1.
Dalarna
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Dalarna, is a historical province or landskap in central Sweden. Another English language form established in literature is the Dales, Dalarna adjoins Härjedalen, Hälsingland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Värmland. It is also bounded by Norway in the west, borders of the province mostly coincide with the modern administrative Dalarna County. The word Dalarna means the dales, the area is a popular vacation destination for Swedes from the south, who often travel there to relax during summer vacations, drawn by good fishing lakes, beautiful campgrounds, and deep forests. Many such Swedes own or rent a residence in Dalarna. In mid-June, summerfest celebrations and dances are held in many of the villages and, of course. Dalarna is a full of historical associations, possessing strong local characteristics in respect of its products. In the western district Lima, some people in villages speak a dialect, Dalecarlian, while in Älvdalen. Historically, the people of Dalecarlia – called Dalecarlians, or Dalesmen and Daleswomen – are famous for their love of independence, the Old Norse form of the province is Járnberaland, which means the land of the iron carriers. The provinces of Sweden serve no administrative or political purposes, Dalarnas coat of arms dates from 1560, the use of two crossed arrows as a symbol precedes this. A Duchy of Dalecarlia also exists, and the arms include a ducal coronet. Blazon, Azure, two Dalecarlian Arrows Or in saltire point upwards pointed Argent and in chief a Crown of the first, as early as 1525, the arrows appeared in use on a seal. Dalarna County uses the coat of arms, granted for the then Kopparberg County in 1936. The northern part of the lies within the Scandinavian mountain range. The southern part consists of plains, with mines, most notably copper. Highest point is Storvätteshågna,1,204 meters above sea-level, lowest point is at 55 meters, in the south-east part. Lake Siljan features in the part of Dalarna, and the Västerdal River. Dalarnas second lake is Runn, which lies between Falun and Borlänge, with 66.6 square kilometres of water and over fifty islands, the lake is a popular tourist destination
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Danderyd Municipality
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Danderyd Municipality is a municipality just north of Stockholm in Stockholm County in east central Sweden. It is one of the smallest municipalities of Sweden, but the most affluent and its seat is located in Djursholm. The old rural municipality Danderyd was split up during the early 20th century, since 1971 Danderyd Municipality is reunified in approximately the old boundaries. The current chairman of the executive committee is Björn Hamilton. The four districts making up Danderyd are, Danderyd, Djursholm, Stocksund within Stockholm urban area, jonas Gustavsson, the NHL player, Jakob Lindberg, the lutenist, and Christian Lindberg, the trombone soloist, were born here. The population in Danderyd Municipality is among the most affluent in the country, one of the reasons for this is the high price on real estate, which in turn is partially due to a restrictive policy on new developments by the municipality council. The European route E18 stretches from Stocksund north towards Norrtälje Municipality, Danderyd is served by the Stockholm public transport system through SL. There are two stations on the Stockholm metro red line, Danderyds sjukhus and Mörby centrum, there are also several stops on the narrow gauge Roslagsbanan suburban railway as well as an extensive bus network
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Swedish nationality law
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Swedish nationality law determines entitlement to Swedish citizenship. Citizenship of Sweden is based primarily on the principle of jus sanguinis, in other words, citizenship is conferred primarily by birth to a Swedish parent, irrespective of place of birth. In general, children born in Sweden to foreign parents do not acquire Swedish citizenship at birth, Swedish law was significantly amended with effect from 1 July 2001 and from that date, dual citizenship is permitted without restriction. A child who is abroad and whose father is a Swedish citizen will acquire Swedish citizenship when the parents get married, provided the child is aged under 18. The adoption must have been decided or approved after 30 June 1992. A child aged 12 or more at the time of adoption may acquire Swedish citizenship by application, Swedish citizenship can be acquired by naturalization, also known as citizenship by application. A foreigner may be granted Swedish citizenship upon meeting certain requirements, including, holding a permanent residence permit, for citizens of European Economic Area nations, limited residence permits for five years equate to a permanent residence permit. A number of exemptions apply to the period, the residence period is reduced to 4 years for recognised refugees. Citizens of other Nordic Council countries are required to have two years residence in Sweden. In these cases, he/she must have been living together for the past two years and it is not enough to be married to one another, he/she must also live together. Notification is a method of acquiring Swedish citizenship. Those not eligible for notification may still be eligible for naturalisation by application, with effect from 1 July 2001, a Swedish citizen acquiring a foreign citizenship does not lose Swedish citizenship. Former Swedish citizens who lost Swedish citizenship prior to date were given a two-year period to re-acquire Swedish citizenship by declaration. Children of former Swedish citizens were eligible to acquire Swedish citizenship by declaration. The deadline for submission of applications was 30 June 2003, the changes to the law also mean that foreigners seeking naturalisation as a Swedish citizen do not need to renounce their former citizenship. They may retain it if the law of the country permits them to do so. Prior to 1 July 2001, Swedish citizens were able to legally hold dual citizenship in certain circumstances, for example. Swedish citizens are citizens of the European Union and thus enjoy rights of free movement and have the right to vote in elections for the European Parliament
4.
Monetary equilibrium
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Monetary disequilibrium theory is a product of the Monetarist school and is mainly represented in the works of Leland Yeager and Austrian macroeconomics. The basic concept of monetary equilibrium was, however, defined in terms of a demand for cash balance by Mises in his Theory of Money. Leland Yeagers understanding of the monetary disequilibrium theory begins with properties of money. Money is the generally accepted medium of exchange is one among the most important properties and he actually made effective use of the cash balance approach to the demand for money. When we combine these two properties we get a distinction between actual and desired money balances, the differences between individuals actual and desired holdings of money are the proximal causes of them affecting the level of spending in the macroeconomy. These differences between actual and desired money balances appear economy-wide when we have inflation or deflation and it presents an alternative to the real business cycle model and the quantity theory of money considered only a long-run theory of the price level. While it is agreed in economics that monetary policy can influence real activity in the economy. The theory also addresses the effects of policy on real sectors of the economy. Monetary-disequilibrium theory states that output, not prices and wages, fluctuate with a change in the money supply, to that degree, prices are represented as sticky. It is this “monetary disequilibrium, ” that, the theory contends, thus, changes in the money supply will result first in a change of output in the same direction, as distinct from merely a change in prices. Consequently, an increase in the supply will induce workers and businesses to supply more. In a situation where the money supply contracts, businesses will respond by laying off workers, in this way, the theory accounts for involuntary unemployment. The disequilibrium between the supply and demand for money exists as long as nominal supply does not automatically adjust to meet the nominal demand, the demand for money means demand to hold real cash balances. If the money supply is increased to an amount beyond which the desires to hold. With the increase in supply of money, people find themselves with larger money balances than they wish to hold, the increase in the aggregate price level is associated with excess supplies of money which reflects these individual increases. The price level continues to rise with the increase in spending of the excess money balances, in the long run any supply of money is an equilibrium supply. The long-run movement from equilibrium O to B is shown in the figure, Swedish economist Knut Wicksell was one of the main propagators of the theory. He was primarily concerned with the behavior of the price level
5.
Alva Myrdal
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Alva Myrdal was a Swedish sociologist and politician. She received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1982 and she married Gunnar Myrdal in 1924. Alva Myrdal was born in Uppsala grew up as the first child of a relatively well-off family and she had four siblings, Ruth, Folke, May and Stig. Her father was a socialist and modern liberal, during her childhood the family moved around to different places. For example, they were residents of Eskilstuna, Fairfield and Stockholm and her academic studies involved psychology and family sociology. She earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Stockholm in 1924, in 1929, Myrdal and her husband Gunnar Myrdal had the opportunity to travel to the US as Rockefeller Fellows. Myrdal further deepened her studies in the fields of psychology, education and she had the special chance to broaden her knowledge of childrens education. Myrdal first came to attention in the 1930s, and was one of the main driving forces in the creation of the Swedish welfare state. She coauthored the book Crisis in the Population Question, the book also detailed the importance of shared responsibility for childrens education both between the parents as well as the community by trained child educators. Myrdal was highly critical of developments in the operation of preschools for children in Sweden, consequently, she published the book Urban Children, where she presented her ideas for a newly reformed Swedish preschool system. She argued that child care was flawed. The system was polarised between two extremes - measures of relief for the less well-off contrasted with those measures which prepared children from wealthier families for private schools. She stressed that there were material obstacles in the way of being able to access a good education, therefore, social and economic reforms were needed. Myrdal wanted to combine and integrate the two extremes, a year later, she was able to go from theory to practice. Myrdal became director of the National Educational Seminar which she co-founded in 1936 and she worked there herself as a teacher by training pre-school teachers. Myrdal emphasized the lack of recent educational research in teacher training. Her teaching tried to integrate the new discoveries in child psychology in education, Social studies were also emphasized, as was womens personal development. With architect Sven Markelius, Myrdal designed Stockholms cooperative Collective House in 1937, in 1938, Alva and Gunnar Myrdal moved to the United States
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Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences
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The prize was established in 1968 by a donation from Swedens central bank, the Swedish National Bank, on the banks 300th anniversary. Although it is not one of the prizes that Alfred Nobel established in his will in 1895, laureates are announced with the other Nobel Prize laureates, and receive the award at the same ceremony. Laureates in the Memorial Prize in Economics are selected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and it was first awarded in 1969 to the Dutch and Norwegian economists Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch, for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes. An endowment in perpetuity from Sveriges Riksbank pays the Nobel Foundations administrative expenses associated with the prize, since 2012, the monetary portion of the Prize in Economics has totalled 8 million Swedish kronor. This is equivalent to the amount given for the original Nobel Prizes, the Prize in Economics is not one of the original Nobel Prizes created by Alfred Nobels will. However, the process, selection criteria, and awards presentation of the Prize in Economic Sciences are performed in a manner similar to that of the Nobel Prizes. Laureates are announced with the Nobel Prize laureates, and receive the award at the same ceremony, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. According to its website, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences administers a researcher exchange with academies in other countries and publishes six scientific journals. Members of the Academy and former laureates are also authorised to nominate candidates, all proposals and their supporting evidence must be received before February 1. The proposals are reviewed by the Prize Committee and specially appointed experts, before the end of September, the committee chooses potential laureates. If there is a tie, the chairman of the committee casts the deciding vote, next, the potential laureates must be approved by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Members of the Ninth Class of the Academy vote in mid-October to determine the next laureate or laureates of the Prize in Economics. The first prize in economics was awarded in 1969 to Ragnar Frisch, in 2009, Elinor Ostrom became the first woman awarded the prize. This makes it available to researchers in such topics as political science, psychology, moreover, the composition of the Economics Prize Committee changed to include two non-economists. This has not been confirmed by the Economics Prize Committee, the members of the 2007 Economics Prize Committee are still dominated by economists, as the secretary and four of the five members are professors of economics. Some critics argue that the prestige of the Prize in Economics derives in part from its association with the Nobel Prizes, among them is the Swedish human rights lawyer Peter Nobel, a great-grandson of Ludvig Nobel. Nobel criticizes the institution of misusing his familys name. He explaiend that Nobel despised people who cared more about profits than societys well-being and this does not matter in the natural sciences
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Economics
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Economics is a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work, consistent with this focus, textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behaviour of elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources, inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues. Economic analysis can be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science, and the environment. At the turn of the 21st century, the domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. The ultimate goal of economics is to improve the conditions of people in their everyday life. There are a variety of definitions of economics. Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services. Say, distinguishing the subject from its uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle coined the dismal science as an epithet for classical economics, in this context and it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man. He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth, how wealth is created, distributed, and consumed, but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. This is because war has as the goal winning it, generates both cost and benefits, and, resources are used to attain the goal. If the war is not winnable or if the costs outweigh the benefits. Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets, there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment. The same source reviews a range of included in principles of economics textbooks. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system
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Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
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Sociology
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Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology
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New York University
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New York University is a private nonprofit research university based in New York City. Founded in 1831, NYU is considered one of the worlds most influential research universities, University rankings compiled by Times Higher Education, U. S. News & World Report, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU amongst the top 32 universities in the world. NYU is a part of the creativity, energy and vibrancy that is Manhattan, located with its core in Greenwich Village. Among its faculty and alumni are 37 Nobel Laureates, over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners, over 30 Academy Award winners, alumni include heads of state, royalty, eminent mathematicians, inventors, media figures, Olympic medalists, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and astronauts. NYU alumni are among the wealthiest in the world, according to The Princeton Review, NYU is consistently considered by students and parents as a Top Dream College. Albert Gallatin, Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, declared his intention to establish in this immense, a system of rational and practical education fitting and graciously opened to all. A three-day-long literary and scientific convention held in City Hall in 1830 and these New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright or social class. On April 18,1831, an institution was established, with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the merchants, bankers. Albert Gallatin was elected as the institutions first president, the university has been popularly known as New York University since its inception and was officially renamed New York University in 1896. In 1832, NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four-story Clinton Hall, in 1835, the School of Law, NYUs first professional school, was established. American Chemical Society was founded in 1876 at NYU and it became one of the nations largest universities, with an enrollment of 9,300 in 1917. NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding, the university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus. NYU also had a desire to follow New York Citys development further uptown, NYUs move to the Bronx occurred in 1894, spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken. The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was, as a result, most of the universitys operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there. NYUs administrative operations were moved to the new campus, but the schools of the university remained at Washington Square. In 1914, Washington Square College was founded as the undergraduate college of NYU. In 1935, NYU opened the Nassau College-Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead and this extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University. In 1950, NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the citys institutions, including NYU
11.
Stockholm University
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Stockholm University is a public university in Stockholm, Sweden, founded as a college in 1878, with university status since 1960. Stockholm University has two fields, the natural sciences and the humanities/social sciences. With over 70,000 students at four different faculties, law, humanities, the mathematical, Stockholm University was granted university status in 1960, making it the fourth oldest Swedish university. As with other universities in Sweden, Stockholm Universitys mission includes teaching. The initiative for the formation of Stockholm University was taken by the Stockholm City Council, the process was completed after a decision in December 1865 regarding the establishment of a fund and a committee to establish a higher education institution in the capital. The nine members of the Committee were respected and prominent citizens whose work have helped the evolution of science, the next important step was taken in October 1869, when the Stockholm University College Association was established. Several members of the committee members of the association - including Professor Pehr Henrik Malmsten. The associations mission was to establish a university in Stockholm and would not be dissolved until college came into being, the memorandum of the Stockholm University College were adopted in May 1877, and in the autumn semester of the following year, actual operations began. In 1878, the university college Stockholms högskola started its operations with a series of lectures on natural sciences, notable in the universitys early history is the appointment of Sofia Kovalevskaya to hold a chair in mathematics department in 1889, making her the third female professor in Europe. In 1904 the college became a degree granting institution. In 1960, the college was granted university status, becoming Swedens fourth state university, since 1970 most of the university operations are pursued at the main campus at Frescati north of the city center. Stockholm University is an agency and is governed by the decisions coming from the government and parliament. The University Board is the Universitys highest governing body, the board is responsible for the University as a government agency s mission and for following the requirements of laws and regulations. The board reports to the government and it consists of eight external members, four business representatives from the university with two group alternates and three student representatives with an alternate. The University board is above the principal who is the head of the authority and have responsibility for all operations. The principal has a president to replace him/her if necessary. At the university, there are two area councils, Area board of science and Area board of humanities, law and social sciences and they are headed by a vice principal. The area boards are responsible for planning of education and research, coordination of faculty teaching, research
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Gustav Cassel
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Karl Gustav Cassel was a Swedish economist and professor of economics at Stockholm University. Cassels perspective on reality, and especially on the role of interest, was rooted in British neoclassicism. He is perhaps best known through John Maynard Keynes article Tract on Monetary Reform, Cassel was beyond doubt one of the outstanding figures in economic science during the inter-war period. His authority was only to that of Lord Keynes, and his advice was eagerly sought on many occasions by his own Government. He was also a member of the Swedish school of economics, along with Knut Wicksell. Cassel came to economics from mathematics, apart from the rudiments of a purchasing power parity theory of exchange rates, he produced an overconsumption theory of the trade cycle. He also worked on the German reparations problem and he was a member of many committees dealing with matters of state in Sweden and devoted much labour to the creation of a better system of budget exposition and control. He was one of the Swedish representatives at the International Chamber of Commerce meeting in London in 1921 and he became a member of Svenska Vetenskapsakademien and correspondent for Sweden to the Royal Economic Society. In addition to his books in Swedish, he published the works in other languages, Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag, The Nature and Necessity of Interest. His Memorandum on the Worlds Monetary Problems, published by the League of Nations for the International Financial Conference in Brussels in 1920, some of his notable students include Nobel Prize in Economics laureates Bertil Ohlin and Gunnar Myrdal, and the future Moderate Party leader Gösta Bagge
13.
Knut Wicksell
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Johan Gustaf Knut Wicksell was a leading Swedish economist of the Stockholm school. His economic contributions would influence both the Keynesian and Austrian schools of economic thought and he was married to the noted feminist Anna Bugge. Wicksell was born in Stockholm on December 20,1851 and his father was a relatively successful businessman and real estate broker. He lost both his parents at an early age. His mother died when he was six, and his father died when he was fifteen. His fathers considerable estate allowed him to enroll at the University of Uppsala in 1869 to study mathematics and physics and he received his first degree in two years, and he engaged in graduate studies until 1885, when he received his doctorate in mathematics. In 1887, Wicksell received a scholarship to study on the Continent, in the following years, his interests began to shift toward the social sciences, particularly economics. As a lecturer at Uppsala, Wicksell attracted attention because of his opinions about labour, at one lecture, he condemned drunkenness and prostitution as alienating, degrading, and impoverishing. Although he was identified as a socialist, his solution to the problem was decidedly Malthusian in advocating birth control. His fiery ideas had attracted attention, but his first work in economics, Value, Capital. Wicksell married Anna Bugge in 1887, Economics in Sweden at the time was taught as part of the law school, and Wicksell was unable to gain a chair until he was awarded a law degree. Accordingly, he returned to the University of Uppsala where he completed the usual four-year law degree course in two years, and he became a professor at that university in 1899. The next year, he became a professor at Lund University. After giving a lecture in 1908 satirising the Virgin birth of Jesus, Wicksell was deemed guilty of blasphemy, in 1916, he retired from his post at Lund and took a position at Stockholm advising the government on financial and banking issues. In Stockholm, Wicksell associated himself with other future great economists of the so-called Stockholm School, such as Bertil Ohlin, Gunnar Myrdal and he also taught a young Dag Hammarskjöld, the future Secretary-General of the United Nations. Wicksell died in 1926 while he was writing a work on the theory of interest. Elements of his policy were taken strongly to heart by the Swedish government, including his price-level targeting rule during the 1930s. Wicksells contributions to economics have been described by economists, including historian-of-economics Mark Blaug
14.
John R. Commons
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John Rogers Commons was an American institutional economist, Georgist, progressive and labor historian at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. John R. Commons was born in Hollansburg, Ohio on October 13,1862, Commons had a religious upbringing which led him to be an advocate for social justice early in life. Commons was considered a student and suffered from a mental illness while studying. He was allowed to graduate without finishing because of the potential seen in his intense determination, at this time, Commons became a follower of Henry Georges single tax economics. After graduating from Oberlin College, Commons did two years of studies at Johns Hopkins University, where he studied under Richard T. Ely. After appointments at Oberlin and Indiana University, Commons began teaching at Syracuse University in 1895, in spring 1899, Syracuse dismissed him as a radical. Eventually Commons re-entered academia at the University of Wisconsin in 1904, Commons early work exemplified his desire to unite Christian ideals with the emerging social sciences of sociology and economics. He was a frequent contributor to Kingdom magazine, was a founder of the American Institute for Christian Sociology, and authored a book in 1894 called Social Reform and he was an advocate of temperance legislation and was active in the national Prohibition Party. By his Wisconsin years, Commons scholarship had become less moralistic and more empirical, Commons believed that carefully crafted legislation could create social change, that view led him to be known as a socialist radical and incrementalist. Commons is best known for developing an analysis of collective action by the state and other institutions and he continued the strong American tradition in institutional economics by such figures as the economist and social theorist Thorstein Veblen. His notion of transaction is one of the most important contribution to Institutional Economics, the institutional theory was closely related to his remarkable successes in fact-finding and drafting legislation on a wide range of social issues for the state of Wisconsin. He drafted legislation establishing Wisconsins workers compensation program, the first of its kind in the United States, in 1934, Commons published Institutional Economics, which laid out his view that institutions were made up of collective actions that, along with conflict of interests, defined the economy. He believed that institutional economics added collective control of individual transactions to existing economic theory, Commons considered the Scottish economist Henry Dunning Macleod to be the originator of Institutional economics. Commons was a contributor to The Pittsburgh Survey, an 1907 sociological investigation of a single American city and his graduate student, John A. Fitch, wrote The Steel Workers, a classic depiction of a key industry in early 20th-century America. It was one of six key texts to come out of the survey, edwin E. Witte, later known as the father of social security also did his PhD at the University of Wisconsin–Madison under Commons. He was an advocate of proportional representation in the United States, writing a book on the subject in 1907. Commons undertook two major studies of the history of unions in the United States. Beginning in 1910, he edited A Documentary History of American Industrial Society, almost as soon as that work was complete, Commons began editing History of Labor in the United States, a narrative work which built on the previous 10-volume documentary history
15.
Ha-Joon Chang
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Ha-Joon Chang is a South Korean institutional economist specialising in development economics. In 2013 Prospect magazine ranked Chang as one of the top 20 World Thinkers and he has served as a consultant to the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the European Investment Bank, as well as to Oxfam and various United Nations agencies. He is also a fellow at the Center for Economic and Policy Research in Washington, in addition, Chang serves on the advisory board of Academics Stand Against Poverty. Chang is also known for being an important academic influence on the economist Rafael Correa and this and other work led to his being awarded the 2005 Wassily Leontief Prize for Advancing the Frontiers of Economic Thought from the Global Development and Environment Institute. He did not examine countries that failed to develop in the nineteenth century and this is a poor scientific and historical method. Suppose a doctor studied people with lives and found that some smoked tobacco. Any conclusions drawn only from the relationship would be quite misleading. Not only is the historical picture re-examined, but Chang uses this to argue the need for an attitude to the institutions desired in todays developing nations. Both as historical reinterpretation and policy advocacy, Kicking Away the Ladder, deserves a wide audience among economists, historians, and members of the policy establishment. Following up on the ideas of Kicking Away the Ladder, Chang published Bad Samaritans, The Myth of Free Trade, Chang countered Irwins criticisms by arguing that countries that had failed to develop had generally followed free market policies. Chang responded to Easterlys criticisms, asserting that Easterly misread his argument, Easterly in turn provided a counter-reply. Changs 2014 book, Economics, The Users Guide, is an introduction to economics and it is the first title in Penguins revived new Pelican Books series. Chang Ha-Joon Resource Center, Links and summaries of analysis from his critics,10 March 2009 Ha-Joon Chang on the G20 Summit, Currency Wars and Why the Free Market is a Myth – video interview by Democracy Now. 12 November 2010 Ha-Joon Chang on RAI Economy portal Lunch with the FT, Ha-Joon Chang
16.
Friedrich Hayek
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Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal for his pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and. Penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena, Hayek served in World War I and said that his experience in the war and his desire to help avoid the mistakes that had led to the war drew him to his career. Hayek lived in Austria, Great Britain, the United States and he spent most of his academic life at the London School of Economics, the University of Chicago, and the University of Freiburg. In 1984, he was appointed a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour by Queen Elizabeth II on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his services to the study of economics and he was the first recipient of the Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize in 1984. He also received the US Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1991 from President George H. W. Bush, in 2011, his article The Use of Knowledge in Society was selected as one of the top 20 articles published in The American Economic Review during its first 100 years. Friedrich August von Hayek was born in Vienna to August von Hayek, Friedrichs father, from whom he received his middle name, was also born in Vienna in 1871. He was a doctor employed by the municipal ministry of health, with passion in botany. August von Hayek was also a part-time botany lecturer at the University of Vienna, Friedrichs mother was born in 1875 to a wealthy, conservative, land-owning family. Hayek was the oldest of three brothers, Heinrich and Erich, who were one-and-a-half and five years younger than him and his fathers career as a university professor influenced Friedrichs goals later in life. Both of his grandfathers, who lived long enough for Friedrich to know them, were scholars, franz von Juraschek was a leading economist in Austria-Hungary and a close friend of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, one of the founders of the Austrian School of Economics. Von Juraschek was a statistician and was employed by the Austrian government. Friedrichs paternal grandfather, Gustav Edler von Hayek, taught natural sciences at the Imperial Realobergymnasium in Vienna and he wrote systematic works in biology, some of which are relatively well known. On his mothers side, Hayek was second cousin to the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein and his mother often played with Wittgensteins sisters, and had known Ludwig well. As a result of their relationship, Hayek became one of the first to read Wittgensteins Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus when the book was published in its original German edition in 1921. Although Hayek met Wittgenstein on only a few occasions, Hayek said that Wittgensteins philosophy and methods of analysis had a influence on his own life. In his later years, Hayek recalled a discussion of philosophy with Wittgenstein, after Wittgensteins death, Hayek had intended to write a biography of Wittgenstein and worked on collecting family materials, and he later assisted biographers of Wittgenstein. Hayek displayed an intellectual and academic bent from a young age. He read fluently and frequently going to school
17.
Brown v. Board of Education
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The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on
18.
Folkhemmet
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Folkhemmet is a political concept that played an important role in the history of the Swedish Social Democratic Party and the Swedish welfare state. Sometimes referred to as the Swedish Middle Way, folkhemmet was viewed as midway between capitalism and socialism, the base of the Folkhem vision is that the entire society ought to be like a small family, where everybody contributes. It was later developed by the Prime Ministers Tage Erlander and Olof Palme until the Social Democratic party historically lost power in 1976. Another important proponent was Hjalmar Branting, who came into contact with the concept while a student at Uppsala university, per Albin Hansson introduced the concept on 18 January 1928, saying that Sweden should become more like a good home, this being marked by equality and mutual understanding. Hansson advocated that the class society should then be replaced by the peoples home. The concept came at a time when nationalization was being questioned, and marked the abandonment of the notion of class struggle. Instead they adapted a planned economy and what would be called Funktionssocialism, the government would then also have more control over the individual, however, to the extent required to increase the wellbeing of citizens. Good and easily available education, even to higher levels, was considered important for building the new society. Free universal health care was provided by the state, enacted in 1947-55, during the 1930s, social engineering became an important part of folkhemmet. Alva and Gunnar Myrdals 1934 book Crisis in the Population Question inspired a radical, a number of changes took place in this period including expansion of the public sector, Wigforss economic policies, Gustav Möllers reform of the pension system, and Gunnar Myrdals housing policies. In the 1940s and 50s, old worn down houses that served as the overcrowded dwellings of the class were demolished. Instead, people were offered modern housing with bathrooms and windows to let light into every room, in the same way, new housing projects – or working class suburbs – were constructed in the 1960s and 70s to fill the needs of the increasing population in the Million Programme. Alva and Gunnar Myrdal suggested a series of programs designed to help families, in 1983, Magnus Uggla recorded the album Välkommen till folkhemmet
19.
Welfare state
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The welfare state is a concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the social and economic well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, the general term may cover a variety of forms of economic and social organization. Marshall described the modern state as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare. Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories, Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal, the welfare state involves a transfer of funds from the state, to the services provided, as well as directly to individuals. It is funded through redistributionist taxation and is referred to as a type of mixed economy. Such taxation usually includes an income tax for people with higher incomes. Proponents argue that this helps reduce the gap between the rich and poor. The German term Sozialstaat has been used since 1870 to describe state support programs devised by German Sozialpolitiker, the literal English equivalent social state didnt catch on in Anglophone countries. However, during the Second World War, Anglican Archbishop William Temple, author of the book Christianity and the Social Order, popularized the concept using the phrase welfare state. Bishop Temples use of state has been connected to Benjamin Disraelis 1845 novel Sybil, or the Two Nations, which speaks of the only duty of power. In Germany, the term Wohlfahrtsstaat, a translation of the English welfare state, is used to describe Swedens social insurance arrangements. The Italian term stato sociale reproduces the original German term, spanish and many other languages employ an analogous term, estado del bienestar – literally, state of well-being. In Brazil, the concept is referred to as previdência social, in French, welfare state is translated into LÉtat-providence. Modern welfare programs are distinguished from earlier forms of poverty relief by their universal. The institution of social insurance in Germany under Bismarck was an influential template, some schemes were based largely in the development of autonomous, mutualist provision of benefits. Others were founded on state provision, in an influential essay, Citizenship and Social Class, British sociologist T. H. Examples of such states are Germany, all of the Nordic countries, the Netherlands, France, Uruguay and New Zealand, since that time, the term welfare state applies only to states where social rights are accompanied by civil and political rights. Changed attitudes in reaction to the worldwide Great Depression, which brought unemployment, during the Great Depression, the welfare state was seen as a middle way between the extremes of communism on the left and unregulated laissez-faire capitalism on the right
20.
Stockholm school (economics)
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The Stockholm School, is a school of economic thought. It refers to an organized group of Swedish economists that worked together, in Stockholm. The Stockholm School had—at the same time as John Maynard Keynes, but independently—come to the conclusions in macroeconomics. Like Keynes, they were inspired by the works of Knut Wicksell, the movements name, The Stockholm School, was launched in an article by Bertil Ohlin in the influential Economic Journal in 1937, Some Notes on the Stockholm Theory of Savings and Investment. Myrdal and Ohlin went on to develop their theories, and in so doing. The objective of this way was to achieve a high level of social equality without undermining economic efficiency. Myrdal co-authored, together with his wife Alva Myrdal the book Crisis in the Population Question, the book served as a major source of inspiration for the construction of the modern Swedish welfare state, relying heavily on government intervention and social engineering to create a peoples home. The work was criticized for its discussion of racial issues. Myrdal received the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel in 1974, professor Ohlin developed, together with professor Eli Heckscher, the world-wide standard economic model of international trade, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. Ohlin received the Bank of Sweden Prize in 1977, Gustav Cassel, professor of economics at the Stockholm University, created the standard mathematical formulation of purchasing power parity, a central concept in microeconomics. Second Secretary-General of the United Nations, in office 10 April 1953 –18 September 1961. Dag Hammarskjöld is the person to have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize posthumously. Erik Lindahl was another member of the Stockholm school, he proposed a method of financing public goods in accordance with individual benefits, in the Lindahl equilibrium, the quantity of the public good satisfies the requirement that the aggregate marginal benefit equals the marginal cost of providing the good. Ingvar Svennilson became known for his theories in planned economics, other members, such as Erik Lundberg, continued as business cycle-oriented economists. Rudolf Meidner James M. Buchanan Social corporatism Constitutional economics Carlson, Benny, Knut Wicksell, Gustav Cassel, Eli Heckscher, Bertil Ohlin and Gunnar Myrdal on the Role of the Economist in Public Debate. Http, //econjwatch. org/issues/volume-3-number-1-september-2006 Axel Leijonhufvud, The Wicksell Connection,1979 Patinkin, on the Relation between Keynesian Economics and the Stockholm School. Shackle Video Gunnar Myrdal lecturing at UCLA 5/4/1966
21.
Endogenous money
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This theory is based on three main claims, Loans create deposits, for the banking system as a whole, drawing down a bank loan by a non-bank borrower creates new deposits. So while the quantity of bank loans may not equal deposits in an economy, central banks implement policy primarily through controlling short-term interest rates. The money supply then adapts to the changes in demand for reserves, the supply curve shifts to the right when financial intermediaries issue new substitutes for money, reacting to profit opportunities during the cycle. Even if the monetary authority refuses to accommodate such changes, banks can still increase reserves for loan demand through their own initiatives, given available credit, investment precedes and forces the saving necessary to finance it. Therefore, investment plans do not need to consider savings and it is precisely the credit-creation process dictated by profit seeking motives that is the source of instability. Proponents deny any practical impact of the multiplier on lending. Theories of endogenous money date to the 19th century, by Knut Wicksell, Knut Wicksells theory of the cumulative process of inflation remains the first decisive swing at the idea of money as a veil. Wicksells process has its roots in that of Henry Thornton, recall that the start of the quantity theory of moneys mechanism is a helicopter drop of cash, an exogenous increase in the supply of money. With the existence of money, Wicksell argued, two interest rates prevail, the natural rate and the money rate. The natural rate is the return on capital—or the real profit rate and it can be roughly considered to be equivalent to the marginal product of new capital. The money rate, in turn, is the loan rate, credit, then, is perceived quite appropriately as money. Banks provide credit, after all, by creating deposits upon which borrowers can draw, since deposits constitute part of real money balances, therefore the bank can, in essence, create money. Primarily, Says law is violated and abandoned by the wayside, however, real aggregate supply does constrain. Inflation results because capital goods industries cannot meet new, real demands for goods by entrepreneurs by increasing capacity. They may try but this would involve making higher bids in the market which itself is supply-constrained—thus raising factor prices. In short, inflation is a real phenomenon brought about by a rise in aggregate demand over. Money is not a veil - agents do react to it, in March 2014 the Bank of England wrote a widely distributed primer endorsing endogenous money and control of the money supply by private banks. Endogenous money is an economic theory with several strands, mostly associated with the post-Keynesian school
22.
John Maynard Keynes
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John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes CB FBA, was a British economist whose ideas fundamentally changed the theory and practice of macroeconomics and the economic policies of governments. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics and he instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. According to Keynesian economics, state intervention was necessary to moderate boom, Keynes advocated the use of fiscal and monetary policies to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. He and other economists had disputed the ability of government to regulate the business cycle favorably with fiscal policy. When Time magazine included Keynes among its Most Important People of the Century in 1999, the Economist has described Keynes as Britains most famous 20th-century economist. In addition to being an economist, Keynes was also a servant, a director of the Bank of England. John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England and his father, John Neville Keynes, was an economist and a lecturer in moral sciences at the University of Cambridge and his mother Florence Ada Keynes a local social reformer. Keynes was the first born, and was followed by two more children – Margaret Neville Keynes in 1885 and Geoffrey Keynes in 1887, Geoffrey became a surgeon and Margaret married the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Archibald Hill. According to the economist and biographer Robert Skidelsky, Keyness parents were loving and they remained in the same house throughout their lives, where the children were always welcome to return. Keyness mother made her childrens interests her own, and according to Skidelsky, because she could grow up with her children, they never outgrew home. In January 1889, at the age of five and a half and he quickly showed a talent for arithmetic, but his health was poor leading to several long absences. He was tutored at home by a governess, Beatrice Mackintosh, in January 1892, at eight and a half, he started as a day pupil at St Faiths preparatory school. By 1894, Keynes was top of his class and excelling at mathematics, in 1896, St Faiths headmaster, Ralph Goodchild, wrote that Keynes was head and shoulders above all the other boys in the school and was confident that Keynes could get a scholarship to Eton. In 1897, Keynes won a scholarship to Eton College, where he displayed talent in a range of subjects, particularly mathematics, classics. At Eton, Keynes experienced the first love of his life in Dan Macmillan, despite his middle-class background, Keynes mixed easily with upper-class pupils. In 1902 Keynes left Eton for Kings College, Cambridge, after receiving a scholarship for this also to read mathematics, Alfred Marshall begged Keynes to become an economist, although Keyness own inclinations drew him towards philosophy – especially the ethical system of G. E. Moore. Keynes joined the Pitt Club and was an member of the semi-secretive Cambridge Apostles society. Like many members, Keynes retained a bond to the club after graduating, before leaving Cambridge, Keynes became the President of the Cambridge Union Society and Cambridge University Liberal Club
23.
Swedish Social Democratic Party
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The current party leader since 2012 is Stefan Löfven, he has also been Prime Minister of Sweden since 2014. Founded in 1889, a schism occurred in 1917 when the socialists split from the Social Democrats to form the Swedish Social Democratic Left Party. The symbol of the SAP is traditionally a red rose, which is believed to have been Fredrik Ströms idea, the words of honour, as recorded by the 2001 party programme, are freedom, equality, and solidarity. The Social Democratic Partys position has a base within Marxist revisionism. Its party programme interchangeably calls their ideology democratic socialism, or social democracy, the party supports social welfare provision paid for by progressive taxation. In recent times they have become strong supporters of egalitarianism, and maintain an opposition to discrimination. In 2007, the Social Democrats elected Mona Sahlin as its first female party leader, on 7 December 2009, the Social Democrats launched a political and electoral coalition known as the Red-Greens together with the Greens and the Left Party. The parties contested the 2010 election on a joint manifesto, on 26 November 2010 the Red-Green alliance was dissolved. Currently, the Social Democratic Party has about 100,000 members and it has been the largest party in the Riksdag since 1914. The member base is diverse, but prominently features organized blue-collar workers, organisations within the Swedish social democratic movement, The National Federation of Social Democratic Women in Sweden organizes women. The Swedish Social Democratic Youth League organizes youth, the Social Democratic Students of Sweden organizes university students. The Religious Social Democrats of Sweden organizes all members with religious beliefs, the LGBT Social Democrats of Sweden organizes LGBT-people. In two of the elections, in 1940 and 1968, they got more than 50%, however. In 1944 the tides of the war had turned and the allied nations looked to win, giving more confidence in voting by preference. However, they won power in 1982 with a normal result of 45. 6%. The voter base consists of a swathe of people throughout Swedish society. Among the support that the Social Democratic Party lost in the 2006 election was the vote of pensioners, the combined Social Democratic Party and Left Party vote of citizens with non-Nordic foreign backgrounds sank from 73% in 2002 to 48% in 2006. Stockholm County typically votes for the centre-right parties, only 23% of Stockholm City residents voted for the Social Democratic Party in 2006
24.
Tage Erlander
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Tage Fritjof Erlander was a Swedish politician who served as Prime Minister of Sweden from 1946 to 1969. He was the leader of the Swedish Social Democratic Party and led the government for a tenure of 23 years. This led to Erlander being known as Swedens longest Prime Minister referring to both his physical stature –192 cm, or six feet and four inches – and tenure, until the 1960s, income taxes were lower in Sweden than in the United States. For most of his time in power, Erlander ran a minority government of the Social Democrats, from 1951 to 1957, he instead ran a coalition with the Farmers League. A snap election in 1958 then reversed this result, in the 1968 general election, he won his seventh and most successful victory, with the Social Democrats winning an absolute majority of the popular vote and seats in the lower chamber. Erlander resigned the year during a process of major constitutional reform and was succeeded by his long-time protégé. He was born in Ransäter, Värmland County, as the son of school teacher Erik Gustaf Erlander and his father had originally had the surname of Andersson, but had changed that to Erlander, after his father who had the first name of Erland. His mother was Alma, née Nilsson, on his grandmothers side, Erlander had ancestry from the Forest Finns, who migrated to Värmland from the Finnish province of Savonia in the 17th century. As a student at Lund University he was involved in student politics. He graduated in science and economics in 1928. From 1928 till 1929 he completed his military service in the Signals Corps. Erlander was a member of the staff of the encyclopedia Svensk Upplagsbok from 1929 to 1938. Erlander was elected to the council in Lund in 1930 and became a member of parliament in 1932. As State Secretary at the Ministry of Social Affairs, Erlander was one of the most senior officials responsible for the establishment of internment camps in Sweden during World War II. In the camps, which were kept secret to the Swedish public, people from ethnic minorities as well as political dissidents were interned, particularly Communists. The purpose of the registration was, according to a newspaper article, in Norway, similar lists were established that were handed over to the Nazis during the German occupation of Norway. Erlander ascended to the cabinet in 1944 as minister without Portfolio, a post he held to the next year, when Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson suddenly died in 1946, Erlander unexpectedly was chosen as the successor and subsequently also as the leader of the party. Retaining the positions of the Social Democrats from a potent Liberal opposition under Bertil Ohlin in his first election and his working relationship with the partys leader, Gunnar Hedlund, is known to have been good
25.
Crisis in the Population Question
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Crisis in the Population Question was a 1934 book by Alva and Gunnar Myrdal, who discussed the declining birthrate in Sweden and proposed possible solutions. The book was influential in the debate that created the Swedish welfare model, in the spring of 1931, Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal and Alva Myrdal wrote an article on Social Policy and Demography. The article was supposed to be published in the Swedish Social Democratic magazine Tiden, the article, instead, became the cornerstone of the book Crisis in the Population Question which was to be published three years later. The manuscript of the article as well as of the book is missing. In early spring 1934, Alva and Gunnar Myrdal decided to return to manuscript, to revise, update. For this purpose, they rented a cottage in the Norwegian mountains and they worked out their theoretical differences and produced a manuscript originally titled Demography and Social Policy. Gunnar was responsible for the historical, theoretical, economic and statistical sections, while Alva drafted chapters on families, children, the book deals with the consequences of continued low fertility in Sweden. Sweden was threatened by population decline and thus reduced productivity and standard of living, the authors advocated a series of social reforms in order to overcome this problem. A large chapter is devoted to Malthusianism and neo-Malthusianism as they attack, the occasion of the book was the birth of fewer children, economically and in terms of unsustainable housing for families. The idea was that parents could work outside the home and that the prevailing patriarchal family system must be revised substantially through a program of social engineering. If children were placed in some kind of institution with trained staff while parents work, a very serious housing issue resulted in overcrowding and low-quality housing, particularly to poor children growing up in environments that could lead to physical and psychological harm. Sterilization was also discussed in the context of nurture versus nature, among the most prominent intellectuals in 1930s Sweden belonged to the couple Alva Myrdal and Gunnar Myrdal. Their political ideas and research efforts played a role in the design of welfare policy in the welfare state time. In the book was formulated the radical demands for a community-oriented family policy an issue that caused a lively debate. The economic situation in the early 1930s was serious, a recession had hit the Western world, and one million people were jobless. In the winter of 1932-1933,200,000 people were unemployed in Sweden, birth rates fell sharply and were the lowest in the Western world. In inner-city apartments were 1930 instance, only 34% had a bath
26.
Swedish language
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Swedish is a North Germanic language, spoken natively by more than 9 million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, where it has equal legal standing with Finnish. It is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Danish, along with the other North Germanic languages, Swedish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples living in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. It is currently the largest of the North Germanic languages by number of speakers, Standard Swedish, spoken by most Swedes, is the national language that evolved from the Central Swedish dialects in the 19th century and was well established by the beginning of the 20th century. While distinct regional varieties descended from the rural dialects still exist. The standard word order is, as in most Germanic languages, V2, Swedish morphology is similar to English, that is, words have comparatively few inflections. There are two genders, no cases, and a distinction between plural and singular. Older analyses posit the cases nominative and genitive and there are remains of distinct accusative and dative forms as well. Adjectives are compared as in English, and are inflected according to gender, number. The definiteness of nouns is marked primarily through suffixes, complemented with separate definite and indefinite articles, the prosody features both stress and in most dialects tonal qualities. The language has a large vowel inventory. Swedish is also notable for the voiceless velar fricative, a highly variable consonant phoneme. Swedish is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, by many general criteria of mutual intelligibility, the Continental Scandinavian languages could very well be considered dialects of a common Scandinavian language. In the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, the dialects of Old East Norse that were spoken in Sweden are called Runic Swedish while the dialects of Denmark are referred to as Runic Danish. The dialects are described as runic because the body of text appears in the runic alphabet. Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with the Elder Futhark alphabet, Old Norse was written with the Younger Futhark alphabet, from 1200 onwards, the dialects in Denmark began to diverge from those of Sweden. An early change that separated Runic Danish from the dialects of Old East Norse was the change of the diphthong æi to the monophthong é. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain, there was also a change of au as in dauðr into a long open ø as in døðr dead
27.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
28.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
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The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe was established in 1947 to encourage economic cooperation among its member States. It is one of five regional commissions under the direction of United Nations headquarters. It has 56 member States, and reports to the United Nations Economic, besides countries in Europe, it also includes Canada, the Central Asian republics, Israel and the United States of America. The UNECE secretariat headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland, and has a budget of US$50 million. The 56 member countries are listed below,18 of the UNECEs member countries are recipients of official development assistance. CEP is the governing body of UNECE environmental activities. Participating and/or facilitating the exchange of experience in a number of activities undertaken under the leadership of UNECE. In 1947, UNECE set up a Panel on Housing Problems, the Committee is an intergovernmental body of all UNECE member States. The UNECE Transport Division has been providing services to the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations. The UNECE Statistical Division provides the secretariat for the Conference and its expert groups, the Statistical Division develops guidelines and training materials on statistical methodology and practices, in response to demands from member countries. The UNECE Statistical Division also provides assistance to South-East European, East European, Caucasus. 2) A biennial overview of key statistics for member countries, UNECE Countries in Figures, 3) A set of wikis to support collaboration activities and disseminate information about good practices. UNECE conducted the Fertility and Family Survey in the 1990s in 23 member States, with over 150,000 participants and this activity has hence continued in the form of the Generations and Gender Programme. From 1982 to 2007 the IOS Press published the Statistical Journal of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe on behalf of the UNECE
29.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
30.
The Race Question
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The Race Question is the first of four UNESCO statements about issues of race. It was issued on 18 July 1950 following World War II and Nazi racism and was an attempt to clarify what was known about race. It was criticized on grounds and revised versions were publicized in 1951,1967 and 1978. The statements were signed by some of the researchers of the time, in the field of sociology, psychology, biology. The text was revised by Ashley Montagu following criticisms submitted by Hadley Cantril, E. G. Conklin, Gunnar Dahlberg, Theodosius Dobzhansky, author of Genetics. The introduction states that it was inevitable that UNESCO should take a position in the controversy, the preamble to the UNESCO constitution states that it should combat racism. Before undertaking this campaign, the position had to be clarified. But it could however, prevent rationalizations of reprehensive acts or behaviour prompted by feelings that men will not easily avow openly, UNESCO also made a moral statement, UNESCO would start a campaign to spread the results of the report to a vast public such as by publishing pamphlets. It described Brazil as having a situation regarding race relations. A revised edition in 1951 explained the controversy as At the first discussion on the problem of race, it was chiefly sociologists who gave their opinions and framed the ‘Statement on race’. Secondly, the first statement did not, in all its details, carry conviction of these groups and, because of this, in general, the chief conclusions of the first statement were sustained, but with differences in emphasis and with some important deletions. Some examples of differences include that the first version argued that there was no evidence for intellectual or personality differences, the first version did not reject the idea of a biological basis to racial categories. The revised statement titled The Race Concept, Results of an Inquiry was accompanied by Fishers dissenting commentary, the 1951 revised statement stated that Homo sapiens is one species. In its anthropological sense, the word ‘race’ should be reserved for groups of mankind possessing well-developed and these differences have been caused in part by partial isolation preventing intermingling, geography an important explanation for the major races, often cultural for the minor races. National, religious, geographical, linguistic and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups, most anthropologists have classified humans into three large groups. Such a classification does not depend on any single physical character such as skin color, most anthropologists do not include mental characteristics in their classification of human races. When intelligence tests, even non-verbal, are made on a group of non-literate people, however, overall, available scientific knowledge provides no basis for believing that the groups of mankind differ in their innate capacity for intellectual and emotional development. There is no evidence for the existence of so-called pure races, the UNESCO later published other similar statements on racism
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Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
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Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
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