1.
Carlo Maratta
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Carlo Maratta or Maratti was an Italian painter, active mostly in Rome, and known principally for his classicizing paintings executed in a Late Baroque Classical manner. Although he is part of the classical tradition stemming from Raphael, he was not exempt from the influence of Baroque painting and his contemporary and friend, Giovanni Bellori, wrote an early biography on Maratta. Born in Camerano, then part of the Papal States, he went to Rome in 1636, accompanied by, Don Corintio Benicampi and he became an apprentice in the studio of Andrea Sacchi. It was at time that the debate between Sacchi and Pietro da Cortona took place at the Accademia di San Luca, the artists academy in Rome. Sacchi argued that paintings should only have a few figures which should express the narrative whereas Cortona countered that a number of figures allowed for the development of sub themes. Marattas painting at this time was allied with the classicism of Sacchi and was far more restrained and composed than the Baroque exuberance of Pietro da Cortona’s paintings. Like Sacchi, his paintings were inspired by the works of the painters from Parma and Bologna, Annibale Carracci, Guercino, Guido Reni. He developed a relationship with Sacchi till the death of his master in 1661. Another major work from this period was The Mystery of the Trinity Revealed to St. Augustine painted for the church of Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori and his pictures of the late 1650s exhibit light and movement derived from Roman Baroque painting, combined with classical idealism. In 1664, Maratta became the director of the Accademia di San Luca and, concerned with elevating the status of artists, promoted the study and drawing of the art of Classical Antiquity. During the 1670s he was commissioned by Pope Clement X to fresco the ceiling of the salone in the Palazzo Altieri and his major works of this period included, The Appearance of the Virgin to St. Other works included an altarpiece, ‘The Death of St Francis Xavier’ in the San Francesco Xavier Chapel in the transept of the Church of the Gesu. Maratta was a portrait painter. He painted Sacchi, Cardinal Antonio Barberini, Pope Clement IX and he also painted numerous English sitters during their visits to Rome on the Grand Tour, having sketched antiquities for John Evelyn as early as 1645. In 1679 or 1680, a daughter, Faustina, was born to Maratta by his mistress and he legally recognized her as his daughter in 1698 and upon becoming a widower in 1700, Maratta married the girls mother. His daughter’s features were incorporated into a number of Maratta’s late paintings, in 1704 Maratta was knighted by Pope Clement XI. His sculptural designs included figures of the Apostles for San Giovanni in Laterano and he continued to run his studio into old age even when he could no longer paint. Maratta died in 1713 in Rome, and was buried there in Santa Maria degli Angeli, list of Carlo Maratta pupils and assistants Birth of the Virgin, 1643–45, Church of Saint Clare, Nocera Umbra
2.
Chandannagar
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Chandannagar, formerly spelled as Chandernagore, is a Corporation city and former French colony located about 35 kilometers north of Kolkata, in West Bengal, India. It is headquarter of a subdivision of same name in Hooghly District and it is one of the 7 municipal corporations in West Bengal. It is a part of the covered by Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority. Located on the Hooghly River, the city has been able to maintain an identity different from all other cities. The total area is 19 square kilometers, and had a population of 166,867 at the 2011 Census, Chandannagar is connected to Kolkata by railway, roadways and Hooghly river and it takes about an hour to reach there by car. The name Chandannagar is possibly derived from the shape of the bank of the river Ganges which is bent like a half moon, some local people say that once, the place was the major hub of the trade of Sandal. In some old documents the spelling of Chandannagar was Chandernagore which probably came from Chandra Nagar, to mention, Chandra is the Bengali of Moon. One more reason behind the name is, in Chandernagore there is a temple of Goddess Chandi, so it might come from there. But earlier people knew the place by the name Farasdangaor Francedonmgi as it was a French colony. Chandannagar was established as a French colony in 1673, when the French obtained permission from Ibrahim Khan, Bengal was then a province of the Mughal Empire. For a time, Chandannagar was the center for European commerce in Bengal. The towns fortifications and many houses were demolished thereafter, and Chandannagars importance as a center was eclipsed by that of Calcutta situated down river. Chandernagore was restored to the French in 1763, but retaken by the British in 1794 in the Napoleonic Wars, the city was returned to France in 1816, along with a 3 sq mi enclave of surrounding territory. It was governed as part of French India until 1950, under the control of the governor-general in Pondicherry. By 1900 the towns commercial importance was gone, and it was little more than a quiet suburb of Calcutta. But it was noted for its clean wide thoroughfares, with many elegant residences along the riverbank, like the other three French occupied colonies of India, Chandernagore was under Pondicherry. There was only one Governor for the entire French India and he lived in the principal city of Pondicherry, from time to time he would visit the colonies. There was one Administrator under the Governor in each colony, though there were courts and magistrates here, a separate judge used to come from Pondicherry for session trials
3.
Ayutthaya Kingdom
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The Kingdom of Ayutthaya was a Siamese kingdom that existed from 1351 to 1767. In the sixteenth century, it was described by foreign traders as one of the biggest and wealthiest cities in the East, the court of King Narai had strong links with that of King Louis XIV of France, whose ambassadors compared the city in size and wealth to Paris. By 1550, the kingdoms vassals included some city-states in the Malay Peninsula, Sukhothai, Lan Na and parts of Burma and this part of the Kingdoms history is sometimes referred to as The Ayutthayan Empire. In foreign accounts, Ayutthaya was called Siam, but many say the people of Ayutthaya called themselves Tai. The name of the city indicates the influence of Hinduism in the region and it is believed that this city is associated with the Thai national epic, the Ramakien, which is the Thai version of the Ramayana. Ayutthaya began its hegemony by conquering northern kingdoms and city-states like Sukhothai, Kamphaeng Phet, before the end of the fifteenth century, Ayutthaya launched attacks on Angkor, the classical great power of the region. Angkors influence eventually faded from the Chao Phraya River Plain while Ayutthaya became a new great power, the emerging Kingdom of Ayutthaya was also growing powerful. Yuttitthira urged Borommatrailokkanat to invade Phitsanulok, igniting the Ayutthaya-Lan Na War over the Upper Chao Phraya valley, in 1460, the governor of Chaliang surrendered to Tilokaraj. Borommatrailokkanat then used a new strategy and concentrated on the wars with Lanna by moving the capital to Phitsanulok, Lan Na suffered setbacks and Tilokaraj eventually sued for peace in 1475. However, it was evident that from time to local revolts, led by local princes or kings. Beginning in the century, Ayutthaya showed an interest in the Malay Peninsula. Ayutthaya launched several abortive conquests against Malacca which was diplomatically and economically fortified by the support of Ming China. In the early fifteenth century the Ming admiral Zheng He had established a base of operation in the port city, under this protection, Malacca flourished, becoming one of Ayutthayas great foes until the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese. Starting in the middle of the 16th century, the kingdom came under repeated attacks by the Taungoo Dynasty of Burma, the Burmese–Siamese War began with Burmese an invasion and a failed siege of Ayutthaya. A second siege led by King Bayinnaung forced King Maha Chakkraphat to surrender in 1564, the royal family was taken to Bago, Burma, with the kings second son Mahinthrathirat installed as the vassal king. In 1568, Mahinthrathirat revolted when his father managed to return from Bago as a Buddhist monk, the ensuing third siege captured Ayutthaya in 1569 and Bayinnaung made Mahathammarachathirat his vassal king. After Bayinnaungs death in 1581, uparaja Naresuan proclaimed Ayutthayas independence in 1584, the Burmese–Siamese War was a Thai attack on Burma, resulting in the capture of the Tanintharyi Region as far as Mottama in 1595 and Lan Na in 1602. Naresuan even invaded mainland Burma as far as Taungoo in 1600, after Naresuans death in 1605, northern Tanintharyi and Lan Na returned to Burmese control in 1614
4.
Society of Jesus
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
5.
Missionary
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A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
6.
Alexandre, Chevalier de Chaumont
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Alexandre, Chevalier de Chaumont was the first French ambassador for King Louis XIV in Siam in 1685. He was accompanied on his mission by Abbé de Choisy, the Jesuit Guy Tachard and he was also bringing back to Siam the two ambassadors of the 1684 First Siamese Embassy to France. He tried without success to convert King Narai the Great to Catholicism and he is best remembered for his memoirs describing life in 17th century Siam. A Chevalier de Chaumont is also mentioned several times in the Jesuit Relations
7.
Narai
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Narai or Ramathibodi III or Ramathibodi Si Sanphet was the king of Ayutthaya from 1656 to 1688 and arguably the most famous Ayutthayan king. His reign was the most prosperous during the Ayutthaya period and saw the commercial and diplomatic activities with foreign nations including the Persians. During the later years of his reign, Narai gave his favorite – the Greek adventurer Constantine Phaulkon – so much power that Phaulkon technically became the chancellor of the state. The dominance of French officials led to frictions between them and the mandarins and led to the turbulent revolution of 1688 towards the end of his reign. Narai’s reign was known for the 1662–1664 invasion of Burma, the destruction of the briefly independent port city of the Sultanate of Singgora. Prince Narai was born on 16 February 1633 to King Prasat Thong and his consort, Princess Sirithida, Prasat Thong had just usurped the throne from the ruling Sukhothai dynasty in 1629 and founded a dynasty of his own. Narai had an younger sister Princess Si Suphan, elder half-brother Prince Chai. The Royal Chronicle of Ayutthaya, Royal Recension Version recorded that In that year, when the royal family glanced at the infant, they saw the baby had four arms before having two arms as normal. Upon learning this, the thought it was a miracle. He therefore named his son Narai, the name Narai is from Sanskrit Narayana, a name of Hindu god Vishnu who has four arms. Upon Prasat Thong’s death in 1656, Prince Chai succeeded his father as King Sanpet VI, however, it was a Thai tradition gave brothers a higher priority over sons in succession. Prince Sudharmmaraja plotted with his nephew, Prince Narai, to bring Sanpet VI down, after nine months of ascension, Sanpet VI was executed following a coup. Narai and his uncle marched into the palace, and Si Suthammaracha crowned himself king, Si Suthammaracha appointed Narai as the Uparaja, or the Front Palace. However, Narai was also a prince and had requested Dutch support against his uncle. Si Suthammaracha’s rule was weak and he fell under the control of Chao Phraya Chakri, in 1656, Narai and his uncle finally alienated each other. Si Suthammaracha lusted after Narai’s sister, Princess Ratcha Kanlayani and he ordered his soldiers to surround her residence and entered the house. The princess hid in the book chest and thus was moved to the Front Palace, enraged at his uncles behavior, Narai decided to take action. He drew his support from the Persian and Japanese mercenaries that had been persecuted during his fathers reign and he also had the support of his brothers and the Okya Sukhothai, a powerful nobleman
8.
French people
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The French are an ethnic group and nation who are identified with the country of France. This connection may be legal, historical, or cultural, modern French society can be considered a melting pot. To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of origin, race. The debate concerning the integration of this view with the underlying the European Community remains open. A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France, indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries, the European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector. Seeing itself as a nation with universal values, France has always valued. However, the success of such assimilation has recently called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves, the 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration, the name France etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire, in the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, the area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish vernacular language disappeared step by step to be replaced everywhere by Vulgar Latin, which would later develop under Frankish influence into the French language in the North of France. With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture, the Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti, already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands, at the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is spoken as a kind of Dutch in northern France. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace, the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there and they were competitors of the Franks, thats why it became at the Renaissance time the word for German in French, Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process
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