country Music Associations Global Artist Party. Cassar-Daley was born in the Sydney suburb of Surry Hills to a Maltese-Australian father, at a very young age, he moved with his mother to Grafton in north-eastern New South Wales. At eleven, Troy went to the Tamworth Country Music Festival, at 16 he and his band, Little Eagle, were touring the North Coast of New South Wales and he made the top 10 in Tamworths Star Maker quest. He won the 1986 Search for a Star competition and then toured with Brian Young for seven months in which he began to develop his songwriting skills, after returning home he replaced James Blundell as leader of country music band The Blue Heeler Band. The first single Dream Out Loud was released in 1994 by Sony Music, the album was released in January 1995 and Troy won the 1995 ARIA Award for Best Country Record. At the 1996 Country Music Awards, in Tamworth, Troy won Best Male Vocalist and he also made a cameo appearance in the motion picture Race the Sun in which he performed a song in a bar scene. In June that year Troy was part of the Australian Country Music Showcase in Nashville, the Showcase included Lee Kernaghan, Gina Jeffreys and Tommy Emmanuel. As a result, Troy returned to the States to record his new album True Believer with Steve Dorff, Troy Cassar-Daley partnered up with Kate Ritchie for the singing competition It Takes Two aired on Seven Network in 2006. In May 2007 Troy re-appeared on the show, this time partnered with Krystal Forscutt. The same year, Troy was featured in a Wiggles music video for the song Old Dan Tucker, Cassar-Daley performed the national anthem at the 2003 NRL grand final. The event was simultaneously with another concert taking place at the Sydney Cricket Ground. All the proceeds from the Melbourne Concert went to the Red Cross Victorian Bushfire Relief Appeal,2010 Country Work of the Year win and Song of the Year nomination for Big, Big Love, performed and written by Cassar-Daley. 2013 Country Work of the Year nomination for Country Is, performed by Cassar-Daley and co-written with Colin Buchanan
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Emma Donovan
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Emma Donovan is an Indigenous Australian singer and songwriter. She is a member of the renowned Australian musical family the Donovan family and she started her singing career at age seven with her uncles band, The Donovans. In 2000, she became a member of Stiff Gins. She performs with The Black Arm Band, and released a solo EP, Ngaaraanga and she has been nominated for multiple Deadly Awards including Female Artist of the Year, and performed at the opening of the 2004 Olympic Torch Relay. She won Best Female Artist at the 2009 BUMP Awards, Donovan appeared in the ABC series Dynasties in 2004, and was the subject of the 2005 SBS TV documentary Emma Donovan, Gumbainggir Lady. Heritage Emma Donovan was born in 1981 at Liverpool, Australia and her father, Neville Councillor, is from Geraldton in Western Australia, and hes of Naaguja and Yamatji heritage. Her mother, Agnes Donovan, is a Gumbainggir/Danggali woman from the Nambucca Valley on the north coast of New South Wales, Music Donovans musical singing career started at a young age. Her grandparents Micko and Aileen Donovan, years before her birth, founded the Aboriginal country band The Donovans, Emmas uncles still perform as the Donovan Brothers band. At the age of seven Emma began periodically singing with the Donovans and her family and mother Agnes encouraged and supported her singing, Agnes taking her to talent competitions around the country. Agnes also helped developed Aboriginal showcases at the Tamworth Country Music Festival in the late 1990s, education Emmas family moved frequently, and she attended multiple schools in New South Wales and WA, with an extended time spent at North Newtown Primary. In 1997, at age sixteen, Donovan was studying music at the Eora College for Performing Arts in Chippendale. The school was founded to provide educations for Indigenous students and she began branching out from country music, exploring reggae and R&B as well. In late 1999, Donovan formed the acoustic band Stiff Gins with Nardi Simpson. They released their first EP, Soh Fa, on Sony Records in 2000, Donovan co-wrote their second release, the full album Origins. The album won the 2000 Deadly Award for Most Promising New Talent and their single Morning Star won the Deadlys Best Single Release in 2001. After touring both nationally and internationally, Donovan left the group in 2003 to work on material with industry professionals. Donovan released her solo album Changes in 2004. The Sydney launch of the album was well received, the style was a blend of soul, gospel, and reggae, with country undertones
