1.
Gennevilliers
–
Gennevilliers is a commune in the northwestern suburbs of Paris, in the Hauts-de-Seine département of France. It is located 9.1 km from the center of Paris, on 9 April 1929, one-fifth of the territory of Gennevilliers was detached and became the commune of Villeneuve-la-Garenne. Gennevilliers is the site of the river port Port of Gennevilliers of Paris on the Seine river. Gennevilliers is served by three stations on Paris Métro line 13, Les Courtilles, Les Agnettes and Gabriel Péri, all three are at the border with the commune of Asnières-sur-Seine. Gennevilliers is also served by two stations on Paris RER line C, Les Grésillons and Gennevilliers, schools include,13 preschools 9 elementary schools 3 junior high schools, Collège Guy-Môquet, Collège Edouard-Vaillant, Collège Louis-Pasteur There is a senior high school, Lycée Galilée
Gennevilliers
–
An aerial view of the Port of Genvilliers
Gennevilliers
–
Gennevilliers, by
Lucy Bacon circa 1895. Photo from painting in private collection.
2.
Realism (arts)
–
Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in part a matter of technique and training. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the depiction of lifeforms, perspective. Realist works of art may emphasize the mundane, ugly or sordid, such as works of realism, regionalism. There have been various movements in the arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism. The realism art movement in painting began in France in the 1850s, the realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century. Realism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes. Realism in this sense is also called naturalism, mimesis or illusionism, realistic art was created in many periods, and it is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. It becomes especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Jan van Eyck, however such realism is often used to depict, for example, angels with wings, which were not things the artists had ever seen in real life. It is the choice and treatment of matter that defines Realism as a movement in painting. The development of increasingly accurate representation of the appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, of perspective and effects of distance. Ancient Greek art is recognised as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. Pliny the Elders famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend, roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects. The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy and gradually spread across Europe, and accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm, intriguingly, having led the development of illusionic painting, still life was to be equally significant in its abandonment in Cubism. The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions. However these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance, pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life
Realism (arts)
–
Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet, 1854. A Realist painting by
Gustave Courbet.
Realism (arts)
–
Realist or illusionistic detail of the
convex mirror in the
Arnolfini Portrait by
Jan van Eyck, 1434
Realism (arts)
–
Lord Leighton 's
Cimabue's Celebrated Madonna of 1853-55 is at the end of a long tradition of illusionism in painting, but is not Realist in the sense of Courbet's work of the same period.
Realism (arts)
–
Woodcutting, miniature from a set of
Labours of the Months by
Simon Bening, c. 1550
3.
Impressionism
–
Impressionism originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the art community in France. The development of Impressionism in the arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as impressionist music. Radicals in their time, early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting and they constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and J. M. W. Turner. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes were painted in a studio. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air, the Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the style. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. In the middle of the 19th century—a time of change, as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris, the Académie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued, landscape, the Académie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artists hand in the work. Colour was restrained and often toned down further by the application of a golden varnish, the Académie had an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work was displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme. In the early 1860s, four young painters—Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and they discovered that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or mythological scenes. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the Café Guerbois on Avenue de Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were led by Édouard Manet. They were soon joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, during the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style. In 1863, the Salon jury rejected Manets The Luncheon on the Grass primarily because it depicted a woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in historical and allegorical paintings, the jurys severely worded rejection of Manets painting appalled his admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists
Impressionism
–
Claude Monet,
Haystacks, (sunset), 1890–1891,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Impressionism
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette (
Bal du moulin de la Galette),
Musée d'Orsay, 1876
Impressionism
–
Édouard Manet,
The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe), 1863
Impressionism
–
Alfred Sisley, View of the Saint-Martin Canal, Paris, 1870,
Musée d'Orsay
4.
Impressionists
–
Impressionism originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the art community in France. The development of Impressionism in the arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as impressionist music. Radicals in their time, early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting and they constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and J. M. W. Turner. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes were painted in a studio. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air, the Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the style. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. In the middle of the 19th century—a time of change, as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris, the Académie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued, landscape, the Académie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artists hand in the work. Colour was restrained and often toned down further by the application of a golden varnish, the Académie had an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work was displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme. In the early 1860s, four young painters—Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and they discovered that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or mythological scenes. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the Café Guerbois on Avenue de Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were led by Édouard Manet. They were soon joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, during the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style. In 1863, the Salon jury rejected Manets The Luncheon on the Grass primarily because it depicted a woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in historical and allegorical paintings, the jurys severely worded rejection of Manets painting appalled his admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists
Impressionists
–
Claude Monet,
Haystacks, (sunset), 1890–1891,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Impressionists
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette (
Bal du moulin de la Galette),
Musée d'Orsay, 1876
Impressionists
–
Édouard Manet,
The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe), 1863
Impressionists
–
Alfred Sisley, View of the Saint-Martin Canal, Paris, 1870,
Musée d'Orsay
5.
Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis
–
The Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis is a street in the 10th arrondissement of Paris. It crosses the arrondissement from north to south, linking the Porte Saint-Denis to the Métro station of La Chapelle, the rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis owes its name to the fact that it is an extension of the rue Saint-Denis to the faubourg or area outside Pariss walls. It also marked the boundary of the enclos Saint-Lazare. Historically, this street was an extremely upper-class area, occupied by jewellers and textile merchants, after the French Revolution the street briefly bore the name rue du Faubourg Franciade in 1793. Mistinguett, who made this street famous by singing je suis née dans le faubourg saint-Denis, was born in Enghien-les-bains. The marchandes de quatre saisons were typical of this street and they can be seen in the 1961 Jean-Luc Godard film Une femme est une femme, but have since been removed because they were causing traffic congestion. An old Bouillon snackbar has become a fashionable brasserie, Chez Julien, a fashionable traiteur, Julhès, known for its mille-feuilles. The training gymnasium of Marcel Cerdan is at number 23, the Reggiani family hairdressers shop was at number 83, Serge Reggiani evoked the spirit of this street in an autobiographical song. Passage Prado, known for its Art déco decoration, Passage Brady, known for its Indian and Pakistani restaurants, Passage de lIndustrie
Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis
–
Rue de Faubourg-Saint-Denis
Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis
–
Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis
6.
Seine (department)
–
Seine was a department of France encompassing Paris and its immediate suburbs. Its capital was Paris and its number was 75. The Seine department was abolished in 1968 and its divided among four new departments. From 1929 to its abolition in 1968, the department consisted of the city of Paris and 80 suburban communes surrounding Paris and it had an area of 480 km², 22% of that area being the city of Paris, and 78% being independent suburbs. It was divided into three arrondissements, Paris, Sceaux, and Saint-Denis, the Seine department was created on March 4,1790 as the Paris department. In 1795, it was renamed the Seine department after the Seine River flowing through it, with the growth of Paris and its suburbs over the next 150 years, the population of the Seine department increased tremendously. By 1968 it contained 5,700,754 residents, making it by far the most populous department of France. The break-up of the Seine department involved the following changes, The city of Paris was turned into a department in its own right, the official number 75 which was used for the Seine department was given to the new Paris department. Taken together, Hauts-de-Seine, Val-de-Marne, and Seine-Saint-Denis, known in France as the petite couronne, at the 2006 census, the population of the communes that had previously comprised the Seine department was 5,496,468. The population of the department peaked in 1968 at 5,700,754 and this new population growth after a long period of decline is comparable to what is observed in the central areas of other large Western metropolises such as Inner London. Of the new departments created in 1968, Paris was the most populous in 2006 with 2,181,371 inhabitants, the Paris department is currently the second-most populous of France behind that of Nord. The breakup of the Seine department was universally welcomed at the time, the building of the large Périphérique freeway around Paris also contributed to the feeling of marked segregation between Paris proper and its suburbs. In contrast, today rich Paris administers itself solely and leaves the suburbs to their own fate, however, there are no real plans to revive the old Seine department
Seine (department)
–
Seine department and its
communes before the 1860 enlargement of the city of Paris
7.
Martial Caillebotte
–
Martial Caillebotte was a French photographer and composer who was also one of the Fathers of Philately entered on the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists in 1921. He was the brother of the noted artist Gustave Caillebotte. He married Marie Minoret, June 7,1887, in 1888 his wife gave birth to a son Jean, and then in 1889 a daughter Geneviève. Geneviève inherited the majority of paintings by Gustave Caillebotte. Along with his brother, he formed a joint stamp collection around 1878 that grew to be one of the most important of its time but disposed of it in 1887, the Caillebotte Brothers, Painter and Photographer Martial Caillebotte
Martial Caillebotte
–
Gustave Caillebotte, Martial Caillebotte Playing the Piano, c. (1876)
Martial Caillebotte
–
A photograph of the Caillebotte family taken by Martial Caillebotte
Martial Caillebotte
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir at Montmartre in a photograph by Martial Caillebotte.
Martial Caillebotte
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Portrait of Jean and Genevieve Caillebotte, 1895
8.
Yerres
–
Yerres is a commune in the southeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 18.3 km from the center of Paris, Yerres lies in the North-Eastern part of Essonne and bordering the Val-de-Marne département. The town extends on both sides of the valley through which flows the river Yerres, the highest point is the wooded Mont Griffon, which reaches an altitude of 116 m, while the lowest point is at only 30 m above sea level. In 1860 the father of Gustave Caillebotte bought an estate on the banks of the river Yerres, the most famous paintings the artist made in Yerres are Portraits à la campagne, Baigneurs, Bords de lYerres, Canotiers ramant sur lYerres. The estate and its magnificent garden are now owned by the town, the first parish of Yerres could well date back to the 12th century. At that time a church stood on the spot where the current church building stands. Throughout the years the church had different patron saints, Saint Lupus, Saint Vincent, Saint Fiacre, the church that can be seen in the town center was probably built in the 13th century but later modified. Yerres is served by Yerres station on Paris RER line D, communes of the Essonne department INSEE Mayors of Essonne Association Media related to Yerres at Wikimedia Commons Official website Mérimée database - Cultural heritage Land use
Yerres
–
Caillebotte garden
Yerres
–
Les Canotiers, G. Caillebotte
9.
Law degree
–
A law degree is an academic degree conferred for studies in law. Such degrees are generally preparation for careers, but while their curricula may be reviewed by legal authority. The first academic degrees were all law degrees- and the first law degrees were doctorates, the foundations of the first universities in Europe were the glossators of the 11th century, which were schools of law. The first European university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the school in that city. It is from history that it is said that the first academic title of doctor applied to scholars of law. The degree and title were not applied to scholars of other disciplines until the 13th century, the rising of the doctor of philosophy to its present level is a modern novelty. At its origins, a doctorate was simply a qualification for a guild—that of teaching law, the University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age. In the medieval Islamic madrasahs, there was a doctorate in the Islamic law of the Sharia, the type of law degree conferred differs according to the jurisdiction. Some examples include, Bacharel em Direito or Bacharel em Ciências Jurídicas e Sociais, the abbreviation for Bachelor is Bel. Bachelor of Laws also referred to as a B. A. in Law or an LL. B. in the United Kingdom, Master of Laws in the United Kingdom and various current or former Commonwealth countries. Also referred to as an LL. M. from its Latin name and it is an advanced academic degree pursued by those holding a professional law degree or a degree in a relevant field. Laurea di Dottore in Giurisprudenza for graduates before the Bologna Process reforms, or Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza after the Bologna Process reforms, in Italy. It is a masters degree, however all graduates of Italian universities. Erstes Juristisches Staatsexamen is the equivalent to the law degree, since the part is the German equivalent to the Bar exam in the U. S. At some universities you either become a Lizentiat des Rechts, a Magister iuris or a Diplom-Jurist, Juris Doctor in the United States and Japan. It is a doctorate degree. Legum Doctor is in some jurisdictions the highest academic degree in law and is equivalent to a Ph. D. Doctor of Juridical Science is a research doctorate in law awarded mostly in the United States and Canada. Lizentiat der Rechtswissenschaften / Licence en droit until 2004 and Master of Law since 2004 in Switzerland and it is a masters level degree
Law degree
–
A typical Juris Doctor diploma from the United States, here from
Suffolk University Law School in 2008.
10.
Franco-Prussian war
–
The conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to extend German unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the Prussians succeeded. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on the German Kingdom of Prussia, the German coalition mobilised its troops much more quickly than the French and rapidly invaded northeastern France. The German forces were superior in numbers, had training and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railroads. The German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I, the Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 gave Germany most of Alsace and some parts of Lorraine, which became the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. French determination to regain Alsace-Lorraine and fear of another Franco-German war, along with British apprehension about the balance of power, the causes of the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding the unification of Germany. In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia had annexed numerous territories and this new power destabilized the European balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. France was strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, in Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the southern German states to side with Prussia, many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace. The immediate cause of the war resided in the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, France feared encirclement by an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The Hohenzollern princes candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, releasing the Ems Dispatch to the public, Bismarck made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France. They also argue that he wanted a war to resolve growing domestic political problems, other historians, notably French historian Pierre Milza, dispute this. According to Milza, the Emperor had no need for a war to increase his popularity, the Ems telegram had exactly the effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended. This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull, gramont, the French foreign minister, declared that he felt he had just received a slap. Napoleons new prime minister, Emile Ollivier, declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war, a crowd of 15–20,000 people, carrying flags and patriotic banners, marched through the streets of Paris, demanding war. On 19 July 1870 a declaration of war was sent to the Prussian government, the southern German states immediately sided with Prussia. The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 400,000 soldiers, some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the Crimean War, Algeria, the Franco-Austrian War in Italy, and in the Mexican campaign. Under Marshal Adolphe Niel, urgent reforms were made, universal conscription and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists, who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation. Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the Garde Mobile, however, the Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented
Franco-Prussian war
–
Clockwise from top left: Prussian infantry at the
Battle of Spicheren;
Jeanniot 's 1886 La ligne de feu (
Battle of Mars-La-Tour);
Werner 's depiction of the
capitulation of Sedan;
Neuville 's 1873 Les dernières cartouches (
Battle of Bazeilles).
Franco-Prussian war
–
A French
mitrailleuse in the
Bundeswehr Military History Museum
Franco-Prussian war
–
French reservists responding to the call.
Franco-Prussian war
–
Map of German and French armies near their common border on 31 July 1870
11.
Edgar Degas
–
Edgar Degas was a French artist famous for his paintings, sculptures, prints, and drawings. He is especially identified with the subject of dance, more than half of his works depict dancers and he is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism, although he rejected the term, preferring to be called a realist. He was a draftsman, and particularly masterly in depicting movement, as can be seen in his rendition of dancers, racecourse subjects. His portraits are notable for their complexity and for their portrayal of human isolation. At the beginning of his career, Degas wanted to be a history painter, in his early thirties, he changed course, and by bringing the traditional methods of a history painter to bear on contemporary subject matter, he became a classical painter of modern life. Degas was born in Paris, France, into a wealthy family. He was the oldest of five children of Célestine Musson De Gas, a Creole from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Augustin De Gas and his maternal grandfather Germain Musson, was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti of French descent and had settled in New Orleans in 1810. Degas began his schooling at age eleven, enrolling in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and his mother died when he was thirteen, and his father and grandfather became the main influences on him for the remainder of his youth. Degas began to paint early in life, by the time he graduated from the Lycée with a baccalauréat in literature in 1853, at age 18, he had turned a room in his home into an artists studio. Upon graduating, he registered as a copyist in The Louvre Museum, Degas duly enrolled at the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris in November 1853, but applied little effort to his studies. In April of that year Degas was admitted to the École des Beaux-Arts and he studied drawing there with Louis Lamothe, under whose guidance he flourished, following the style of Ingres. In July 1856, Degas traveled to Italy, where he would remain for the three years. In 1858, while staying with his aunts family in Naples and he also began work on several history paintings, Alexander and Bucephalus and The Daughter of Jephthah in 1859–60, Sémiramis Building Babylon in 1860, and Young Spartans around 1860. In 1861 Degas visited his childhood friend Paul Valpinçon in Normandy and he exhibited at the Salon for the first time in 1865, when the jury accepted his painting Scene of War in the Middle Ages, which attracted little attention. The change in his art was influenced primarily by the example of Édouard Manet, upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Degas enlisted in the National Guard, where his defense of Paris left him little time for painting. During rifle training his eyesight was found to be defective, after the war, Degas began in 1872 an extended stay in New Orleans, Louisiana, where his brother René and a number of other relatives lived. Staying at the home of his Creole uncle, Michel Musson, on Esplanade Avenue, Degas produced a number of works, many depicting family members. One of Degass New Orleans works, A Cotton Office in New Orleans, garnered favorable attention back in France, Degas returned to Paris in 1873 and his father died the following year, whereupon Degas learned that his brother René had amassed enormous business debts
Edgar Degas
–
Self-portrait (Degas au porte-fusain), 1855
Edgar Degas
–
Edgar Degas c. 1850s
Edgar Degas
–
A Cotton Office in New Orleans, 1873
Edgar Degas
–
The Dance Class (La Classe de Danse), 1873–1876, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas
12.
Giuseppe De Nittis
–
Giuseppe De Nittis was an Italian painter whose work merges the styles of Salon art and Impressionism. De Nittis was born in Barletta, where he first studied under Giovanni Battista Calò, after being expelled in 1863 from the Instituto di Belle Arti in Naples for insubordination, he launched his career with the exhibition of two paintings at the 1864 Neapolitan Promotrice. De Nittis came into contact with some of the known as the Macchiaioli, becoming friends with Telemaco Signorini. In 1867 he moved to Paris and entered into a contract with the art dealer Adolphe Goupil which called for him to produce genre works. After gaining some visibility by exhibiting at the Salon he returned to Italy where, now free to paint from nature, he produced several views of Vesuvius. In 1872 De Nittis returned to Paris and, no longer contract to Goupil. In that same year he was invited to exhibit at the first Impressionist exhibition, the invitation came from Edgar Degas, who was a friend of several Italian artists residing in Paris, including Telemaco Signorini, Giovanni Boldini and Federico Zandomeneghi. De Nittis was not accepted by all of the Impressionists, a trip to London resulted in a number of Impressionistic paintings. In 1875 De Nittis took up pastels, which became an important medium for him in his remaining years and he preferred pastels as the medium for his largest works, such as the triptych entitled Races at Auteuil. De Nittis exhibited twelve paintings in The Exposition Universelle of 1878, in that same year he received the Légion d’honneur. In 1884, at the age of 38, De Nittis died suddenly of a stroke at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, works by De Nittis are in many public collections, including the Musée dOrsay in Paris, British Museum in London, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. His paintings Return from the Races and The Connoisseurs are in the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Macchiaioli, Italian Painters of the Nineteenth Century. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-03547-0 Steingräber, Erich, Matteucci, Giuliano. The Macchiaioli, tuscan painters of the sunlight, New York, Stair Sainty Matthiesen Gallery
Giuseppe De Nittis
–
Giuseppe De Nittis, Self-portrait
Giuseppe De Nittis
–
Place des Pyramides
Giuseppe De Nittis
–
It's so Cold!
Giuseppe De Nittis
–
Westminster Bridge
13.
Impressionist
–
Impressionism originated with a group of Paris-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the art community in France. The development of Impressionism in the arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as impressionist music. Radicals in their time, early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting and they constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and J. M. W. Turner. They also painted scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes were painted in a studio. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air, the Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the style. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. In the middle of the 19th century—a time of change, as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris, the Académie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued, landscape, the Académie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artists hand in the work. Colour was restrained and often toned down further by the application of a golden varnish, the Académie had an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work was displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme. In the early 1860s, four young painters—Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley and they discovered that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or mythological scenes. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the Café Guerbois on Avenue de Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were led by Édouard Manet. They were soon joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, during the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style. In 1863, the Salon jury rejected Manets The Luncheon on the Grass primarily because it depicted a woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in historical and allegorical paintings, the jurys severely worded rejection of Manets painting appalled his admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists
Impressionist
–
Claude Monet,
Haystacks, (sunset), 1890–1891,
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Impressionist
–
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette (
Bal du moulin de la Galette),
Musée d'Orsay, 1876
Impressionist
–
Édouard Manet,
The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe), 1863
Impressionist
–
Alfred Sisley, View of the Saint-Martin Canal, Paris, 1870,
Musée d'Orsay
14.
Paris Salon
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The Salon, or rarely Paris Salon, beginning in 1667 was the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world, at the 1761 Salon, thirty-three painters, nine sculptors, and eleven engravers contributed. From 1881 onward, it has been managed by the Société des Artistes Français, in 1667, the royally sanctioned French institution of art patronage, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture, held its first semi-public art exhibit at the Salon Carré. The Salons original focus was the display of the work of recent graduates of the École des Beaux-Arts, exhibition at the Salon de Paris was essential for any artist to achieve success in France for at least the next 200 years. Exhibition in the Salon marked a sign of royal favor, in 1725, the Salon was held in the Palace of the Louvre, when it became known as Salon or Salon de Paris. In 1737, the exhibitions, held from 18 August 1737 to 5 September 1737 at the Grand Salon of the Louvre and they were held, at first, annually, and then biennially, in odd-numbered years. They would start on the feast day of St. Louis, once made regular and public, the Salons status was never seriously in doubt. In 1748 a jury of awarded artists was introduced, from this time forward, the influence of the Salon was undisputed. The Salon exhibited paintings floor-to-ceiling and on every inch of space. The jostling of artwork became the subject of other paintings. Printed catalogues of the Salons are primary documents for art historians, critical descriptions of the exhibitions published in the gazettes mark the beginning of the modern occupation of art critic. The French revolution opened the exhibition to foreign artists, the vernissage of opening night was a grand social occasion, and a crush that gave subject matter to newspaper caricaturists like Honoré Daumier. Charles Baudelaire, Denis Diderot and others wrote reviews of the Salons, the 1848 revolution liberalized the Salon. The amount of refused works was greatly reduced, the increasingly conservative and academic juries were not receptive to the Impressionist painters, whose works were usually rejected, or poorly placed if accepted. The Salon opposed the Impressionists shift away from traditional painting styles, in 1863 the Salon jury turned away an unusually high number of the submitted paintings. An uproar resulted, particularly from regular exhibitors who had been rejected, in order to prove that the Salons were democratic, Napoleon III instituted the Salon des Refusés, containing a selection of the works that the Salon had rejected that year. It opened on 17 May 1863, marking the birth of the avant-garde, the Impressionists held their own independent exhibitions in 1874,1876,1877,1879,1880,1881,1882 and 1886. In 1881, the government withdrew official sponsorship from the annual Salon, in December 1890, the leader of the Société des Artistes Français, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, propagated the idea that Salon should be an exhibition of young, not-yet awarded, artists
Paris Salon
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Formally dressed patrons at the Salon in 1890
Paris Salon
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This portrait by
John Singer Sargent of
Virginie Amélie Avegno Gautreau depicting her
cleavage caused considerable controversy when it was displayed at the 1884 Salon.
Paris Salon
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Salon of 1932, Grand Palais, Paris.
Paris Salon
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Salon of 1753
15.
Les raboteurs de parquet
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Les raboteurs de parquet is an oil painting by French Impressionist Gustave Caillebotte. The canvas measures 102 by 146.5 centimetres and it was originally given by Caillebottes family in 1894 to the Musée du Luxembourg, then transferred to the Musée du Louvre in 1929. In 1947, it was moved to the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, and in 1986, it was transferred again to the Musée dOrsay in Paris, painted in 1875, this work illustrates Caillebottes continued interest in perspective and everyday life. A window on the back wall admits natural light, the workers are all shown with nude torsos and tilted heads, suggesting a conversation. Caillebotte’s interest in the nude, set in a modern context, has been linked to his presumed homosexuality. It must be noted, however, that it was part of a trend, not necessarily limited to homosexual artists. This is one of the first paintings to feature the urban working class and it reintroduces the subject of the male nude in the painting, but in a strikingly updated form. There is a motif of curls in the image, from the wood shavings on the floor, to the pattern of ironwork in the grill to the arched backs. The repetition in the image, with the three workers engaged in different aspects of the activity but having similar poses, is similar to works by Caillebottes contemporary. Despite the effort Caillebotte put into the painting, it was rejected by Frances most prestigious art exhibition, the depiction of working-class people in their trade, not fully clothed, shocked the jurors and was deemed a vulgar subject matter. He was hurt by rejection, and instead showed it at the second exhibition of the Impressionists, with whom he had already associated himself. The painting divided opinion in Parisian art circles, among the detractors, Emile Porchoron, a critic of Impressionism, damned Caillebotte with faint praise, the least bad of the exhibition. One of the missions Impressionism seems to have set for itself is to torture perspective, Émile Zola praised the technical execution, but then called it an anti-artistic painting, painting as neat as glass, bourgeois painting, because of the exactitude of the copying. Louis Énault was not troubled by the depiction but did find fault with the images fidelity to the scene, the arms of the planers are too thin, and their chests too narrow. May your nude be handsome or dont get involved with it, the painting received praise from many critics, though. Regarding the Salon rejection, poet and critic Émile Blémont called the very bad mark for the official jurors. Les Raboteurs, choreography by Angelin Preljocaj, music by Thierry Lancino, herbert, Robert L. Impressionism, Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society. Caillebotte as Professional Painter, From Studio to the Public Eye, Gustave Caillebotte and the Fashioning of Identity in Impressionist Paris
Les raboteurs de parquet
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Les raboteurs de parquet
Les raboteurs de parquet
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1876 version of the same subject by Caillebotte
Les raboteurs de parquet
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External video
16.
Georges Seurat
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Georges-Pierre Seurat was a French post-Impressionist painter and draftsman. He is noted for his use of drawing media and for devising the painting techniques known as chromoluminarism and pointillism. His large-scale work, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, altered the direction of art by initiating Neo-impressionism. Seurat was born 2 December 1859 in Paris, at 60 rue de Bondy, the Seurat family moved to 136 boulevard de Magenta in 1862 or 1863. His father, Antoine Chrysostome Seurat, originally from Champagne, was a legal official who had become wealthy from speculating in property. Georges had a brother, Émile Augustin, and a sister, Marie-Berthe and his father lived in Le Raincy and visited his wife and children once a week at boulevard de Magenta. Georges Seurat first studied art at the École Municipale de Sculpture et Dessin, near his familys home in the boulevard Magenta, Seurats studies resulted in a well-considered and fertile theory of contrasts, a theory to which all his work was thereafter subjected. His formal artistic education came to an end in November 1879, after a year at the Brest Military Academy, he returned to Paris where he shared a studio with his friend Aman-Jean, while also renting a small apartment at 16 rue de Chabrol. For the next two years, he worked at mastering the art of monochrome drawing and his first exhibited work, shown at the Salon, of 1883, was a Conté crayon drawing of Aman-Jean. He also studied the works of Eugène Delacroix carefully, making notes on his use of color and he spent 1883 working on his first major painting—a large canvas titled Bathers at Asnières, a monumental work showing young men relaxing by the Seine in a working-class suburb of Paris. Seurat also departed from the Impressionist ideal by preparing for the work with a number of drawings, Bathers at Asnières was rejected by the Paris Salon, and instead he showed it at the Groupe des Artistes Indépendants in May 1884. Seurats new ideas on pointillism were to have a strong influence on Signac. In the summer of 1884, Seurat began work on A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, the painting shows members of each of the social classes participating in various park activities. The tiny juxtaposed dots of multi-colored paint allow the eye to blend colors optically. It took Seurat two years to complete this 10-foot-wide painting, much of which he spent in the park sketching in preparation for the work and it is now in the permanent collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. The painting was the inspiration for James Lapine and Stephen Sondheims musical, Seurat concealed his relationship with Madeleine Knobloch, an artists model whom he portrayed in his painting Jeune femme se poudrant. In 1889 she moved in with Seurat in his studio on the 7th floor of 128bis Boulevard de Clichy, when Madeleine became pregnant, the couple moved to a studio at 39 passage de lÉlysée-des-Beaux-Arts. There she gave birth to their son, who was named Pierre-Georges,16 February 1890, Seurat died in Paris in his parents home on 29 March 1891 at the age of 31
Georges Seurat
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Georges Seurat, 1888
Georges Seurat
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Georges Seurat, 1889-90,
Le Chahut, oil on canvas, 170 x 141 cm,
Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo
Georges Seurat
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Jeune femme se poudrant (Young Woman Powdering Herself), 1888-90, oil on canvas, 95.5 x 79.5 cm,
Courtauld Institute of Art
Georges Seurat
–
Detail from
Circus Sideshow (Parade de Cirque) (1889) showing pointillism and color theory
17.
Gustave Courbet
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Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and his independence set an example that was important to later artists, such as the Impressionists and the Cubists. Courbet occupies an important place in 19th-century French painting as an innovator, Courbets paintings of the late 1840s and early 1850s brought him his first recognition. They challenged convention by depicting unidealized peasants and workers, often on a grand scale traditionally reserved for paintings of religious or historical subjects, Courbets subsequent paintings were mostly of a less overtly political character, landscapes, seascapes, hunting scenes, nudes and still lifes. He was imprisoned for six months in 1871 for his involvement with the Paris Commune, Gustave Courbet was born in 1819 to Régis and Sylvie Oudot Courbet in Ornans. Being a prosperous farming family, anti-monarchical feelings prevailed in the household, Courbets sisters, Zoé, Zélie and Juliette, were his first models for drawing and painting. After moving to Paris he often returned home to Ornans to hunt, fish and he went to Paris in 1839 and worked at the studio of Steuben and Hesse. An independent spirit, he left, preferring to develop his own style by studying the paintings of Spanish, Flemish and French masters in the Louvre. Among his paintings of the early 1840s are several self-portraits, Romantic in conception, trips to the Netherlands and Belgium in 1846–47 strengthened Courbets belief that painters should portray the life around them, as Rembrandt, Hals and other Dutch masters had. By 1848, he had gained supporters among the younger critics, Courbet achieved his first Salon success in 1849 with his painting After Dinner at Ornans. The work, reminiscent of Chardin and Le Nain, earned Courbet a gold medal and was purchased by the state, the gold medal meant that his works would no longer require jury approval for exhibition at the Salon—an exemption Courbet enjoyed until 1857. In 1849-50, Courbet painted Stone-Breakers, which Proudhon admired as an icon of peasant life, the painting was inspired by a scene Courbet witnessed on the roadside. He later explained to Champfleury and the writer Francis Wey, It is not often that one encounters so complete an expression of poverty and so, right then, I told them to come to my studio the next morning. Courbets work belonged neither to the predominant Romantic nor Neoclassical schools, instead, he maintained that the only possible source for living art is the artists own experience. He and Jean-Francois Millet would find inspiration painting the life of peasants, Courbet painted figurative compositions, landscapes, seascapes, and still lifes. He courted controversy by addressing issues in his work, and by painting subjects that were considered vulgar, such as the rural bourgeoisie, peasants. His work, along with that of Honoré Daumier and Jean-François Millet and he depicted the harshness in life, and in so doing challenged contemporary academic ideas of art. The Salon of 1850–1851 found him triumphant with The Stone Breakers, the Burial, one of Courbets most important works, records the funeral of his grand uncle which he attended in September 1848
Gustave Courbet
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Gustave Courbet c. 1860s (portrait by
Étienne Carjat)
Gustave Courbet
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L'homme à la pipe (Self-portrait, Man with a pipe), 1848–49,
Musée Fabre, Montpellier
Gustave Courbet
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Les Demoiselles du bord de la Seine, 1856,
Petit Palais, Paris: one of the most famous of Courbet's paintings. "The uncompromising emphasis on density and weight"
Gustave Courbet
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The Wave (La Vague), 1869, oil on canvas, 66 x 90 cm,
Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon
18.
Renoir
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Pierre-Auguste Renoir, commonly known as Auguste Renoir, was a French artist who was a leading painter in the development of the Impressionist style. As a celebrator of beauty and especially feminine sensuality, it has said that Renoir is the final representative of a tradition which runs directly from Rubens to Watteau. He was the father of actor Pierre Renoir, filmmaker Jean Renoir and he was the grandfather of the filmmaker Claude Renoir, son of Pierre. Pierre-Auguste Renoir was born in Limoges, Haute-Vienne, France, in 1841 and his father, Léonard Renoir, was a tailor of modest means, so in 1844, Renoirs family moved to Paris in search of more favorable prospects. The location of their home, in rue d’Argenteuil in central Paris, although the young Renoir had a natural proclivity for drawing, he exhibited a greater talent for singing. His talent was encouraged by his teacher, Charles Gounod, who was the choir-master at the Church of St Roch at the time. However, due to the financial circumstances, Renoir had to discontinue his music lessons. Although Renoir displayed a talent for his work, he tired of the subject matter. The owner of the factory recognized his apprentice’s talent and communicated this to Renoir’s family, following this, Renoir started taking lessons to prepare for entry into Ecole des Beaux Arts. When the porcelain factory adopted mechanical reproduction processes in 1858, Renoir was forced to other means to support his learning. Before he enrolled in art school, he also painted hangings for overseas missionaries, in 1862, he began studying art under Charles Gleyre in Paris. There he met Alfred Sisley, Frédéric Bazille, and Claude Monet, at times, during the 1860s, he did not have enough money to buy paint. Renoir had his first success at the Salon of 1868 with his painting Lise with a Parasol, although Renoir first started exhibiting paintings at the Paris Salon in 1864, recognition was slow in coming, partly as a result of the turmoil of the Franco-Prussian War. This loss of a favorite painting location resulted in a change of subjects. Renoir was inspired by the style and subject matter of modern painters Camille Pissarro. Although the critical response to the exhibition was largely unfavorable, Renoirs work was well received. That same year, two of his works were shown with Durand-Ruel in London, hoping to secure a livelihood by attracting portrait commissions, Renoir displayed mostly portraits at the second Impressionist exhibition in 1876. He contributed a diverse range of paintings the next year when the group presented its third exhibition, they included Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette
Renoir
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Pierre-Auguste Renoir
Renoir
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The Theater Box, 1874,
Courtauld Institute Galleries, London
Renoir
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Lise Sewing, 1866,
Dallas Museum of Art
Renoir
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The Swing (La Balançoire), 1876, oil on canvas,
Musée d'Orsay, Paris
19.
Pissarro
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Camille Pissarro was a Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter born on the island of St Thomas. His importance resides in his contributions to both Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, Pissarro studied from great forerunners, including Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. He later studied and worked alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac when he took on the Neo-Impressionist style at the age of 54, in 1873 he helped establish a collective society of fifteen aspiring artists, becoming the pivotal figure in holding the group together and encouraging the other members. Cézanne said he was a father for me, a man to consult and a little like the good Lord, and he was also one of Gauguins masters. Renoir referred to his work as revolutionary, through his portrayals of the common man. Pissarro is the only artist to have shown his work at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions and he acted as a father figure not only to the Impressionists but to all four of the major Post-Impressionists, including Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin. Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro was born on 10 July 1830 on the island of St. Thomas to Frederick and his father was of Portuguese Jewish descent and held French nationality. His mother was from a French-Jewish family from the island of St. Thomas and his father was a merchant who came to the island from France to deal with the hardware store of a deceased uncle and married his widow. The marriage caused a stir within St. Thomas small Jewish community because she was married to Fredericks uncle. In subsequent years his four children were forced to attend the primary school. Upon his death, his will specified that his estate be split equally between the synagogue and St. Thomas Protestant church, when Camille was twelve his father sent him to boarding school in France. He studied at the Savary Academy in Passy near Paris, while a young student, he developed an early appreciation of the French art masters. Monsieur Savary himself gave him a grounding in drawing and painting and suggested he draw from nature when he returned to St. Thomas. However, his father preferred he work in his business, giving him a job working as a cargo clerk and he took every opportunity during those next five years at the job to practise drawing during breaks and after work. When he turned twenty-one, Danish artist Fritz Melbye, then living on St. Thomas, inspired Pissarro to take on painting as a profession, becoming his teacher. Pissarro then chose to leave his family and job and live in Venezuela and he drew everything he could, including landscapes, village scenes, and numerous sketches, enough to fill up multiple sketchbooks. In 1855 he moved back to Paris where he working as assistant to Anton Melbye. In Paris he worked as assistant to Danish painter Anton Melbye and he also studied paintings by other artists whose style impressed him, Courbet, Charles-François Daubigny, Jean-François Millet, and Corot
Pissarro
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Circa 1900
Pissarro
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Paisaje tropical con casas rurales y palmeras, c. 1853.
Galería de Arte Nacional, Caracas
Pissarro
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Two Women Chatting by the Sea,
St. Thomas, (1856), (private collection)
Pissarro
–
Jalais Hill, Pontoise,
Metropolitan Museum of Art 1867
20.
Woodblock printing in Japan
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Woodblock printing in Japan is a technique best known for its use in the ukiyo-e artistic genre of single sheets, but it was also used for printing books in the same period. Woodblock printing had been used in China for centuries to print books, long before the advent of movable type, but was widely adopted in Japan during the Edo period. Although similar to woodcut in Western printmaking in some regards, the technique differs in that it uses water-based inks—as opposed to western woodcut. The Japanese water-based inks provide a range of vivid colors, glazes. Woodblock-printed books from Chinese Buddhist temples were seen in Japan as early as the eighth century, in 764 the Empress Kōken commissioned one million small wooden pagodas, each containing a small woodblock scroll printed with a Buddhist text. These were distributed to temples around the country as thanksgiving for the suppression of the Emi Rebellion of 764 and these are the earliest examples of woodblock printing known, or documented, from Japan. By the eleventh century, Buddhist temples in Japan produced printed books of sutras, mandalas, for centuries, printing was mainly restricted to the Buddhist sphere, as it was too expensive for mass production, and did not have a receptive, literate public as a market. However, an important set of fans of the late Heian period, containing painted images and Buddhist sutras, the first secular book was printed in Japan in 1591. This was the Setsuyō-shū, a two-volume Chinese-Japanese dictionary, four years later, Tokugawa Ieyasu, even before becoming shogun, effected the creation of the first native moveable type, using wooden type-pieces rather than metal. He oversaw the creation of 100,000 type-pieces, which were used to print a number of political and historical texts, as shogun, Ieyasu promoted literacy and learning, contributing to the emergence of an educated urban public. Printing was not dominated by the shogunate at this point, however, private printers appeared in Kyoto at the beginning of the 17th century, and Toyotomi Hideyori, Ieyasus primary political opponent, aided in the development and spread of the medium as well. An edition of the Confucian Analects was printed in 1598, using a Korean moveable type printing press and this document is the oldest work of Japanese moveable type printing extant today. Despite the appeal of moveable type, however, craftsmen soon decided that the script style of Japanese writings was better reproduced using woodblocks. By 1640 woodblocks were once used for nearly all purposes. The medium quickly gained popularity, and was used to produce affordable prints as well as books, the great pioneers in applying this method to the creation of artistic books, and in preceding mass production for general consumption, were Honami Kōetsu and Suminokura Soan. The content of these varied widely, including travel guides, advice manuals, kibyōshi, sharebon, art books. Often, within a genre, such as the jōruri theatre scripts. For example, one persons personal calligraphic style was adopted as the style for printing plays
Woodblock printing in Japan
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"Shōki zu" (Zhong Kui), by
Okumura Masanobu, 1741-1751. An example of pillar print format, 69.2 x 10.1 cm.
Woodblock printing in Japan
21.
Vue de toits (Effet de neige)
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Vue de toits is an oil painting by French impressionist Gustave Caillebotte executed in the winter of 1878 and 1879. The canvas measures 81 by 65 centimetres and it was originally gifted by Caillebottes brother in 1894 to the Musée du Luxembourg, then transferred to the Musée du Louvre in 1929. In 1947, it was moved to the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, in 1986, it was transferred again to the Musée dOrsay in Paris, where it is currently displayed. The painting is one of the few Caillebotte works that have remained in view since the artists death in 1894. Vue de toits depicts snow-covered rooftops in Montmartre, Paris from a vantage point. Here Caillebotte employs a monochromatic palette of grays, adding additional color to highlight building features. This perspective was not at all common in French paintings, the painting was first shown at the fourth Impressionist Exhibition held in Paris in 1879, one of 25 works Caillebotte brought to the show. At the time, it did not garner much interest from the crowds, however, this image, and one other showing views of rooftops at that show, are now considered important works
Vue de toits (Effet de neige)
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Vue de toits (Effet de neige)
22.
Young Man at His Window
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Young Man at His Window is a painting of 1875 by the French Impressionist Gustave Caillebotte. The oil on canvas painting measures 117 by 82 centimetres, the painting depicts the artists brother, René Caillebotte, wearing informal clothes and standing at a balcony. He is standing at a window from the home in the Rue de Miromesnil in Paris. It is a early work in Caillebottes oeuvre and reveals his interest in urban Realism. In its theme of a figure seen from behind at a window, the composition has precedents in German Romanticism. Other examples include Goethe at the Window of His Room in Rome by Johann Heinrich Tischbein, Caillebottes painting differs from his German antecedents in several ways, however. The man does not gaze upon nature, but rather looks out upon an urban scene, varnedoe says the normal interior-exterior oppositions of the window are thus combined in a charged relationship, competitive or covalent, that is seemingly unprecedented. Caillebotte presented this painting at the Impressionism exhibition of 1876 alongside a few of his other works, because of the exactitude of the copying. Rooms with a View, the window in the 19th century
Young Man at His Window
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Jeune homme à sa fenêtre
Young Man at His Window
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Caspar David Friedrich, Woman at the Window, 1822, oil on canvas
23.
Les Orangers
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Les Orangers is an oil painting by French impressionist Gustave Caillebotte. The canvas measures 155 by 117 centimetres and it was acquired by Audrey Jones Beck and was part of a collection that was on a long-term loan to the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, before the collection was donated to the museum in 1999. The painting now hangs in the building named for Beck. Caillebotte, in common with other impressionist painters of the time, had an affinity for horticulture and was one of the movements most avid gardeners, while many of his contemporaries preferred more organic and wild settings, Caillebotte preferred manicured, formal arrangements. He trained his fruit trees with careful pruning to encourage compact growth, critics have suggested that this may have been in keeping with his interest in perspective. Caillebotte painted this canvas en plein air at the country estate in Yerres in 1878. Caillebotte obtained one such example, Le Déjeuner by Claude Monet in March of that year, the image depicts a daytime scene. Caillebottes brother Martial is reading while sitting in the shade of the trees with his back towards the viewer. He is dressed in the way as Gustave himself in Renoirs Oarsmen at Chatou. Their cousin, Zoé Caillebotte, is standing at one of the Versailles tubs, then fashionable as garden planters, the poses of Martial and Zoé suggest that they are each enjoying the afternoon quietly with their private thoughts. The lightweight painted sprung-steel garden chairs in the foreground appear in other works painted at Yerres, in the background, the bright sunlight illuminates a circular flower bed surrounded by a curving gravel path, at the edge of which a dog appears to be sleeping. Caillebotte employs sharp contrast between the foreground in the lower part of the image and the bright background. The shadows are painted in muted greens and purples, while the lawn and flower beds are brilliant greens, reds, the strong definition between the areas of sunlight and shadow is a departure from the dappled light that occurs in similar outdoor scenes by Impressionists Renoir and Monet. Art historian and critic Kirk Varnedoe suggests that this contrast contributes to a sense of afternoon heat, herbert, Robert L. Impressionism, Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society. Caillebotte and His Garden at Yerres
Les Orangers
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Les Orangers
Les Orangers
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The Swing, by Renoir shows a dappled treatment of light and shade.
Les Orangers
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Photograph of the orangery on the Caillebotte estate in 2014.
24.
Manet
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Édouard Manet was a French painter. He was one of the first 19th-century artists to paint modern life, born into an upper-class household with strong political connections, Manet rejected the future originally envisioned for him, and became engrossed in the world of painting. His early masterworks, The Luncheon on the Grass and Olympia, today, these are considered watershed paintings that mark the genesis of modern art. Édouard Manet was born in Paris on 23 January 1832, in the ancestral hôtel particulier on the rue des Petits Augustins to an affluent and well-connected family. His mother, Eugénie-Desirée Fournier, was the daughter of a diplomat and goddaughter of the Swedish crown prince Charles Bernadotte and his father, Auguste Manet, was a French judge who expected Édouard to pursue a career in law. His uncle, Edmond Fournier, encouraged him to pursue painting, in 1841 he enrolled at secondary school, the Collège Rollin. In 1845, at the advice of his uncle, Manet enrolled in a course of drawing where he met Antonin Proust, future Minister of Fine Arts. At his fathers suggestion, in 1848 he sailed on a vessel to Rio de Janeiro. After he twice failed the examination to join the Navy, his father relented to his wishes to pursue an art education, from 1850 to 1856, Manet studied under the academic painter Thomas Couture. In his spare time, Manet copied the Old Masters in the Louvre, in 1856, Manet opened a studio. His style in this period was characterized by brush strokes, simplification of details. Adopting the current style of realism initiated by Gustave Courbet, he painted The Absinthe Drinker and other subjects such as beggars, singers, Gypsies, people in cafés. Manet had two canvases accepted at the Salon in 1861, a portrait of his mother and father, who at the time was paralysed and robbed of speech by a stroke, was ill received by critics. The other, The Spanish Singer, was admired by Theophile Gautier, Manets work, which appeared slightly slapdash when compared with the meticulous style of so many other Salon paintings, intrigued some young artists. The Spanish Singer, painted in a new fashion caused many painters eyes to open. Music in the Tuileries is an example of Manets painterly style. Inspired by Hals and Velázquez, it is a harbinger of his lifelong interest in the subject of leisure. While the picture was regarded as unfinished by some, the suggested atmosphere imparts a sense of what the Tuileries gardens were like at the time, one may imagine the music and conversation
Manet
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portrait by
Nadar, 1874
Manet
–
Manet's portrait painted by
Fantin-Latour
Manet
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Music in the Tuileries, 1862
Manet
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The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe), 1863
25.
Paris Street, Rainy Day
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Paris Street, Rainy Day is a large 1877 oil painting by the French artist Gustave Caillebotte, and is his best known work. It shows a number of walking through the Place de Dublin, in 1877 known as the Carrefour de Moscou. Caillebottes interest in photography is evident, the figures in the foreground appear out of focus, those in the mid-distance have sharp edges, while the features in the background become progressively indistinct. The severe cropping of some figures – particularly the man to the far right – further suggests the influence, the first showing of the painting was at the Third Impressionist Exhibition of 1877. It currently is owned by the Art Institute of Chicago, AIC curator Gloria Groom described the work as the great picture of urban life in the late 19th century. The tone of the light indicates that the painting is set on an afternoon. They are dressed in the height of contemporary Parisian fashion and she wears a hat, veil, diamond earring, demure brown dress, and a fur lined coat, described in 1877 as modern – or should I say, the latest fashion. The man wears a moustache, topcoat, frock coat, top hat, bow tie, starched shirt, buttoned waistcoat. They are unambiguously middle class, yet some working class figures may be seen in the background, a maid in a doorway, the decorator carrying a ladder, cut-off by the umbrella above him. Caillebotte juxtaposes the figures and the perspective in a manner, with one man appearing to jump from the wheel of a carriage. The painting does not present a convivial mood, the figures seem mostly isolated, and their expressions are largely downcast. They appear to hurry rather than stroll through the streets, absorbed in their own thoughts, the umbrellas shield them, in the words of Rose-Marie Hagen, not just from the rain, but, also it seems, from other passers by. Characteristic of the positioning of the figures, the heads and eyes of the couple are faced away from the man approaching them from their right. Caillebotte reproduces the effect of a lens in that the points at the center of the image seem to bulge. He also recreates the focusing effect of the camera in the way that it sharpens certain subjects of an image, the same purpose is seen in the overall clarity of the image. He makes the ground section more clear, mimicking the effect of a camera. The painting is highly linear, its focus draws the eye to the vantage point at the center of the buildings in the background. Cobblestones dominate one full quarter of the canvas, Paris Street, Rainy Day gives a view from the eastern side of the Rue de Turin, looking north toward the Place de Dublin
Paris Street, Rainy Day
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Paris Street; Rainy Day, 1877, 212.2 × 276.2 centimetres (83.5 × 108.7 in),
Art Institute of Chicago
Paris Street, Rainy Day
Paris Street, Rainy Day
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2010 photograph of the Place de Dublin
Paris Street, Rainy Day
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Rainy Day, Boston,
Toledo Museum of Art, Ohio.
Childe Hassam, 1885
26.
Art Institute of Chicago
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The Art Institute of Chicago, founded in 1879 and located in Chicagos Grant Park, is one of the oldest and largest art museums in the United States. Recognized for its efforts and popularity among visitors, the museum hosts approximately 1.5 million guests annually. The growth of the collection has warranted several additions to the museums original 1893 building, the Art Institute is connected to the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, a leading art school, making it one of the few remaining unified arts institutions in the United States. In 1866, a group of 35 artists founded the Chicago Academy of Design in a studio on Dearborn Street, the organization was modeled after European art academies, such as the Royal Academy, with Academicians and Associate Academicians. The Academys charter was granted in March 1867, classes started in 1868, meeting every day at a cost of $10 per month. The Academys success enabled it to build a new home for the school, a stone building on 66 West Adams Street. When the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the building in 1871 the Academy was thrown into debt, attempts to continue despite the loss by using rented facilities failed. By 1878 the Academy was $10,000 in debt, members tried to rescue the ailing institution by making deals with local businessmen, before some finally abandoned it in 1879 to found a new organization, named the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. When the Chicago Academy of Design went bankrupt the same year, in 1882, the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts changed its name to the current Art Institute of Chicago and elected as its first president the banker and philanthropist Charles L. Also in 1882, the purchased a lot on the southwest corner of Michigan Avenue. By January 1885 the trustees recognized the need to provide space for the organizations growing collection. The city agreed, and the building was completed in time for the year of the fair. Construction costs were met by selling the Michigan/Van Buren property, on October 31,1893 the Institute moved into the new building. For the opening reception on December 8,1893, Theodore Thomas, from the 1900s to the 1960s the school offered with the Logan Family the Logan Medal of the Arts, an award which became one of the most distinguished awards presented to artists in the US. Between 1959 and 1970 the Institute was a key site in the battle to gain art and documentary photography a place in galleries, under curator Hugh Edwards and his assistants. As Director of the museum starting in the early 1980s, James N. Wood conducted an expansion of its collection. He retired from the museum in 2004, in 2006, the Art Institute began construction of The Modern Wing, an addition situated on the southwest corner of Columbus and Monroe. The project, designed by Pritzker Prize winning architect Renzo Piano, was completed, the 264, 000-square-foot building makes the Art Institute the second-largest art museum in the United States
Art Institute of Chicago
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One of the two lion statues (Kemeys, bronze 1893) flanking the Institute's main entrances
Art Institute of Chicago
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Seurat at the Art Institute
Art Institute of Chicago
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Edward Hopper,
Nighthawks (1942)
Art Institute of Chicago
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Mary Cassatt, The Bath 1891–1892
27.
Paris Street; Rainy Day
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Paris Street, Rainy Day is a large 1877 oil painting by the French artist Gustave Caillebotte, and is his best known work. It shows a number of walking through the Place de Dublin, in 1877 known as the Carrefour de Moscou. Caillebottes interest in photography is evident, the figures in the foreground appear out of focus, those in the mid-distance have sharp edges, while the features in the background become progressively indistinct. The severe cropping of some figures – particularly the man to the far right – further suggests the influence, the first showing of the painting was at the Third Impressionist Exhibition of 1877. It currently is owned by the Art Institute of Chicago, AIC curator Gloria Groom described the work as the great picture of urban life in the late 19th century. The tone of the light indicates that the painting is set on an afternoon. They are dressed in the height of contemporary Parisian fashion and she wears a hat, veil, diamond earring, demure brown dress, and a fur lined coat, described in 1877 as modern – or should I say, the latest fashion. The man wears a moustache, topcoat, frock coat, top hat, bow tie, starched shirt, buttoned waistcoat. They are unambiguously middle class, yet some working class figures may be seen in the background, a maid in a doorway, the decorator carrying a ladder, cut-off by the umbrella above him. Caillebotte juxtaposes the figures and the perspective in a manner, with one man appearing to jump from the wheel of a carriage. The painting does not present a convivial mood, the figures seem mostly isolated, and their expressions are largely downcast. They appear to hurry rather than stroll through the streets, absorbed in their own thoughts, the umbrellas shield them, in the words of Rose-Marie Hagen, not just from the rain, but, also it seems, from other passers by. Characteristic of the positioning of the figures, the heads and eyes of the couple are faced away from the man approaching them from their right. Caillebotte reproduces the effect of a lens in that the points at the center of the image seem to bulge. He also recreates the focusing effect of the camera in the way that it sharpens certain subjects of an image, the same purpose is seen in the overall clarity of the image. He makes the ground section more clear, mimicking the effect of a camera. The painting is highly linear, its focus draws the eye to the vantage point at the center of the buildings in the background. Cobblestones dominate one full quarter of the canvas, Paris Street, Rainy Day gives a view from the eastern side of the Rue de Turin, looking north toward the Place de Dublin
Paris Street; Rainy Day
–
Paris Street; Rainy Day, 1877, 212.2 × 276.2 centimetres (83.5 × 108.7 in),
Art Institute of Chicago
Paris Street; Rainy Day
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Detail
Paris Street; Rainy Day
Paris Street; Rainy Day
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2010 photograph of the Place de Dublin
28.
Edward Hopper
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Edward Hopper was a prominent American realist painter and printmaker. While he was most popularly known for his oil paintings, he was proficient as a watercolorist. Both in his urban and rural scenes, his spare and finely calculated renderings reflected his vision of modern American life. Hopper was born in Upper Nyack, New York, a center on the Hudson River north of New York City. He was one of two children of a comfortably well-to-do family and his parents, of mostly Dutch ancestry, were Elizabeth Griffiths Smith and Garret Henry Hopper, a dry-goods merchant. Although not so successful as his forebears, Garrett provided well for his two children with help from his wifes inheritance. Edward and his only sister Marion attended both private and public schools and they were raised in a strict Baptist home. His father had a nature, and the household was dominated by women, Hoppers mother, grandmother, sister. His birthplace and boyhood home was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000 and it serves as a nonprofit community cultural center featuring exhibitions, workshops, lectures, performances, and special events. Hopper was a student in grade school and showed talent in drawing at age five. He readily absorbed his fathers intellectual tendencies and love of French and he also demonstrated his mothers artistic heritage. Hoppers parents encouraged his art and kept him supplied with materials, instructional magazines. By his teens, he was working in pen-and-ink, charcoal, watercolor, in 1895, he created his first signed oil painting, Rowboat in Rocky Cove. It shows his early interest in nautical subjects, in his early self-portraits, Hopper tended to represent himself as skinny, ungraceful, and homely. Though a tall and quiet teenager, his sense of humor found outlet in his art. Later in life, he mostly depicted women as the figures in his paintings, in high school, he dreamed of being a naval architect, but after graduation he declared his intention to follow an art career. Hoppers parents insisted that he study commercial art to have a means of income. In developing his self-image and individualistic philosophy of life, Hopper was influenced by the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson and he later said, I admire him greatly. I read him over and over again
Edward Hopper
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Edward Hopper, Self-Portrait, 1906
Edward Hopper
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Childhood home of Edward Hopper in Upper Nyack, New York
Edward Hopper
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Summer Interior (1909)
Edward Hopper
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Night on the El Train (1918) by Edward Hopper
29.
Still life
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A still life is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life gives the artist more freedom in the arrangement of elements within a composition than do paintings of other types of such as landscape or portraiture. Early still-life paintings, particularly before 1700, often contained religious, some modern still life breaks the two-dimensional barrier and employs three-dimensional mixed media, and uses found objects, photography, computer graphics, as well as video and sound. Still life emerged from the painting of details in larger compositions with subjects, the term includes the painting of dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered art, although in practice they were often painted from dead models. The still-life category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially botanical illustration, generally a still life includes a fully depicted background, and puts aesthetic rather than illustrative concerns as primary. Still life occupied the lowest rung of the hierarchy of genres, the trompe-lœil painting, which intends to deceive the viewer into thinking the scene is real, is a specialized type of still life, usually showing inanimate and relatively flat objects. Still-life paintings often adorn the interior of ancient Egyptian tombs and it was believed that food objects and other items depicted there would, in the afterlife, become real and available for use by the deceased. Ancient Greek vase paintings also demonstrate great skill in depicting everyday objects, by the 16th century, food and flowers would again appear as symbols of the seasons and of the five senses. Also starting in Roman times is the tradition of the use of the skull in paintings as a symbol of mortality and earthly remains and these vanitas images have been re-interpreted through the last 400 years of art history, starting with Dutch painters around 1600. As Pliny the Elder recorded in ancient Roman times, Greek artists centuries earlier were already advanced in the arts of painting, genre painting. He singled out Peiraikos, whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few, by 1300, starting with Giotto and his pupils, still-life painting was revived in the form of fictional niches on religious wall paintings which depicted everyday objects. Through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, still life in Western art remained primarily an adjunct to Christian religious subjects, painters like Jan van Eyck often used still-life elements as part of an iconographic program. Petrus Christus’ portrait of a bride and groom visiting a goldsmith is an example of a transitional still life depicting both religious and secular content. Another similar type of painting is the family portrait combining figures with a table of food. Around this time, simple still-life depictions divorced of figures were beginning to be painted on the outside of shutters of private devotional paintings, another step toward the autonomous still life was the painting of symbolic flowers in vases on the back of secular portraits around 1475. This was a development by Pieter Aertsen, whose A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms introduced the type with a painting that still startles. A small religious scene can often be out in the distance
Still life
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Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625), Bouquet (1599),
Kunsthistorisches Museum,
Vienna. Some of the earliest examples of still life were paintings of flowers by Northern Renaissance, Dutch, and Flemish painters.
Still life
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Still life on a 2nd-century mosaic, with fish, poultry, dates and vegetables from the
Vatican museum
Still life
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Glass bowl of fruit and vases.
Roman wall painting in
Pompeii (around 70 AD),
Naples National Archaeological Museum,
Naples,
Italy
Still life
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Hans Memling (1430–1494), Vase of Flowers (1480), Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza,
Madrid. According to some scholars the Vase of Flowers is filled with religious symbolism.
30.
Homme au bain (painting)
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Homme au bain is an oil painting by French Impressionist Gustave Caillebotte. The canvas measures 145 by 114 centimetres and it was held in private collections from the artists death until June 2011, when it was acquired by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The subject of the painting is a male nude, a man is seen drying himself, having just come from a large metal bathtub in the corner of a plain room. His clothes are folded and placed on a wooden chair. A towel or robe is lying on the next to the tub. The man has left wet footprints on the wooden floor and he is naked and observed from behind with his towel covering only the mid part of his back. By this point in his career, Caillebotte had painted many images with great fidelity to realistic portrayals of people, as with his Les raboteurs de parquet, Caillebotte did not attempt to show an idealized form of masculinity, but instead depicted a typical 19th-century male. Interpretations of this work contrast the masculinity of the image with the figures vulnerability, Male nudes were not commonly depicted in Impressionist images, though female nudes were an established theme. Feminist critics have argued that images of females at their toilette were associated with prostitution in the 19th-century France. Thus, this image challenges traditional notions of masculinity and gender norms in domestic settings, Caillebotte created this work in 1884. He sent the painting to be exhibited at the Les XX show of 1888 in Brussels, the painting was controversial enough that it was removed from public view and placed in a small and inaccessible room. The painting was held by Caillebottes heirs until it passed to another family, in preparation for its Degas and the Nude exhibition in 2011, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston decided to purchase the painting, which it already had held on loan since earlier that year. The painting was bought for approximately $17 million, to raise the funds, the MFA deaccessioned eight other paintings in its collection. The move was controversial, as the eight pieces had been given to the museum as gifts from benefactors and those paintings were also by artists more recognized to the general public than the lesser-known Caillebotte, they included work by Monet, Renoir and Gauguin. The painting became the museums first Impressionist nude, and joined the one work by Caillebotte. The deaccessioned paintings were sold at two auctions at Sothebys in November 2011 for a total of $18.72 million, Caillebotte, masculinity, and the bourgeois gaze. Outing Impressionism, Homosexuality and Homosocial Bonding in the Work of Caillebotte, Gustave Caillebotte and the Fashioning of Identity in Impressionist Paris. Masculinity, Muscularity and Modernity in Caillebottes Male Figures, in Visible Touch, Modernism and Masculinity
Homme au bain (painting)
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Homme au bain
Homme au bain (painting)
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View from the Artist's Window, Eragny,
Camille Pissarro, 1885
Homme au bain (painting)
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Overcast Day at Saint-Mammès,
Alfred Sisley, c.1880
Homme au bain (painting)
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Gust of Wind,
Maxime Maufra, 1899
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