1.
Gwangju, Gyeonggi
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Gwangju is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea, a suburb southeast of Seoul. The city is not to be confused with the much larger Gwangju Metropolitan City, former capital of South Jeolla Province, bunwon-ri in Gwangju took an important role of ceramic production during the Kingdom of Joseon. There had official kilns and produced superb quality of white porcelains for use at the royal court, in 1962,4 myuns including 5 ris were incorporated to Seoul. In 1973,6 of ris were separated and these came to parts of Seongnam city, in 1979, gwangju myun promoted eup. In fact, Gwangju was a county but became a city in 2001, kim Yu-bin, part of the Korean girl group Wonder Girls Choi Sooyoung, part of the Korean girl group Girls Generation Lee Hongki, lead singer of F. T
2.
Guangzhou
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Guangzhou, traditionally romanised as Canton, is the capital and most populous city of the province of Guangdong in southern China. Guangzhou is currently, the third city in mainland China, behind Beijing and Shanghai, holds sub-provincial administrative status. In 2015 the citys area was estimated to have a population of 13,501,100. Some estimates place the population of the area of the Pearl River Delta Mega City as high as 44 million without the Hong Kong SAR and 54 million including it. Guangzhou is ranked as a Beta+ Global city, in recent years, there has been a rapidly increasing number of foreign residents and illegal immigrants from Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Eastern Europe, as well as from Africa. This has led to it being dubbed the Capital of the Third World, the migrant population from other provinces of China in Guangzhou was 40 percent of the citys total population in 2008. Long the only Chinese port accessible to foreign traders, the city fell to the British during the First Opium War. No longer enjoying a monopoly after the war, it lost trade to ports such as Hong Kong and Shanghai. In modern commerce, Guangzhou is best known for its annual Canton Fair, for the three consecutive years 2013–2015, Forbes ranked Guangzhou as the best commercial city on the Chinese mainland. Guǎngzhōu is the pinyin romanisation of the Chinese name 廣州, which was simplified in mainland China to 广州 in the 1950s, before acquiring its current name, the town was known as Panyu, a name still borne by one of Guangzhous districts. The origin of the name is uncertain, with 11 various explanations being offered. The city has sometimes been known as Guangzhou Fu or Guangfu after its status as the capital of a commandery. From this latter name, Guangzhou was known to medieval Persians such as Al-Masudi, under the Southern Han, the city was renamed Xingwang. Under the Qing, it was known to its inhabitants as simply The Provincial Capital. The Chinese abbreviation for Guangzhou is 穗, after its nickname Rice City, the former name City of the Immortals came from the same story. The more recent City of Flowers is usually taken as a reference to the areas greenery. The English name Canton derived from Portuguese Cantão or Cidade de Cantão, although it originally and chiefly applied to the walled city, it was also used in English in reference to Guangdong generally. It was adopted as the Postal Map Romanization of Guangzhou and remained in use until the gradual adoption of pinyin
3.
Hangul
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The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul in South Korea and as Chosŏngŭl/Chosŏn Muntcha in North Korea is the alphabet that has been used to write the Korean language since the 15th century. It was created during the Joseon Dynasty in 1443 by King Sejong the Great, in South Korea, Hangul is used primarily to write the Korean language as using Hanja in typical Korean writing had fallen out of common usage during the late 1990s. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 19 consonant and 21 vowel letters, however, instead of being written sequentially like the letters of the Latin alphabet, Hangul letters are grouped into blocks, such as 한 han, each of which transcribes a syllable. That is, although the syllable 한 han may look like a single character, each syllabic block consists of two to six letters, including at least one consonant and one vowel. These blocks are arranged horizontally from left to right or vertically from top to bottom. Each Korean word consists of one or more syllables, hence one or more blocks, of the 11,172 possible Hangul syllables, the most frequent 256 have a cumulative frequency of 88. 2%, with the top 512, it reaches 99. 9%. The modern name Hangul was coined by Ju Sigyeong in 1912, han meant great in archaic Korean, and geul is the native Korean word for script. Taken together, then, the meaning is great script, as the word han had also become one way of indicating Korea as a whole the name could also potentially be interpreted as Korean script. Korean 한글 is pronounced, and in English as /ˈhɑːn. ɡʊl/ or /ˈhɑːŋɡʊl/, when used as an English word, it is often rendered without the diacritics, hangul, and it is often capitalized as Hangul, as it appears in many English dictionaries. Hankul in the Yale romanization, a system recommended for technical linguistic studies, North Koreans call it Chosŏngŭl, after Chosŏn, the North Korean name for Korea. Because of objections to the names Hangeul, Chosŏngŭl, and urigeul by Koreans in China, until the early 20th century, Hangul was denigrated as vulgar by the literate elite, who preferred the traditional hanja writing system. They gave it such names as these, Achimgeul, in the original Hanja, it is rendered as 故智者不終朝而會，愚者可浹旬而學。 Gugmun Eonmun Amgeul. Am is a prefix that signifies a noun is feminine Ahaetgeul or Ahaegeul Hangul was promulgated by Sejong the Great, the Hall of Worthies, a group of scholars who worked with Sejong to develop and refine the new alphabet, is often credited for the work. The project was completed in late December 1443 or January 1444, the publication date of the Hunmin Jeong-eum, October 9, became Hangul Day in South Korea. Its North Korean equivalent, Chosongul Day, is on January 15, various speculations about the creation process were put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye. This document explains the design of the consonant letters according to articulatory phonetics, to assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. However, it entered popular culture as Sejong had intended, being used especially by women, the late 16th century, however, saw a revival of Hangul, with gasa literature and later sijo flourishing. In the 17th century, Hangul novels became a major genre, by this point spelling had become quite irregular
4.
Hanja
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Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. Borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation, hanja-mal or hanja-eo refers to words that can be written with hanja, and hanmun refers to Classical Chinese writing, although hanja is sometimes used loosely to encompass these other concepts. Because hanja never underwent major reform, they are almost entirely identical to traditional Chinese, only a small number of hanja characters are modified or unique to Korean. By contrast, many of the Chinese characters currently in use in Japan and Mainland China have been simplified, and contain fewer strokes than the corresponding hanja characters. Today, a working knowledge of Chinese characters is still important for anyone who wishes to study older texts. Learning a certain number of hanja is very helpful for understanding the etymology of Sino-Korean words, hanja are not used to write native Korean words, which are always rendered in hangul, and even words of Chinese origin—hanja-eo —are written with the hangul alphabet most of the time. A major motivation for the introduction of Chinese characters into Korea was the spread of Buddhism, the major Chinese text that introduced hanja to Koreans, however, was not a religious text but the Chinese text, Cheonjamun. One way of adapting hanja to write Korean in such systems was to represent native Korean grammatical particles, for example, Gugyeol uses the characters 爲尼 to transcribe the Korean word hăni, in modern Korean, that means does, and so. However, in Chinese, the characters are read as the expression wéi ní. This is an example of Gugyeol words where the radical is read in Korean for its meaning. Hanja was the means of writing Korean until King Sejong the Great promoted the invention of hangul in the 15th century. However, even after the invention of hangul, most Korean scholars continued to write in hanmun and it was not until the 20th century that hangul truly replaced hanja. Officially, hanja has not been used in North Korea since June 1949, additionally, many words borrowed from Chinese have been replaced in the North with native Korean words. However, there are a number of Chinese-borrowed words in widespread usage in the North. The replacement has been less total in South Korea where, although usage has declined over time, some remains in common usage in some contexts. Each hanja is composed of one of 214 radicals plus in most cases one or more additional elements, the vast majority of hanja use the additional elements to indicate the sound of the character, but a few hanja are purely pictographic, and some were formed in other ways. This dual meaning-sound reading of a character is called eumhun, the word or words used to denote the meaning are often—though hardly always—words of native Korean origin, and are sometimes archaic words no longer commonly used. South Korean primary schools abandoned the teaching of hanja in 1971 and it is taught in separate courses in South Korean high schools, separately from the normal Korean-language curriculum
5.
McCune-Reischauer
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McCune–Reischauer romanization is one of the two most widely used Korean language romanization systems. A modified version of McCune–Reischauer was the official system in South Korea until 2000. A variant of McCune–Reischauer is still used as the system in North Korea. The system was created in 1937 by George M. McCune, with a few exceptions, it attempts not to transliterate Korean hangul but to represent the phonetic pronunciation. McCune–Reischauer is widely used outside Korea, Korean has phonologically no distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants, but it phonetically distinguishes them. Aspirated consonants like p, k, and t are distinguished by apostrophe from unaspirated ones, the apostrophe is also used to mark transcriptions of ㄴㄱ as opposed to ㅇㅇ, 잔금 → changŭm vs. 장음 → changŭm). That can lead to confusion over whether the o being romanized is 오 or 어 or the u being Romanized is 우 or 으, casual users also often omit the apostrophe that differentiates aspirated consonants from their unaspirated counterparts, which can also lead to confusion. Such common omissions were the reason the South Korean government adopted a revised system of romanization in 2000. Critics of the system claim it fails to represent 어 and 으 in a way that is easily recognizable. Also, it misrepresents the unaspirated consonants the way that they are actually pronounced, also, North Korea uses a version of McCune–Reischauer. Even within South Korea, usage of the new system is less than universal and this is a simplified guide for the McCune–Reischauer system. It is often used for the transliteration of names but does not convert every word properly, ㅔ is written as ë after ㅏ and ㅗ. This is to distinguish ㅐ from ㅏ에, and ㅚ and ㅗ에, the combinations ㅏ에 and ㅗ에 very rarely occur except in sentences when a noun is followed by a postposition, as, for example, 회사에서 hoesaësŏ and 차고에 chagoë. In Sino-Korean words, lt and lch respectively, for ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, and ㅈ, the letters g, b, d, or j are used if voiced, k, p, t, or ch otherwise. Pronunciations such as those take precedence over the rules in the table above, voiceless/voiced consonants 가구 kagu 등대 tŭngdae 반복 panbok 주장 chujang Of course, the initial consonant ㅇ is disregarded in romanization, since it is only used in order to indicate the absence of sound. For example, 평안 is written as Phyŏngan, the original system would have it written as Pyŏngan. A variant of McCune–Reischauer was in use in South Korea from 1984 to 2000. The following are the differences between the original McCune–Reischauer and the South Korean variant, 시 was written as shi instead of the original systems si, when ㅅ is followed by ㅣ, it is realized as the sound instead of the normal sound
6.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
7.
Democratic Party of Korea
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Democratic Party is a social liberal political party in South Korea. The party was founded on 26 March 2014 as a merger of the Democratic Party, Ahn and Kim became joint leaders of the new party. The party performed poorly in by-elections that July, however, leadership of the party was assumed by an emergency committee. The next year, at a party convention on February 7, Moon, who had previously served as chief of staff for former president Roh Moo-hyun, was the leader of the partys pro-Roh faction, which was opposed to Ahn and Kim. Moon came under fire for imposing a pro-Roh hegemony in the party, as Ahn, the party hemorrhaged support as the factional conflict intensified, falling from around 40 to 30 percent in opinion polls. A survey conducted on November 12–14 showed that supporters of the party wanted Ahn, Moon rejected the demand, and Ahn left the party. Ahn was followed by a number of supportive NPAD assembly members, including his former co-leader Kim Han-gil, meanwhile, Ahn and Kim merged their group with that of another defector from the NPAD, Chun Jung-bae, to form the Peoples Party. Following the defections, the NPAD was renamed the Minjoo Party of Korea, Moon handed power to Kim Chong-in, an academic and former assemblyman who had more recently served as economic advisor to conservative President Park Geun-hye. Kim Chong-in viewed the pro–Roh Moo-hyun faction and what he considered the extremist wing of the party as responsible for the partys troubles, lee left the party in response. Kim offered to resign in March, but decided to stay on as leader after a visit from Moon. Kim affirmed that he would continue to attempt to change the partys image, lee Hae-chan returned to the Assembly as an independent representing Sejong City. Following its election victory, Kim Chong-in announced that the Minjoo Party would change its emphasis from welfare to economic growth, Kim stated that the party would also change its position to support the establishment of for-profit hospitals, in contrast to the partys earlier opposition to the policy
8.
Rhododendron schlippenbachii
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Rhododendron schlippenbachii, the royal azalea, is a species of Rhododendron native to the Korean Peninsula and adjacent regions of Manchuria, Japan, and the Russian Far East. It is the dominant understory shrub in many Korean hillside forests and it is a dense deciduous shrub growing to 4.5 m in height, but more commonly 1-2 m tall. The leaves are obovate,4. 5-7.5 cm long and 2. 5-4.5 cm broad, the flowers are white to pink, often with small red spots on the upper three petals, they are produced in late spring to early summer. The scientific name schlippenbachii is derived from Baron von Schlippenbach, a Russian officer who collected the species in 1854, in Korea, it is called cheoljjuk and if the color of the petals is white, the flower is called huincheoljjuk. The Royal Azalea is commonly chosen as a symbol in South Korea, by provinces, cities and counties such as Gangwon Province. It is widely cultivated in parts of the world, some cultivars bear white flowers. Flora of China, Rhododendron schlippenbachii Royal azalea festival of Mount Yeonin UConn Plant Database entry
9.
Ginkgo biloba
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Ginkgo biloba, commonly known as ginkgo or gingko, also known as the ginkgo tree or the maidenhair tree, is the only living species in the division Ginkgophyta, all others being extinct. It is found in dating back 270 million years. Native to China, the tree is cultivated and was introduced early to human history. It has various uses in medicine and as a source of food. The genus name Ginkgo is regarded as a misspelling of the Japanese gin kyo, the species was initially described by Carl Linnaeus in 1771, the specific epithet biloba derived from the Latin bis, two and loba, lobed, referring to the shape of the leaves. Two names for the species recognise the botanist Richard Salisbury, a placement by Nelson as Pterophyllus salisburiensis, the epithet of the latter may have been intended to denote a characteristic resembling Adiantum, the genus of maidenhair ferns. The relationship of ginkgo to other plant groups remains uncertain and it has been placed loosely in the divisions Spermatophyta and Pinophyta, but no consensus has been reached. Since its seeds are not protected by a wall, it can morphologically be considered a gymnosperm. The apricot-like structures produced by female ginkgo trees are technically not fruits, but are seeds that have a shell consisting of a soft and fleshy section, and a hard section. It is one of the examples of a living fossil. Chinese scientists published a draft genome of Ginko biloba in 2016, the tree has an exceptionally large genome of 10.6 billion DNA letters and about 41,840 predicted genes which enable a considerable number of antibacterial and chemical defense mechanisms. The spelling pronunciation /ˈɡɪŋkɡoʊ/ is however so widespread that it is recorded in some dictionaries, especially British ones, the older Chinese name for this plant is 銀果, meaning silver fruit, pronounced yínguǒ in Mandarin or Ngan-gwo in Cantonese. The most usual names today are 白果, meaning white fruit, the former name was borrowed directly in Vietnamese as bạch quả. The latter name was borrowed in Japanese ぎんなん and Korean 은행, the scientific name Ginkgo is the result of a spelling error that occurred three centuries ago. Kanji typically have multiple pronunciations in Japanese, and the characters 銀杏 used for ginnan can also be pronounced ginkyō, linné, who relied on Kaempfer when dealing with Japanese plants, adopted the spelling given in Kaempfers Flora Japonica. An extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf is marketed in dietary supplement form with claims it can enhance cognitive function in people without known cognitive problems, studies have failed to find such effects on memory or attention in healthy people. A standardized medicinal extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf originally called EGb 761 has been studied as a treatment for dementia and Alzheimers disease. Some reviews have concluded there is no evidence supporting the use of Ginkgo in dementia
10.
Columbidae
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Pigeons and doves constitute the bird family Columbidae, which includes about 310 species. Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks, and short slender bills and they primarily feed on seeds, fruits, and plants. This family occurs worldwide, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalaya, in general, the terms dove and pigeon are used somewhat interchangeably. Pigeon is a French word that derives from the Latin pipio, for a peeping chick, the species most commonly referred to as pigeon is the rock dove, one subspecies of which, the domestic pigeon, is common in many cities as the feral pigeon. Pigeons and doves are likely the most common birds in the world, doves and pigeons build relatively flimsy nests – often using sticks and other debris – which may be placed in trees, on ledges, or on the ground, depending on species. They lay one or two eggs at a time, and both parents care for the young, which leave the nest after seven to 28 days. Unlike most birds, both sexes of doves and pigeons produce crop milk to feed to their young, secreted by a sloughing of fluid-filled cells from the lining of the crop, young doves and pigeons are called squabs. The adjective columbine refers to pigeons and doves, recent phylogenomic studies support the grouping of these pigeons and sandgrouse together, along with mesites, forming the sister taxon to Mirandornithes. The Columbidae are usually divided into five subfamilies, probably inaccurately, for example, the American ground and quail doves, which are usually placed in the Columbinae, seem to be two distinct subfamilies. The order presented here follows Baptista et al. with some updates, osteology and DNA sequence analyses indicate the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire are better considered as a subfamily Raphinae in the Columbidae pending availability of further information. The dodo and Rodrigues solitaire are in all part of the Indo-Australian radiation that produced the three small subfamilies mentioned above, with the fruit-doves and pigeons. Therefore, they are included as a subfamily Raphinae, pending better material evidence of their exact relationships. Exacerbating these issues, columbids are not well represented in the fossil record, no truly primitive forms have been found to date. The genus Gerandia has been described from Early Miocene deposits of France, apart from that, all other fossils belong to extant genera. For these, and for the number of more recently extinct prehistoric species. Phylogeny based on the work by John H. Boyd III, Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variations in size. Overall, the Columbidae tend to have short bills and legs, the wings are large and have low wing loadings, pigeons have strong wing muscles and are among the strongest fliers of all birds. They are also highly manoeuvrable in flight, the plumage of the family is variable
11.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
12.
South Jeolla Province
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South Jeolla Province or Jeollanam-do is a province in the southwest of South Korea. The province was formed in 1896 from the half of the former Jeolla province, remained a province of Korea until the countrys division in 1945. Gwangju was the capital of the province, until the office moved to the southern village of Namak. The province is part of the Honam region, and is bounded on the west by the Yellow Sea, on the north by Jeollabuk-do Province, on the south by Jeju Strait, and on the east by Gyeongsangnam-do. There are almost 2,000 islands along the coastline, about three quarters of which are uninhabited, the coastline is about 6,100 kilometres long. Some of the products, in particular oyster and seaweed cultivation, are leading in South Korea. The province is only partially mountainous, the plains along the rivers Seomjin, Yeongsan and Tamjin create a large granary. There is abundant rainfall in the area, which helps agriculture, the province is also home to the warmest weather on the peninsula. This helps to produce amounts of agricultural produce, mainly rice, wheat, barley. Vegetables, cotton and fruits are grown in the province. A small amount of gold and coal is mined in the province, Jeollanam-do is divided into 5 cities and 17 counties. Listed below is the name of each entity in English, hangul,53. 4% of the population is mostly not religious or follow Muism and other indigenous religions. 31st, Heo Kyung-man - 1st term, 32nd, Heo Kyung-man - 2nd term. 33rd, Park Tae-young - died in office 34th, Park Jun-young - 1st term, 35th, Park Jun-young - 2nd term. 36th, Park Jun-young - 3rd term, 37th, Lee Nak-yon List of Korea-related topics South Jeolla travel guide from Wikivoyage Jeollanam-do provincial government English-language home page
13.
Provinces of Korea
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This article describes the historical development of Koreas provinces. During the Unified Silla Period, Korea was divided into nine Ju, in 1009 the country was again redivided, this time into one royal district, five provinces and two frontier districts. After the Joseon Dynastys rise to power and the formation of Joseon in 1392, the provincial boundaries closely reflected major regional and dialect boundaries, and are still often referred to in Korean today simply as the Eight Provinces. In 1895, as part of the Gabo Reform, the country was redivided into 23 districts, the thirteen provinces of 1896 included three of the original eight provinces, with the five remaining original provinces divided into north and south halves. The thirteen provinces remained unchanged throughout the Colonial Period, as a result, three provinces—Hwanghae, Gyeonggi, and Gangwon —were divided into North Korea and South Korea today. The special cities of Seoul and Pyŏngyang were formed in 1946, between 1946 and 1954, five new provinces were created, Jeju in South Korea, and North and South Hwanghae, Chagang, and Ryanggang in North Korea. Since 1954, provincial boundaries in both the North and South have remained unchanged, new cities and special administrative regions have been created, however, see Special cities of Korea for their history. For a comprehensive description of Koreas provinces and special cities today, please see Administrative divisions of North Korea, in 660, the southeastern kingdom of Silla conquered Baekje in the Southwest, and in 668, Silla conquered Goguryeo in the north with the help of Chinas Tang Dynasty. For the first time, most of the Korean peninsula was ruled by a single power, sillas northern boundary ran through the middle of southern Goguryeo, from the Taedong River in the west to Wŏnsan in modern-day Kangwon Province in the east. In 721, Silla solidified its northern boundary with Balhae by building a wall between Pyŏngyang and Wŏnsan, the countrys capital was Geumseong, and sub-capitals were located at Geumgwan-gyeong, Namwon-gyeong, Seowon-gyeong, Jungwon-gyeong, and Bugwon-gyeong. The country was divided into nine provinces, three in the territory of Silla, and three each in the former kingdoms of Baekje and Goguryeo. The table below lists the three preceding kingdoms, each name in the Roman alphabet, hangul, and hanja, as well as the provincial capital. In 892, Gyeon Hwon founded the kingdom of Later Baekje in southwestern Silla, in 935, Goryeo conquered the remnants of Silla, and in 936, it conquered Later Baekje. Songak was greatly expanded and renamed Gaegyeong, taejo expanded the countrys territory by conquering part of the land formerly belonging to Goguryeo, in the northwest of the Korean peninsula, as far north as the Amnok River. A wall was constructed from the Amnok River in the northwest to the Sea of Japan in the southeast, the country had one capital and three sub-capitals, Donggyeong, Namgyeong, and Seogyeong. Originally, the country had one royal district around Gaegyeong and twelve administrative districts, finally, in 1009, the ten provinces were again redivided, this time into five provinces and two frontier districts. The table below lists the provinces of Silla, the districts of Goryeo that replaced them, then the pre- and post-1009 provinces. ^ In 1413, Korea was divided into eight provinces, Chungcheong, Gangwon, Gyeonggi, Gyeongsang, Jeolla, Hamgyŏng, Hwanghae, notes In 1895, Korea was redivided into 23 districts, each named for the city or county that was its capital
14.
Muan County
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Muan County is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. In 2005, Muan County became the capital of Jeollanam-do following the transfer of the office from its previous location. Muan International Airport was opened here, and will replace the airports in Gwangju. On January 1 of 1963, several villages were incorporated into Mokpo city, in 1979, Muan township was promoted to a township. In 1980, Illo was also promoted into a township, flower, The Chrysanthemum Tree, The Zelkova tree Bird, The white Heron Muan County is located on the western tip of the South Western part of the Korean peninsula. It acts as the link between Sinan county with the rest of the Korean mainland. Numerous beaches are found on Muans coast. Muan borders Yeongsan river with Naju and Hampyeong to the north, Yeongam to the east and these surroundings have influenced the industrial and cultural structure of Muan County. Muan was designated a city by the South Korean government for the Honam region. The South Korean government and China have agreed to develop a complex in a joint venture. Muan includes an area of mudlands. The western area of the Korean peninsula has an amount of mud thanks to the Rias coast. However, many mudlands have been destroyed or reclaimed for expanding city areas or industrial complexes, the mudlands of Muan were designated one of the wetlands of the Ramsar Convention. Muan is widely known for its White Lotus Festival located in Illo-eup, the festival occurs in mid August when the white lotus flowers bloom fully onsite at the Hoesan White Lotus Pond. Tourists can walk into the huge lotuslands via the bridges that crisscross the water. Visitors may also ride the duck boats, Muan is known for several famous products characteristic of the area. They are largely farming goods from onions to lotus products, Muan puts out 16% of the national onion production making its production volume is the largest in Korea. Muan county officially reported to host farming cluster of sweet potato, onion, the powder of lotus plants is used for making noodles
15.
Silla
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Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the worlds longest sustained dynasties. Although it was founded by King Park Hyeokgeose, the dynasty was ruled by the Gyeongju Kim clan for most of its 992-year history. It began as a chiefdom in the Samhan confederacies, once allied with China, thereafter, Unified Silla or Later Silla, as it is often referred to, occupied most of the Korean Peninsula, while the northern part re-emerged as Balhae, a successor-state of Goguryeo. After nearly 1000 years of rule, Silla fragmented into the brief Later Three Kingdoms, Silla, Hubaekje, and Taebong, handing over power to its successor dynasty Goryeo in 935. From its founding until its growth into a kingdom, Silla was recorded with various hanja phonetically approximating its native Korean name, 斯盧, 斯羅, 徐那, 徐耶, 徐羅. In 503, King Jijeung standardized on the characters 新羅, which in Modern Korean is pronounced Shilla, in the modern Mongolian language, Korea and Koreans are still known as Солонгос Solongos, which seems to be an alteration of Silla influenced by the Mongolian word for rainbow. Scholars have traditionally divided Silla history into three periods, Early, Middle, and Late. The Park clan held power for three generations before a coup by the Seok clan. During the reign of the first Seok ruler, Talhae of Silla, the Park and Seok clans constantly fought each other for power and both were eventually overthrown by the Kim clan. The Kim clan then ruled over Silla for many generations with the Park, the final ruler of Later Silla, King Gyeongsun, was a member of the Kim clan. During the Proto–Three Kingdoms period, the city-states of central and southern Korea were grouped into three confederacies called Samhan, Silla began as Saro-guk, a statelet within the 12-member confederacy called Jinhan. Saro-guk consisted of six villages and six clans, according to Korean records, Silla was founded by King Park Hyeokgeose in 57 BC, around present-day Gyeongju. Hyeokgeose is said to have hatched from an egg laid from a white horse. He is also the progenitor of the Park clan, now one of the most common names in Korea. The Samguk Sagi and Bei Shi say that the originally Lelang Commandery area which became the Jinhan confederacy was the origin of Silla. By the 2nd century, Silla existed as a state in the southeastern area of the Korean peninsula. It expanded its influence over neighboring Jinhan chiefdoms, but through the 3rd century was no more than the strongest city-state in a loose federation. To the west, Baekje had centralized into a kingdom by about 250, to the southwest, Byeonhan was being replaced by the Gaya confederacy
16.
Goguryeo
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Goguryeo was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula and was also associated with the foreign affairs of neighboring polities in China and Japan. The Samguk Sagi, a 12th-century text from Goryeo, indicates that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BCE by Jumong, a prince from Buyeo, after its fall, its territory was divided among the states of Later Silla, Balhae and Tang China. The name Goryeo, a form of Goguryeo, was adopted as the official name in the 5th century. In the geographic monographs of the Book of Han, the word Goguryeo was first mentioned in 113 BCE as a region under the jurisdiction of the Xuantu Commandery, page 33. In the Old Book of Tang, it is recorded that Emperor Taizong refers to Goguryeos history as being some 900 years old, in 75 BCE, a group of Yemaek who may have originated from Goguryeo made an incursion into Chinas Xuantu Commandery west of the Yalu. At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be a blend of people from Buyeo and Yemaek, as leadership from Buyeo may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms. The Records of the Three Kingdoms, in the section titled Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians, implied that Buyeo, the earliest mention of Jumong is in the 4th century Gwanggaeto Stele. Jumong is the modern Korean transcription of the hanja 朱蒙 Jumong, 鄒牟 Chumo, the Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and that he was the son of the prince of Buyeo and daughter of the Yellow River deity Habaek. The Samguk Sagi and Samgungnyusa paint additional detail and names Jumongs mother as Yuhwa, Jumongs biological father was said to be a man named Haemosu who is described as a strong man and a heavenly prince. The river god chased Yuhwa away to the Ubal River due to her pregnancy, Jumong was well known for his exceptional archery skills. Eventually, Geumwas sons became jealous of him, and Jumong was forced to leave Eastern Buyeo, the Stele and later Korean sources disagree as to which Buyeo Jumong came from. The Stele says he came from Buyeo and the Samgungnyusa and Samguk Sagi say he came from Eastern Buyeo, Jumong eventually made it to Jolbon, where he married Soseono, daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a group of his followers from his native country. A traditional account from the Annals of Baekje section in the Samguk Sagi says that Soseono was the daughter of Yeon Tabal, a wealthy influential figure in Jolbon and married to Jumong. However, the same source states that the king of Jolbon gave his daughter to Jumong. She gave her husband, Jumong, financial support in founding the new statelet, Jumongs given surname was Hae, the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the Samgungnyusa, Jumong changed his surname to Go in conscious reflection of his divine parentage, Jumong is recorded to have conquered the tribal states of Biryu in 36 BCE, Haeng-in in 33 BCE, and Northern Okjeo in 28 BCE. Goguryeo developed from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state, in the time of Taejodae in 53 CE, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts
17.
Samguk Sagi
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Samguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. It is well known in Korea as the oldest surviving chronicle of Korean history, in taking on the task of compiling the Samguk Sagi, Kim Busik was consciously modeling his actions on Chinese Imperial traditions, just as he modeled the history’s format after its Chinese forebears. Specifically, he was harking back to the work of Sima Qian, nowadays known as the Records of the Grand Historian, this work was released circa 100 BCE under the more modest title of Shǐjì 史記, i. e. Scribes Records. By allusion, Kim Busik called his own work 三國史記, i. e. Samguk Sagi, adopted as well from Chinese historiographical tradition was the classic four-part division of the standard dynastic history into Annals, Tables, Monographs, and Biographies. There were various motivating factors behind the compilation of the Samguk Sagi in the 12th century. These may roughly be categorized as ideological and political. as well as the histories of Qin and Han, in this quote can be discerned two clear motives. One was to fill the vast gap in knowledge concerning Koreas Three Kingdom Era, the other motive was to produce a history that would serve to educate native Korean literati in native history, and provide them with Korean exemplars of Confucian virtues. This was especially important in mid-Goryeo as that dynasty became increasingly Confucianized, lee 1984, p.167 But there were other factors not so clearly discerned. In Chinese tradition, the compilation of a dynastic history also served political ends, the dynastic history was written by the succeeding dynasty and the very act of writing it served to illustrate that the succeeding dynasty had inherited the mandate to rule from its predecessor. As stated earlier, one aspect of its purpose was to educate scholars and officials of the Confucianized bureaucracy in their native heritage, in this way it helped to confer the idea of zhengtong 正統, or orthodox line of succession, upon the new dynasty. Though this objective was not directly stated in the memorial Kim Busik submitted in 1145 and it was with just such intent that Goryeos King Injong tapped Kim Busik to compile the history of the Three Kingdoms. The Samguk Sagi is divided into 50 Books, originally, each of them was written on a scroll. They are reparted as follows,12 scrolls, Nagi/Silla bongi, 나기/신라 본기, geoseogan Hyeokgeose, Chachaung Namhae, Isageum Yuri, Talhae, Pasa, Jima, Ilseong Book 02. Isageum Adalla, Beolhyu, Naehae, Jobun, Cheomhae, Michu, Yurye, Girim, Isageum Naemul, Silseong, Maripgan Nulji, Jabi, Soji Book 04. Maripgan Jijeung, King Beopheung, Jinheung, Jinji, Jinpyeong Book 05, Queen Seondeok, Jindeok, King Taejong Muyeol Book 06. King Munmu - Part One Book 07, King Munmu - Part Two Book 08. King Sinmun, Hyoso, Seongdeok Book 09, King Hyoseong, Gyeongdeok, Hyegong, Seondeok Book 10. King Wonseong, Soseong, Aejang, Heondeok, Heungdeok, Huigang, Minae, King Munseong, Heonan, Gyeongmun, Heongang, Jeonggang, Queen Jinseong Book 12
18.
Jeolla Province
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Jeolla Province was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla Province, South Jeolla Province, the provincial capital was Jeonju, the current capital of Northern Jeolla. The entire inland region is called Honam, which is commonly used. During the Samhan era of Korean history, the area of Jeolla was controlled by the Mahan confederacy, fifteen of the 45 Korean tribes had their bases in this region. When Baekje overtook Mahan by the 5th century, the Three Kingdoms era began, jungbang was the center of the province during this period. When Silla conquered Baekje with the help of Tang China in 660, Silla reorganized this territory into 9 ju and 5 gyeong,3 of the ju belonging to the former Baekje. The northern territory of former Baekje, Ung, corresponds to modern-day South Chungcheong Province, the middle area consisted of Wansan and Namwon, which correspond to modern-day North Jeolla. The southern area consisted of Mujin, which was renamed Mu in 757, Mu consisted of one gun and 43 hyeon, and corresponds to modern-day South Jeolla. In 983, during the year of the reign of Seongjong of Goryeo. Jeonju became Jeonju-mok, while Muju was split into the two mok of Naju and Seungju, in 995, King Seongjong again reorganized the country, this time into 10 do. Jeonju-mok was renamed Gangnam-do while Naju and Seugnju were reunited and renamed Haeyang-do. In 1018, during the 9th year of the reign of Hyeonjong of Goryeo, the country was reorganized in 5 do. The name derived from the names of the cities of Jeonju and Naju. (The difference between Na- and -lla is due to the and this was the first time the area currently known as Jeolla was united under one administrative division, and it would remain this way for nearly eight centuries. In 1413, during 13th year of the right of Taejong of Joseon and this is the era of the historic Eight Provinces. Jeollajudo was variously known as Gwangnam, Jeongwang, and Jeonnam, but the name persisted. They had anti-Japanese sentiments due to the Japanese invasions of Korea, on August 4,1896, Emperor Gojong issued Royal Order 36, repealing the district system and restoring the province system. North Jeolla consisted of the Jeonju and northern Namwon districts, while South Jeolla consisted of the southern Namwon districts, Naju district, Jeonju was retained as the capital of North Jeolla, with Gwangju being made the capital of South Jeolla
19.
Korean regional cuisine
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Korean regional cuisines are characterized by local specialties and distinctive styles within Korean cuisine. The divisions reflected historical boundaries of the provinces where these food, although Korea has been divided into two nation-states since 1948, it was once divided into eight provinces according to the administrative districts of the Joseon Dynasty. The northern region consisted of Hamgyeong province, Pyeongan province and Hwanghae province, the central region comprised Gyeonggi province, Chungcheong province, and Gangwon province. Gyeongsang province and Jeolla province made up the southern region, until the late 19th century transportation networks were not well developed, and each provincial region preserved its own characteristic tastes and cooking methods. Geographic differences are reflected by the local specialty foodstuffs depending on the climate. With the modern development of transportation and the introduction of foods, Korean regional cuisines have tended to overlap. However, there are many unique traditional dishes in Korean regional cuisine that have been handed down through the generations. Pyongan cuisine, based on Pyongan province, is characterized as a continental style due to early Manchurian influence, dishes are made into large shapes, so as to present an abundant appearance. The cuisines taste is bland, with fatty foods being enjoyed during winter. The form of a Pyongan meal is realistic and social, oi tojangguk and naepotang are representative soups and stews. The songgi in songgi tteok refers to the bark of pine trees and its ground flour is mixed with glutinous rice flour. The dough is steamed or filled with pine nuts and then pan-fried with sesame oil. Notti is another characteristic tteok of Pyongan and Hwanghae provinces, made by pounding a saccharified dough of hulled millet flour, Pyongan hangwa or traditional confectionery are gwajul and yeot. Taesik is also a variety of the regional hangwa, made by mixing jocheong, Pyongyang, currently the capital of North Korea, was also the capital of Gojoseon, and the provincial capital of Pyongan province until 1946. Therefore, Pyongyang cuisine shares with the culinary tradition of Pyongan province. The most famous local food is Pyongyang naengmyeon, also called mul naengmyeon or just simply naengmyeon, naengmyeon literally means cold noodles, while the affix mul refers to water because the dish is served in a cold soup. Naengmyeon consists of thin and chewy buckwheat noodles in cold broth mixed with a meat broth, Pyongyang naengmyeon was originally eaten at home built with ondol during the cold winter, so is also humorously called Pyongyang deoldeori. Pyongyang locals sometimes enjoyed it as a haejangguk which is any type of food eaten as a cure while commonly a warm soup in form
20.
Baekje
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Baekje was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo, Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeos founder Jumong and So Seo-no, at Wiryeseong. Baekje, like Goguryeo, claimed to succeed Buyeo, an established in present-day Manchuria around the time of Gojoseons fall. Baekje alternately battled and allied with Goguryeo and Silla as the three kingdoms expanded control over the peninsula and it became a significant regional sea power, with political and trade relations with China and Japan. In 660 it was defeated, by an alliance of Silla and the Chinese Tang Dynasty, Baekje was founded in 18 BC by King Onjo, who led a group of people from Goguryeo south to the Han River basin. According to the Chinese Records of the Three Kingdoms, during the Samhan period, the Samguk Sagi provides a detailed account of Baekjes founding. Jumong had left his son Yuri in Buyeo when he left that kingdom to establish the new kingdom of Goguryeo, Jumong became Divine King Dongmyeong, and had two more sons with So Seo-no, Onjo and Biryu. When Yuri later arrived in Goguryeo, Jumong promptly made him the crown prince, realizing Yuri would become the next king, So Seo-no left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms with their people, along with ten vassals. She is remembered as a key figure in the founding of both Goguryeo and Baekje, Onjo settled in Wiryeseong, and called his country Sipje, while Biryu settled in Michuhol, against the vassals advice. The salty water and marshes in Michuhol made settlement difficult, while the people of Wiryeseong lived prosperously, Biryu then went to his brother Onjo, asking for the throne of Sipje. When Onjo refused, Biryu declared war, but lost, in shame, Biryu committed suicide, and his people moved to Wiryeseong, where King Onjo welcomed them and renamed his country Baekje. King Onjo moved the capital from the south to the north of the Han river, King Gaeru is believed to have moved the capital north of the river to Bukhansanseong in 132, probably in present-day Goyang to the northwest of Seoul. Through the early centuries of the Common Era, sometimes called the Proto–Three Kingdoms Period, during the reign of King Goi, Baekje became a full-fledged kingdom, as it continued consolidating the Mahan confederacy. In 249, according to the ancient Japanese text Nihonshoki, Baekjes expansion reached the Gaya confederacy to its east, Baekje is first described in Chinese records as a kingdom in 345. The first diplomatic missions from Baekje reached Japan around 367, King Geunchogo expanded Baekjes territory to the north through war against Goguryeo, while annexing the remaining Mahan societies in the south. During Geunchogos reign, the territories of Baekje included most of the western Korean Peninsula, Baekje continued substantial trade with Goguryeo, and actively adopted Chinese culture and technology. Buddhism became the state religion in 384. Baekje also became a sea power and continued mutual goodwill relationships with the Japanese rulers of the Kofun period, transmitting continental cultural influences to Japan
21.
Three Kingdoms of Korea
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The concept of the Three Kingdoms of Korea refers to the three kingdoms of Baekje, Silla and Goguryeo, which was later known as Goryeo, from which the name Korea is derived. The Three Kingdoms period was defined as being from 57 BC to 668 AD, the three kingdoms occupied parts of Manchuria, in present-day China and Russia, and the Korean Peninsula. Baekje and Silla only dominated the southern part of the peninsula whereas Goguryeo controlled the Liaodong Peninsula, Manchuria and the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. In the 7th century, allied with China under the Tang dynasty, Silla unified the Korean Peninsula for the first time in Korean history, after the fall of Baekje and Goguryeo, the Tang dynasty established a short-lived military government to administer parts of the Korean peninsula. However, as a result of the Silla–Tang Wars, Silla forces expelled the Protectorate armies from the peninsula in 676, subsequently, Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general, founded Balhae in the former territory of Goguryeo after defeating the Tang dynasty at the Battle of Tianmenling. The predecessor period, before the development of the kingdoms, is sometimes called Proto–Three Kingdoms period. Main primary sources for this period include Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa in Korea, the name Three Kingdoms was used in the titles of the Korean histories Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa, and should not be confused with the Chinese Three Kingdoms. The Three Kingdoms was founded after the fall of Gojoseon, after the fall of Gojoseon, the Han dynasty established four commanderies in present Liaoning. Three fell quickly to the Samhan, and the last was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313, the three polities made the transition from walled-town state to full-fledged state-level societies between 1st – 3rd century AD. All three kingdoms shared a culture and language. Their original religions appear to have been shamanistic, but they were influenced by Chinese culture. In the 4th century, Buddhism was introduced to the peninsula, Goguryeo emerged on the north and south banks of the Yalu River, in the wake of Gojoseons fall. Evidence indicates Goguryeo was the most advanced, and likely the first established, Goguryeo, eventually the largest of the three kingdoms, had several capitals in alternation, two capitals in the upper Yalu area, and later Nangrang which is now part of Pyongyang. At the beginning, the state was located on the border with China, it expanded into Manchuria. The cultural influence of the Chinese continued as Buddhism was adopted as the religion in 372. Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state, it was a powerful empire, the state was at its zenith in the fifth century, during the rule of King Gwanggaeto the Great and his son King Jangsu, and particularly during their campaign against China in Manchuria. For the next century or so, Goguryeo was the dominant nation in Chinese Manchuria, Goguryeo eventually occupied the Liaodong Plains in Manchuria and todays Seoul area. Gwanggaeto achieved a loose unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, Goguryeo controlled not only Koreans but also Chinese and Tungusic tribes in Manchuria and North Korea
22.
Korea under Japanese rule
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Korea under Japanese rule began with the end of the Joseon dynastic monarchy in Korea in 1910 and ended at the conclusion of World War II in 1945. A major stepping-stone towards Japanese occupation of Korea was the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905, the annexation of Korea by Japan was set up in the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910, which was never actually signed by the Korean regent, Gojong. Imperial Japanese rule over Korea ended in 1945, when American, Japanese administration of the Korean Peninsula was directed through the General Government. The industrialization of the Korean Peninsula began with the Joseon dynasty while Korea was still independent and it continues to be the subject of controversy between the two Koreas and Japan. In South Korea, the period is described as the Japanese forced occupation. Other terms include Japanese Imperial Period, period of the Japanese imperial colonial administration, in Japan, the term Chōsen of the Japanese-Governed Period has been used. The newly modernized government of Meiji Japan sought to join these colonizing efforts, the debate concerned Korea, then in the sphere of influence of Qing China, which certain elements in the Japanese government sought to separate from Chinese influence and establish as a puppet state. Further, the acquisition of Korea would provide both a foothold on the Asian continent for Japanese expansion and a source of raw materials for Japanese industry. Okubos views were supported by the faction, which mostly consisted of those returning from the Iwakura Mission in 1873. Iwakura Tomomi, the diplomat who had led the mission, persuaded the emperor to reconsider, of special note is the corruption of the local functionaries, who could purchase an appointment as an administrator and so cloak their predations on the farmers with an aura of officialdom. Yangban families, formerly well-respected for their status as a class, were increasingly seen as little more than commoners unwilling to meet their responsibilities to their communities. Despite the government abolishing slavery and burning the records in 1801, increasing numbers of peasants, at this time, Catholic and Protestant missions were well-tolerated among the yangban, most notably in and around the area of Seoul. Animus and persecution by more conservative elements, the Pungyang Jo clan, took the lives of priests and followers known as the Korean Martyrs, peasants continued to be drawn to Christian egalitarianism, though mainly in urban and suburban areas. Arguably of greater influence were the teachings of Choe Je-u, called Donghak. Themes of exclusionism, nationalism, salvation and social consciousness were set to music, allowing farmers to understand. Along with many other Koreans, Choe was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and he believed the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally. Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among peasant guerrillas, Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Arrested in 1863 following the Jinju uprising led by Yu Kye-chun, Choe was charged with misleading the people, Choe was executed in 1864, sending many of his followers into hiding in the mountains
23.
Seoul
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The Seoul Capital Area houses up to half of the countrys population of 50.22 million people with 678,102 international residents. Situated on the Han River, Seouls history stretches back more than two years when it was founded in 18 BCE by Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It continued as the capital of Korea under the Joseon Dynasty, the Seoul Capital Area contains five UNESCO World Heritage Sites, Changdeok Palace, Hwaseong Fortress, Jongmyo Shrine, Namhansanseong and the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty. Seoul is surrounded by mountains, the tallest being Mt. Bukhan, in 2015, it was rated Asias most livable city with the second highest quality of life globally by Arcadis. In 2014, the citys GDP per capita of $39,786 was comparable to that of France and Finland. Ranked sixth in the Global Power City Index and Global Financial Centres Index, Seoul is the worlds most wired city and ranked first in technology readiness by PwCs Cities of Opportunity report. It is served by the KTX high-speed rail and the Seoul Subway, providing 4G LTE, WiFi, Seoul is connected via AREX to Incheon International Airport, rated the worlds best airport nine years in a row by Airports Council International. Lotte World Tower, a 556-metre supertall skyscraper with 123 floors, has built in Seoul and become the OECDs tallest in 2016. Its Lotte Cinema houses the worlds largest cinema screen, Seouls COEX Mall is the worlds largest underground shopping mall. Seoul hosted the 1986 Asian Games,1988 Summer Olympics,2002 FIFA World Cup, the Miss Universe 1980 pageant, a UNESCO City of Design, Seoul was named the 2010 World Design Capital. The city has known in the past by the names Wirye-seong, Hanju. During Japans annexation in Korea, Hanseong was renamed to Keijō by the Imperial authorities to prevent confusion with the hanja 漢, in reality, the ancient name of Seoul, Hanseong, originally had the meaning of big or vast. Its current name originated from the Korean word meaning city, which is believed to be derived from the word Seorabeol, which originally referred to Gyeongju. Unlike most place names in Korea, Seoul has no corresponding hanja, on January 18,2005, Seoul government officially changed its official Chinese language name to Shouer from the historic Hancheng, of which use is becoming less common. Settlement of the Han River area, where present-day Seoul is located, Seoul is first recorded as Wiryeseong, the capital of Baekje in the northeastern Seoul area. There are several city walls remaining in the area date from this time. Pungnaptoseong, a wall just outside Seoul, is widely believed to have been at the main Wiryeseong site. As the Three Kingdoms competed for this region, control passed from Baekje to Goguryeo in the 5th century
24.
Brewery
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A brewery or brewing company is a business that makes and sells beer. The place at which beer is made is either called a brewery or a beerhouse. The commercial brewing of beer has taken place since at least 2500 BC, in ancient Mesopotamia, brewers derived social sanction, the diversity of size in breweries is matched by the diversity of processes, degrees of automation, and kinds of beer produced in breweries. A brewery is typically divided into sections, with each section reserved for one part of the brewing process. Beer may have known in Neolithic Europe and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. In some form, it can be traced back almost 5000 years to Mesopotamian writings describing daily rations of beer and bread to workers. Before the rise of production breweries, the production of beer took place at home and was the domain of women and this industrialization of brewing shifted the responsibility of making beer to men. The oldest, still functional, brewery in the world is believed to be the German state-owned Weihenstephan brewery in the city of Freising and it can trace its history back to 1040 AD. The nearby Weltenburg Abbey brewery, can trace back its beer-brewing tradition to at least 1050 AD, the Žatec brewery in the Czech Republic claims it can prove that it paid a beer tax in 1004 AD. This layout often is preserved in breweries today, but mechanical pumps allow more flexibility in brewery design, early breweries typically used large copper vats in the brewhouse, and fermentation and packaging took place in lined wooden containers. Such breweries were common until the Industrial Revolution, when better materials became available, today, almost all brewery equipment is made of stainless steel. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, a handful of major breakthroughs have led to the modern brewery and its ability to produce the same beer consistently. The steam engine, vastly improved in 1775 by James Watt, brought automatic stirring mechanisms and it gave brewers the ability to mix liquids more reliably while heating, particularly the mash, to prevent scorching, and a quick way to transfer liquid from one container to another. Almost all breweries now use electric-powered stirring mechanisms and pumps, the steam engine also allowed the brewer to make greater quantities of beer, as human power was no longer a limiting factor in moving and stirring. Carl von Linde, along with others, is credited with developing the machine in 1871. Refrigeration allowed beer to be produced year-round, and always at the same temperature, yeast is very sensitive to temperature, and, if a beer were produced during summer, the yeast would impart unpleasant flavours onto the beer. Most brewers would produce enough beer during winter to last through the summer, the discovery of microbes by Louis Pasteur was instrumental in the control of fermentation. The idea that yeast was a microorganism that worked on wort to produce led to the isolation of a single yeast cell by Emil Christian Hansen
25.
Chun Doo-hwan
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Chun was born on 18 January 1931 in Yulgok-myeon, a poor farming town in Hapcheon, South Gyeongsang province, during the Imperial Japanese rule of Korea. Chun Doo-hwan was the son out of ten children to Chun Sang-woo. Chuns oldest two brothers, Yeol-hwan and Kyuu-gon, died in an accident when he was an infant, Chun grew up knowing his remaining older brother Ki-hwan and his younger brother Kyeong-hwan. Around 1936, Chuns family moved to Daegu, where he began attending Horan Elementary School, Chuns father had had run-ins with the Japanese police in the past, and in the winter of 1939 he murdered a police captain. Their family immediately fled to Jilin, China, where they stayed in hiding for two years before returning, when Chun finally started attending elementary school again, he was 2–3 years behind his original classmates. In 1947, Chun began attending Daegu Vocational Middle School, located nearly 25 km from his home, Chun moved on to Daegu Vocational High School. After graduating from school in 1951, Chun gained entry into the Korea Military Academy. While there, he made several key friends among the students who would play instrumental roles in helping Chun to seize control of the country. He graduated in February 1955 with a Bachelor of Science degree, Chun, then a captain, led a demonstration at the KMA to show support for the May 16 coup led by Park Chung-hee. Chun was subsequently secretary to the commander of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction. Chun was quickly promoted to major in 1962, while continuing to make powerful friends, in 1963, Chun was given a position in the Korean Central Intelligence Agency as Personnel Director. By 1969, he was advisor to the Army Chief of Staff. In 1970, holding the rank of colonel, Chun became the commander of the 29th Regiment, 9th Infantry Division, upon returning to Korea in 1971, he was given command of the 1st Special Forces Brigade and later promoted to brigadier general. In 1976 he worked as the deputy chief of the Presidential Security Service and was promoted to the rank of general during his time there. In 1978 he became the officer of the 1st Infantry Division. Finally, in 1979, he was appointed commander of Security Command, Chun formed Hanahoe as a secret military club shortly after his promotion to general officer. It was predominantly composed of his fellow graduates from the 11th class of the Korea Military Academy, as well as other friends, the membership to this secret club was predominately restricted to officers from the Gyeongsang Provinces with just a token membership reserved for a Cholla Provinces officer. This secret organizations existence within a highly regimented and rigid hierarchical organization of the army was only possible because it was under the patronage of then President Park Chung-hee
26.
Special Operations Command Korea
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Pacific Command Commander, who further delegated OPCON of SOCKOR to the United States Forces Korea Commander. SOCKOR focuses on readiness and the ability to fight in defense of the Korean peninsula, during armistice, crisis, and conflict, SOCKOR serves as the headquarters for command and control of all U. S. Prior to 1988, management of Special Operations Forces in Korea fell to United States Forces Korea Joint Operations, Special Operations Division-Korea. The concept of a permanent TSOC in Korea began to shape in 1983. Colonel James Estep, the first Commander, also served as Chief, J3 SOD-K and Deputy Commander and this dual-hatted command continued until July 1995. Colonel Skip Booth separated this special operations element from USFK J3 SOD, in 2000, SOCKOR was recognized as a fully operational TSOC and the billet for the commander of SOCKOR was elevated to Brigadier General, mirroring the other TSOCs. SOCKOR has been commanded by a General Officer since 2000, since inception, SOCKOR has been the only TSOC in which U. S. and host nation SOF are institutionally organized for combined operations. SOCKOR and ROK SWC regularly train in their roles, while SOCKOR’s Special Forces Detachment-39 works as the full-time liaison between ROK SF and U. S. SOF. In armistice, the CG of SOCKOR is responsible for the planning, training, the SOCKOR CG also serves as the senior advisor to COMUSFK regarding all U. S. SOF issues. If the armistice fails, SOCKOR and ROK SWC will combine to establish the Combined Unconventional Warfare Task Force under the Combined Forces Command. SOCKOR is located at Camp Kim in Seoul, South Korea, the unit awards depicted below are for Headquarters, Special Operations Command Korea. Award for unit decorations do not apply to any subordinate organizations, ronald S. Mangum – former SOCKOR commander Official site Official photos SOCKOR at GlobalSecurity. org Shoulder Sleeve Insignia and Distinctive Unit Insignia
27.
Gwangju Uprising
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Estimates suggest up to 606 people may have died. The uprising eventually ended in defeat on May 27,1980, the event is sometimes called 5·18, in reference to the date the movement began. During Chun Doo-hwans presidency, the used to define the incident as a rebellion instigated by Communist sympathizers and rioters. By 1997, a cemetery and day of commemoration, along with acts to compensate. In 2011,1980 Archives for the May 18th Democratic Uprising against Military Regime located in Gwangju city hall were inscribed on the UNESCO Memory of the World Register, the series of turmoils in South Korea began with the assassination of President Park Chung-hee on October 26,1979. The abrupt termination of Parks 18-year authoritarian rule left a power vacuum, the military however could not explicitly reveal its political ambitions and had no obvious influence over the civil administration before the mass civil unrest in May 1980. The nations democratization movements, which had been suppressed during Parks tenure, were being revived, with the beginning of a new semester in March 1980, professors and students expelled for pro-democracy activities returned to their universities, and student unions were formed. These unions led nationwide demonstrations for reforms, including an end to martial law, democratization, minimum wage demands and these activities culminated in the anti-martial law demonstration at Seoul Station on May 15,1980 in which about 100,000 students and citizens participated. In response, Chun Doo-hwan took several suppressive measures, on May 17, Chun Doo-hwan forced the Cabinet to extend martial law to the whole nation, which had previously not applied to Jeju Province. The extended martial law closed universities, banned political activities and further curtailed the press, to enforce martial law, troops were dispatched to various parts of the country. Twenty-six politicians, including South Jeolla Province native Kim Dae-jung, were arrested on charges of instigating demonstrations. Ensuing strife focused in the South Jeolla Province, particularly in the capital, Gwangju. These factors were both deep and contemporary, region is the granary of Korea, however, due to its abundant natural resources, the Jeolla area has historically been the target for exploitation by both domestic and foreign powers. The latter became the hotbed of political opposition to the dictatorship. The city of Kwangju was subject to severe and violent repression by the military after martial law was imposed. The Kwangju incident is not a communist riot but a movement against oppression of democracy. Thus, the force behind this noble movement is neither mobs nor communists. It was we, the democracy-loving Chonnam people who rose to protect our rights in the name of democracy, on the morning of May 18, students gathered at the gate of Chonnam National University, in defiance of its closing
28.
Gyeongsang Province
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Gyeongsang was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea, the region was the birthplace of Silla, traditionally considered the first unified Korean country in Korean history, and its current boundaries correspond roughly to that kingdoms early boundaries. The region also has a significant role in modern Korean history, today, the region is divided into 5 administrative divisions, the three independent cities of Busan, Daegu and Ulsan, and the two provinces of Gyeongsangbuk-do and Gyeongsangnam-do. The largest city in the region is Busan, followed by Daegu, sub-regionally, the region is also divided into Gyeongbuk and Gyeongnam. Gyeongbuk consists of Daegu and Gyeongsangbuk-do, while Gyeongnam consists of Busan, Ulsan, the predecessor to Gyeongsang Province was formed during the Goryeo Dynasty, replacing the former provinces of Yeongnam, Sannam and Yeongdong. Gyeongsang acquired its current name in 1314, the name derives from names of the principal cities of Gyeongju and Sangju. In 1895, Gyeongsang Province was replaced by the Districts of Andong in the north, Daegu in the centre, Jinju in the southwest, and Dongnae in the southeast. In 1896, Andong, Daegu, and northern Dongnae Districts were merged to form North Gyeongsang Province, North and South Gyeongsang are today part of South Korea. People of Gyeongsang province use Korean, but their intonation and vocabulary are different from Koreas standard Seoul language in several ways and their language is called Yeoungnam Dialect. Yeongnam dialect is classified into several dialects, for example, Busan dialect is slightly different from Andong dialect and Uljin dialect. Gyeongsang dialect, 와 그랑교. in Andong, Yecheon, Yeongcheon, Gyeongsang Province was bounded on the west by Jeolla and Chungcheong Provinces, on the north by Gangwon Province, on the south by Korea Strait, and on the east by the Sea of Japan. The region is ringed by the Taebaek and Sobaek Mountains and is drained by the Nakdong River, the largest cities in the region are Busan, Daegu, and Ulsan. Other cities of note are Gyeongju, Andong, Yeongju, Sangju, Gimcheon, Miryang, Gimhae, Changwon, Masan, the Gyeongsang region as a whole is often referred to by the regional and former provincial name of Yeongnam. Seoul City history article on Hanseong and 22 other late 19th-century districts
29.
Justice Party (South Korea)
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The Justice Party is a progressive political party in South Korea. It was founded on 21 October 2012 as a split off from the Unified Progressive Party, the party changed its name from Progressive Justice Party to Justice Party at the 2nd party congress on 16 July 2013. Kim Se-kyun stepped down from the co-leadership in September 2016, in the legislative election held in April 2016, the party increased their seat total by one, with the election of Roh Hoe-chan to the Seongsan constituency in the city of Changwon. The party polled 7. 2% in the party list ballot, returning in total, six legislators to the National Assembly
30.
Korean language
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It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County of the Peoples Republic of China. Approximately 80 million people worldwide speak Korean and this implies that Korean is not an isolate, but a member of a small family. There is still debate on whether Korean and Japanese are related with each other, the Korean language is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax. A relation of Korean with Japonic languages has been proposed by linguists like William George Aston, Chinese characters arrived in Korea together with Buddhism during the pre-Three Kingdoms period. Mainly privileged elites were educated to read and write in hanja, however, today, the hanja are largely unused in everyday life, but in South Korea they experience revivals on artistic works and are important in historic and/or linguistic studies of Korean. Since the Korean War, through 70 years of separation, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation, verb inflection, the Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in North Korea and South Korea. In South Korea, the Korean language is referred to by names including hanguk-eo Korean language, hanguk-mal, Korean speech and uri-mal. In hanguk-eo and hanguk-mal, the first part of the word, hanguk, refers to the Korean nation while -eo and -mal mean language and speech, Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo, literally national language. This name is based on the same Chinese characters meaning nation + language that are used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China, the language is most often called Chosŏn-mal, or more formally, the English word Korean is derived from Goryeo, which is thought to be the first dynasty known to Western countries. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram and Goryeo In, the majority of historical and modern linguists classify Korean as a language isolate. Such factors of typological divergence as Middle Mongolians exhibition of gender agreement can be used to argue that a relationship with Altaic is unlikely. Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list, a good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asa, meaning hemp. Also, the doublet wo meaning hemp is attested in Western Old Japanese and it is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. Among ancient languages, various relatives of Korean have been proposed. Some classify the language of Jeju Island as a distinct modern Koreanic language, Other famous theories are the Dravido-Korean languages theory and the mostly unknown southern-theory which suggest an Austronesian relation. Korean is spoken by the Korean people in North Korea and South Korea and by the Korean diaspora in countries including the Peoples Republic of China, the United States, Japan. Korean-speaking minorities exist in these states, but because of cultural assimilation into host countries, Korean is the official language of South Korea and North Korea
31.
Gwangsan District
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Gwangsan District is a district, similar to a ward, situated in the city of Gwangju, South Korea. The total population of the district, as of September 2004, is 295,294, and its area is about 45% of the city of Gwangju. The district bird is the White Heron, the flower is Magnolia
32.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
33.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
34.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
35.
Korean shamanism
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Korean shamanism, also known as Muism or Sinism Singyo religion of the shin, is the ethnic religion of Korea and the Koreans. Although used synonymously, the two terms are not identical, Jung Young Lee describes Muism as a form of Sinism - the shamanic tradition within the religion, other names for the religion are Shindo, Shindoism, Gosindo, and Pungwoldo. It has approximately 5-15 million followers, in contemporary Korean language, the shaman-priest or mu is known as a mudang if female or baksu if male, although other names are used. Korean mu shaman is synonymous with Chinese wu, which defines priests both male and female. The role of the mudang is to act as intermediary between the spirits or gods, and the plain, through gut, seeking to resolve problems in the patterns of development of human life. Central to the faith is the belief in Haneullim or Hwanin, meaning source of all being, and of all gods of nature, the utmost god or the supreme mind. The mu are mythically described as descendants of the Heavenly King, son of the Holy Mother, however, other myths link the heritage of the traditional faith to Dangun, male son of the Heavenly King and initiator of the Korean nation. Korean Muism has similarities with Chinese Wuism, Japanese Shinto, Ainu religion, in some provinces of Korea the shaman is still called dangul dangul-ari. The mudang is similar to the Japanese miko and the Ryukyuan yuta, Muism has exerted an influence on some Korean new religions, such as Cheondoism and Jeung San Do. According to various studies, many Christian churches in Korea make use of practices rooted in shamanism. The Korean word mu is thought to come from the root as the Chinese wu. The Korean language and culture, however, has developed its own terminology, already in Yi dynasty records, also mudang apparently derives from Chinese, and originally meant the altar of mu and not the person itself. The Korean word Mu means Heaven of Mago land, the priest for Mu is Muin of Shaman. Man in Shaman is the meaning of the muin of Suri, mudang is used mostly for female shamans, though not exclusively. Male Korean mu are called by a variety of names, such as sana mudang in the Seoul area, or baksu mudang, baksu may come from a Korean adaptation of siberian names for male shamans, such as baksi, balsi or bahsih. The mu is known as magician, medicine man, mystic, what set him apart from other healers and priests is his ability to move at will into trance states. During a trance, the soul leaves his body and travelled to other realms. The mu provides healing on many levels, physical, psychological and spiritual, the work of the mu is based on the holistic model, which takes into consideration, not only the whole person, but the individuals interaction with his environment, both his inner and outer world
36.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
37.
Relative humidity
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Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of the system of interest and it requires less water vapor to attain high relative humidity at low temperatures, more water vapour is required to attain high relative humidity in warm or hot air. Humans are sensitive to high humidity because the body uses evaporative cooling, enabled by perspiration. Perspiration evaporates from the more slowly under humid conditions than under arid. For example, if the air temperature is 24 °C and the humidity is zero percent. If the relative humidity is 100 percent at the air temperature. In other words, if the air is 24 °C and contains saturated water vapor, then the human body cools itself at the rate as it would if it were 27 °C. The heat index and the humidex are indices that reflect the effect of temperature. In cold climates, the temperature causes lower capacity for water vapour to flow about. Dry cracked skin can result from dry air, low humidity causes tissue lining nasal passages to dry, crack and become more susceptible to penetration of Rhinovirus cold viruses. Low humidity is a cause of nosebleeds. The use of a humidifier in homes, especially bedrooms, can help with these symptoms, indoor relative humidities should be kept above 30% to reduce the likelihood of the occupants nasal passages drying out. Humans can be comfortable within a range of humidities depending on the temperature—from thirty to seventy percent—but ideally between 50% and 60%. Very low humidity can create discomfort, respiratory problems, and aggravate allergies in some individuals, in the winter, it is advisable to maintain relative humidity at 30 percent or above. Extremely low relative humidities may also cause eye irritation, wooden furniture can shrink, causing the paint that covers these surfaces to fracture. When the temperature is low and the humidity is high. When relative humidity approaches 100 percent, condensation can occur on surfaces, leading to problems with mold, corrosion, decay, condensation can pose a safety risk as it can promote the growth of mold and wood rot as well as possibly freezing emergency exits shut. The basic principles for buildings, above, also apply to vehicles, in addition, there may be safety considerations
South Korea
Gwangju-Kia Champions Field, home field of Kia Tigers.
