1.
2007 Pan American Games
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The 2007 Pan American Games, officially known as the XV Pan American Games, were a major continental multi-sport event that took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from July 13 to July 29,2007. A total of 5,633 athletes from 42 National Olympic Committees competed in 332 events in 34 sports and this was the first Games held in Brazil since the 1963 Pan American Games that took place in São Paulo. According to the Rio de Janeiro Organizing Committee, the Games called for the implementation of the countrys largest organizational, the official bid was submitted in August 2001 during the XXXIX Pan American Sports Organization General Assembly held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. The Bidding Committee then submitted a detailed bid file for the Games, the document was prepared and developed with the assistance of Fundação Getúlio Vargas, which had been commissioned by Rio de Janeiros City Government. According to PASO statute and regulations, the host city was selected by direct voting during the XL PASO General Assembly held in Mexico City, Mexico, on August 24,2002. The candidate city that received the majority of votes from representatives of the 42 member National Olympic Committees would be awarded the right to host the competition. The announcement was made by PASO President Mario Vázquez Raña, Rio de Janeiro received 30 votes against 21 from San Antonio. Marked by a strategy that included the showing of city and project videos, Rio de Janeiros campaign convinced the majority of voters. The 39-member Brazilian delegation erupted into boisterous celebration celebrating the countrys highest achievement in terms of sporting event organization, to sort this table by nation, total medal count, or any other column, click on the icon next to the column title. The organization of the Rio 2007 Games has chosen the figure of the Sun to represent the event, the character reflects the main characteristics of the host city and harmonizes with the graphic work developed for the logo and the visual identity of both Games. The name was chosen through voting by Internet, cellular phone messages and public ballot boxes placed around the main Brazilian cities. Over 1.2 million people participated in the election, traditionally used in large sport events, the mascot figure serves the purpose of cheering the event, enforcing the playful aspect of sports and captivating spectators and athletes. The mascots main choice is to transmit messages of peace, respect to the environment, friendship and brotherhood, the Opening Ceremony of the XV Pan American Games took place on July 13,2007. Approximately 90,000 people packed Rio de Janeiros Maracanã Stadium for the occasion, the ceremony included a cast of 7,000 and a multimillion-dollar budget, being produced by Scott Givens. The show began at 05,30 pm and lasted for two and a half hours, the theme of the show was based on the theme of the Rio 2007 Games, Viva Essa Energia and the oath of the athletes was performed by Brazilian Taekwondo athlete Natália Falavigna. Also, an abbreviated version of the Olympic Anthem was played. Contrary to plan, the games were not opened by Brazils head of state, President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, prior to the official opening, Lula had been constantly booed whenever the in-stadium camera showed his image or when his name was mentioned. The competitions were carried through in a ray of 25 km, marapendi Club – Tennis City of Sports Complex – Basketball, Cycling, Artistic Gymnastics, Swimming, Synchronized Swimming, Roller Skating
2.
Strength training
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Strength training is a type of physical exercise specializing in the use of resistance to induce muscular contraction which builds the strength, anaerobic endurance, and size of skeletal muscles. Strength training is primarily an activity, although some proponents have adapted it to provide the benefits of aerobic exercise through circuit training. Strength training is associated with the production of lactate, which is a limiting factor of exercise performance. Regular endurance exercise leads to adaptations in skeletal muscle which can prevent lactate levels from rising during strength training, Sports where strength training is central are bodybuilding, weightlifting, powerlifting, strongman, Highland games, shotput, discus throw, and javelin throw. Strength training for sports and physical activities is becoming increasingly popular. The benefits of training include greater muscular strength, improved muscle tone and appearance, increased endurance. Many people take up training to improve their physical attractiveness. Workouts elevate metabolism for up to 14 hours following 45-minutes of vigorous exercise, Strength training also provides functional benefits. Stronger muscles improve posture, provide support for joints. Older people who take up weight training can prevent some of the loss of tissue that normally accompanies aging—and even regain some functional strength—and by doing so become less frail. They may be able to some types of physical disability. Weight-bearing exercise also helps to prevent osteoporosis and to improve bone strength in those with osteoporosis, the benefits of weight training for older people have been confirmed by studies of people who began engaging in it even in their 80s and 90s. Central catheter monitoring during resistance training reveals increased cardiac output, suggesting that strength training shows potential for cardiovascular exercise, however, a 2007 meta-analysis found that, though aerobic training is an effective therapy for heart failure patients, combined aerobic and strength training is ineffective. Strength training may be important to metabolic and cardiovascular health, recent evidence suggests that resistance training may reduce metabolic and cardiovascular disease risk. Overweight individuals with high strength fitness exhibit metabolic/cardiovascular risk profiles similar to normal-weight, for many people in rehabilitation or with an acquired disability, such as following stroke or orthopaedic surgery, strength training for weak muscles is a key factor to optimise recovery. For people with such a condition, their strength training is likely to need to be designed by an appropriate health professional. Stronger muscles improve performance in a variety of sports, sport-specific training routines are used by many competitors. These often specify that the speed of contraction during weight training should be the same as that of the particular sport
3.
Flexibility (anatomy)
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Flexibility or limberness refers to the absolute range of movement in a joint or series of joints, and length in muscles that cross the joints to induce a bending movement or motion. Flexibility varies between individuals, particularly in terms of differences in length of multi-joint muscles. Flexibility in some joints can be increased to a degree by exercise. Quality of life is enhanced by improving and maintaining a good range of motion in the joints, overall flexibility should be developed with specific joint range of motion needs in mind as the individual joints vary from one to another. Loss of flexibility can be a factor for physical issues such as pain syndromes or balance disorders. Gender, age, and genetics are important for range of motion, Exercise including stretching and yoga often improves flexibility. Individual body flexibility level is measured and calculated by performing a sit and reach test, the joints in a human body are surrounded by synovial membranes and articular cartilage which cover, cushion and nourish the joint and surfaces of each. Increasing muscular elasticity of the range of mobility increases flexibility. Ligaments are composed of two different tissues, white and yellow, the white fibrous tissues are not stretchy, but are extremely strong so that even if the bone were fractured the tissue would remain in place. The white tissue allows subjective freedom of movement, the yellow elastic tissue can be stretched considerably while returning to its original length. Tendons are not elastic and are even less stretchy, tendons are categorized as a connective tissue. Connective tissue supports, surrounds, and binds the muscle fibres and they contain both elastic and non-elastic tissue. The areolar tissue is permeable and is distributed throughout the body. This tissue acts as a binder for all other tissues. Muscle tissue is made of a stretchy material and it is arranged in bundles of parallel fibres. Stretch receptors have two parts, Spindle cells and Golgi tendons, Spindle cells, located in the center of a muscle, send messages for the muscle to contract. On the other hand, Golgi tendon receptors are located near the end of a muscle fiber, as these receptors are trained through continual use, stretching becomes easier. When reflexes that inhibit flexibility are released the splits then become easier to perform, the splits use the bodys complete range of motion and provide a complete stretch
4.
Abdomen
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The abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis, in humans and in other vertebrates. The region occupied by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity, in arthropods it is the posterior tagma of the body, it follows the thorax or cephalothorax. The abdomen stretches from the thorax at the diaphragm to the pelvis at the pelvic brim. The pelvic brim stretches from the joint to the pubic symphysis and is the edge of the pelvic inlet. The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the abdominal cavity, the boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear. The abdomen contains most of the organs of the digestive tract. Hollow abdominal organs include the stomach, the intestine. Organs such as the liver, its attached gallbladder, and the function in close association with the digestive tract. The spleen, kidneys, and adrenal glands also lie within the abdomen, along with blood vessels including the aorta. Anatomists may consider the urinary bladder, uterus, fallopian tubes, finally, the abdomen contains an extensive membrane called the peritoneum. A fold of peritoneum may completely cover certain organs, whereas it may only one side of organs that usually lie closer to the abdominal wall. Anatomists call the type of organs retroperitoneal. For example, the stomach of ruminants is divided into four chambers – rumen, in vertebrates, the abdomen is a large cavity enclosed by the abdominal muscles, ventrally and laterally, and by the vertebral column dorsally. Lower ribs can also enclose ventral and lateral walls, the abdominal cavity is upper part of the pelvic cavity. It is attached to the cavity by the diaphragm. Structures such as the aorta, inferior vena cava and esophagus pass through the diaphragm, both the abdominal and pelvic cavities are lined by a serous membrane known as the parietal peritoneum. This membrane is continuous with the visceral peritoneum lining the organs, the abdomen in vertebrates contains a number of organs belonging, for instance, to the digestive tract and urinary system. There are three layers of the abdominal wall and they are, from the outside to the inside, external oblique, internal oblique, and transverse abdominal
5.
Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
6.
International Federation of Gymnastics
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The Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique, or International Federation of Gymnastics, is the governing body of competitive gymnastics. Its headquarters is in Lausanne, Switzerland and it was founded on July 23,1881, in Liège, Belgium, making it the worlds oldest existing international sports organisation. The federation sets the rules, known as the Code of Points, additionally, the federation is responsible for determining whether gymnasts are old enough to participate in the Olympics. The purpose is to protect young gymnasts, but it has caused some controversy, major achievements in gymnastics by nation Official site
7.
Artistic gymnastics
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Artistic gymnastics is a discipline of gymnastics in which athletes perform short routines on different apparatus, with less time for vaulting. The sport is governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique, which designs the Code of Points, within individual countries, gymnastics is regulated by national federations, such as British Gymnastics in the United Kingdom and USA Gymnastics in the United States. Artistic gymnastics is a spectator sport at the Summer Olympic Games. The gymnastic system was mentioned in works by ancient authors, such as Homer, Aristotle and it included many disciplines that would later become separate sports, such as swimming, racing, wrestling, boxing, and riding, and was also used for military training. The German educator Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, who was known as the father of gymnastics, invented several apparatus, including the bar and parallel bars. Two of the first gymnastics clubs were Turnvereins and Sokols, in 1881, the FIG was founded, and it remains the governing body of international gymnastics. Gymnastics was included in the program of the 1896 Summer Olympics, the World Championships, held since 1903, were open only to men until 1934. Since that time, two branches of artistic gymnastics have developed, womens gymnastics and mens artistic gymnastics. Unlike mens and womens branches of other sports, WAG and MAG differ significantly in apparatus used at major competitions. Womens gymnastics entered the Olympics as an event in 1928 and was included in the twelfth gymnastics world championships in 1950. Individual women were recognized in the all-around as early as the world championships in 1934. Two years after the womens program was introduced at the 1950 World Championships, it was added to the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki, Finland. The earliest champions in womens gymnastics tended to be in their 20s, larisa Latynina, the first great Soviet gymnast, won her first Olympic all-around medal at the age of 22 and her second at 26, she became the 1958 world champion while pregnant with her daughter. Věra Čáslavská of Czechoslovakia, who followed Latynina to become a two-time Olympic all-around champion, was 22 before she started winning gold medals, in the 1970s, the average age of Olympic gymnasts began to decrease. Smaller, lighter girls generally excelled in the more challenging acrobatic elements required by the redesigned Code of Points, the 58th Congress of the FIG—held in July 1980, just before the Olympics—decided to raise the minimum age for senior international competition from 14 to 15. The change, which came into effect two years later, did not eliminate the problem, by the time of the 1992 Summer Olympics, elite competitors consisted almost exclusively of pixies—underweight, prepubertal teenagers—and concerns were raised about athletes welfare. The FIG responded to this trend by raising the age for international elite competition to 16 in 1997. This, combined with changes in the Code of Points and evolving popular opinion in the sport, while the average elite female gymnast is still in her middle to late teens and of below-average height and weight, it is also common to see gymnasts competing well into their 20s
8.
Rhythmic gymnastics
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Rhythmic gymnastics is a sport in which individuals or groups of five or more manipulate one or two pieces of apparatus, rope, hoop, ball, clubs, ribbon and freehand. Rhythmic gymnastics is a sport that combines elements of ballet, gymnastics, dance, the victor is the participant who earns the most points, determined by a panel of judges, for leaps, balances, pirouettes, apparatus handling, and execution. The choreography must cover the floor and contain a balance of jumps, leaps, pivots, balances. Each movement involves a degree of athletic skill. Physical abilities needed by a rhythmic gymnast include strength, power, flexibility, agility, dexterity, endurance, the sport is governed by the Federation Internationale de Gymnastique, which designs the Code of Points and regulates all aspects of international elite competition. The largest events in the sport are the Olympic Games, World Championships, European Championships, World Cup and this idea was extended by Catharine Beecher, who founded the Western Female Institute in Ohio, United States, in 1837. In Beechers gymnastics program, called grace without dancing, the young women exercised to music, during the 1880s, Émile Jaques-Dalcroze of Switzerland developed eurhythmics, a form of physical training for musicians and dancers. George Demeny of France created exercises to music that were designed to promote grace of movement, muscular flexibility, all of these styles were combined around 1900 into the Swedish school of rhythmic gymnastics, which would later add dance elements from Finland. Around this time, Ernst Idla of Estonia established a degree of difficulty for each movement, in 1929, Hinrich Medau founded The Medau School in Berlin to train gymnasts in modern gymnastics, and to develop the use of the apparatus. Competitive rhythmic gymnastics began in the 1940s in the Soviet Union, the FIG formally recognized this discipline in 1961, first as modern gymnastics, then as rhythmic sportive gymnastics, and finally as rhythmic gymnastics. The first World Championships for individual rhythmic gymnasts was held in 1963 in Budapest, groups were introduced at the same level in 1967 in Copenhagen, Denmark. Rhythmic gymnastics was added to the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, however, many federations from the Eastern European countries were forced to boycott by the Soviet Union. Canadian Lori Fung was the first rhythmic gymnast to earn an Olympic gold medal, the group competition was added to the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. The Spanish team won the first gold medal of the new competition with a team formed by Estela Giménez, Marta Baldó, Nuria Cabanillas, Lorena Guréndez, Estíbaliz Martínez, Olympic rhythmic gymnastics is for male and female participants. Gymnasts start at an age and become age-eligible to compete in the Olympic Games. The latter is still an active gymnast in the circuit of the sport with a career dating back to 2001. She and her fellow countrywoman Almudena Cid are among the oldest rhythmic gymnasts ever, Top rhythmic gymnasts must have many qualities, balance, flexibility, coordination, and strength are some of the most important. The FIG selects which apparatus will be used in competitions, only four out of the five possible apparatuses are sanctioned, up to 2010, the clubs were not used at the senior level
9.
Trampolining
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Trampolining is a competitive Olympic sport in which gymnasts perform acrobatics while bouncing on a trampoline. These can include simple jumps in the pike, tuck, or straddle position to more complex combinations of forward or backward somersaults and twists, outside the Olympics trampolining also includes the events of synchronized trampoline, tumbling and double mini-trampoline. In the early 1930s, George Nissen observed trapeze artistes performing tricks when bouncing off the safety net and he made the first modern trampoline in his garage to reproduce this on a smaller scale and used it to help with his diving and tumbling activities. He formed a company to build trampolines for sale and used a variant of the Spanish word trampolin as a trademark and he used the trampoline to entertain audiences and also let them participate in his demonstrations as part of his marketing strategy. This was the beginnings of a new sport, in the USA, trampolining was quickly introduced into school physical education programs and was also used in private entertainment centers. However, following a number of injuries and lawsuits caused by insufficient supervision and this has caused a large reduction in the number of competitive athletes in the United States and a consequent decline from the earlier American prominence in the sport. Elsewhere in the world the sport was most strongly adopted in Europe, since trampolining became an Olympic sport in 2000, many more countries have started developing programs and Chinas program developed World Champion athletes in less than a decade. In addition to the 10 contacts with the bed in a routine and they are also permitted up to one out bounce, a straight jump to control their height at the end of a routine, before sticking the landing. The trampolinist must stop completely - this means that the bed must stop moving as well - and they have to hold still for a count of 3 seconds before moving. A straddle, or straddled pike is a variant of a pike with arms and legs spread wide and is recognised as a move as a shaped jump. Rotation is performed about the longitudinal and lateral axes, producing twists and somersaults respectively. Twists are done in multiples of a half, and somersaults in multiples of a quarter, for example, a barani ball out move consists of a take-off from the back followed by a tucked 1¼ front somersault combined with a ½ twist, to land on feet. Rotation around the axis is also possible, but these are not generally considered to be valid moves within competitions. Trampoline skills can be written in FIG shorthand, “/” represents a straight position, “<” represents a pike position, and “ο” represents a tuck position. The first individual trampolining competitions were held in colleges and schools in the USA, in the early years of competition there was no defined format with performers often completing lengthy routines and even remounting if falling off partway through. The first World Champions were both American, Dan Millman and Judy Wills Cline, kurt Baechler of Switzerland and Ted Blake of England were the European pioneers and the first ever televised National Championships were held in England in 1958. Soon after the first World Championships, a meeting of prominent trampolinists was held in Frankfurt to explore the formation of an International Trampoline Federation. In 1965 in Twickenham, the Federation was formally recognised as the International Governing Body for the sport, in 1969, the first European Championship was held in Paris and Paul Luxon of London was the winner at the age of 18
10.
Tumbling (gymnastics)
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In gymnastics, tumbling, also known as power tumbling, is an acrobatic sporting discipline which combines some of the skills of artistic gymnastics on the floor with those of trampolining. It is practiced on a 25-meter-long spring track sometimes and this sport is practiced by both men and women. Only the feet and hands are allowed to contact with the track. Governed by rules established by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique, tumbling is one of the gymnastic disciplines, many elements of tumbling are also practiced on Floor Exercise by participants of both Womens Artistic Gymnastics and Mens Artistic Gymnastics. Tumbling elements such as the round-off and back-handspring are commonly integrated into the balance beam routines of gymnasts, Tumbling has been an Olympic gymnastics event only once, at the 1932 Summer Olympics, and was a demonstration event in 1996 and 2000. It is one of the events of the World Games, there is an annual World Championships held in conjunction with the Trampoline World Championships. When power tumbling was first started, and for the first ever US National Championships in Tumbling in 1886, gymnasts would perform their skills on thin mats only. From there, floors evolved in a variety of ways, including rows of skis tied together with the ends cut off under those mats. This was developed by Randy Mulkey, which is a 25 metres long by 2-metre wide track consisting of rods under two layers of foam mats. It also includes a 10 metres run up at the front, at the end is a mat where the gymnasts land their dismounting skill. In the lower levels, there are rules about what each pass should contain, at more advanced levels there is a choice about the skills performed. This includes adding much more difficulty to the passes by adding twisting somersaults in the middle of the pass, the dismounting skill is often another double or triple full or a double or triple back somersault, which can also include extra twists. Internationally, competitors frequently have 3 double somersaults incorporated into each pass, all athletes in this sport at high levels are expected to have a finals pass as well as their other two passes. While not used at every competition, it is important to have three passes, scoring is similar to trampolining with five judged scores for execution and one for the degree of difficulty
11.
Acrobatic gymnastics
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Acrobatic gymnastics is a competitive gymnastic discipline where partnerships of gymnasts work together and perform figures consisting of acrobatic moves, dance and tumbling, set to music. The sport is governed by the International Federation of Gymnastics, at international level, there are four FIG categories of competition defined by age, 11-16, 12-18, 13-19, and 15+. Acrobatic gymnasts perform in pairs or groups and enter into and are judged at a level or age group category. In each partnership, the different sizes and abilities will be balanced to complement each other in order to carry out the complex moves. Some will mainly carry out supporting and pitching roles, and are known as bases and they are then balanced with smaller gymnasts who become the tops. The gymnasts carry out their moves and combine them with dance, all in time to. Partnerships are judged on artistry, difficulty of skill and the execution of skills, the rules for the sport, known as the Code of Points, are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique. These rules are subject to every four years in line with the Olympic cycle. For example, the European Acrobatic Championships are being held in Lisbon, there are also numerous national, state, and regional competitions that are held in each country. Local and regional competitions often form the qualification stages required to compete at national championships, Acrobatic gymnastics events often attract sizeable audiences, because they are highly entertaining, exhilarating, and suspenseful due to what look to be risky or daring moves. At the London 2012 Olympics, acrobatic partnerships were seen performing before the Olympic gymnastic events and it has been said that its appearance, despite not being an Olympic discipline is testament to its ability to entertain. Gold, silver, and bronze medals are awarded in the usual fashion, although in some competitions. Which routines are required at a competition depends on the level at which the gymnasts are competing, at the junior and senior levels, all three routines are required, whereas at lower age levels, a single simpler routine is required. Each of the routine types has a different emphasis, but all include tumbling, the different routine types are as follows, Balance - A balance routine requires that certain poses or balances and must be held static for a specific duration. These moves require strength, poise, elegance and flexibility, gymnasts will combine into towers, or pyramids with the tops holding a particular position balanced on their bases. Traditionally, balance routines were performed to slower music. Dynamic - These routines demonstrate power, strength and grace through the performance of acrobatic moves that involve the phases of spring, flight, rotation, and landing. This often involves the base, or bases in the partnership propelling the top through the air, the top is generally caught, or supported in the landing by their base
12.
Aerobic gymnastics
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The performance area is 7 metres square for juniors or 10 metres square for adults and for aero dance and step. In International competition there are 7 different events, Individual Women, Individual Men, Mixed Pairs, Trios, Group, Step, the last four are regardless of the Genders of the athletes. The performances are made up of four groups of elements, the routine must be performed entirely to music. In the competition, there are specific requirements regarding the outfit, the number of elements performed, the number of lifts performed, the long-term ultimate goal of the sport of aerobic gymnastics is to be included in the Olympic Games. The competitive aerobic gymnastics are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique, the FIG designs the Code of Points and regulates all aspects of international elite competition. Within individual countries, gymnastics is regulated by national federations, in 1995, the FIG recognised sport aerobics as a new competitive gymnastics discipline, organised judges and coaches courses and launched the 1st Aerobic Gymnastics World Championships in Paris. In 1997, the IWGA included Aerobic Gymnastics in its programme of the 5th World Games, since 1999 The European Union of Gymnastics has been conducting Aerobic European Gymnastics Championships in all uneven years. Leading nations who have provided World Medallists are, Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, France, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Romania, Russia and Spain. The National Aerobic Championships is a competition of aerobic gymnastics started in 1984 in the United States, founded by Sport Fitness International, it was the first major championships in the sport predating the Aerobic Gymnastics World Championships by 11 years. From 1988 onwards the events were separated by gender. The sport became popular around the world after it gained popularity in the USA when major championships were aired on ESPN during the height of the movement in the USA. The Federation of International Sports, Aerobics and Fitness is an international non-profit umbrella organization active in over 40 countries and it is self-described as the largest fitness industry organisation in the world and the largest instructor certification agency in the world. The Association of National Aerobics Championships http, //www. fig-gymnastics. com/site/site/miniSiteNews. id=14712
13.
Parkour
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Parkour is a training discipline using movement that developed from military obstacle course training. Practitioners aim to get one point to another in a complex environment, without assistive equipment. Parkour includes running, climbing, swinging, vaulting, jumping, rolling, quadrupedal movement, parkours development from military training gives it some aspects of a non-combative martial art. Parkour is an activity that can be practised alone or with others and is usually—but not exclusively—carried out in urban spaces. Parkour involves seeing ones environment in a new way, and imagining the potential for navigating it by movement around, across, through, over and under its features. Parkour was developed in France, primarily by Raymond Belle, and further by his son David and the group of friends. The discipline was popularised in the late 1990s and 2000s through films, documentaries, the word parkour derives from parcours du combattant, the classic obstacle course method of military training proposed by Georges Hébert. Raymond Belle used the term le parcours to encompass all of his training including climbing, jumping, running, balancing, and the other methods he undertook in his personal athletic advancement. His son, David, further developed his fathers methods and achieved success as a stuntman, Koundé suggested he change the c of parcours to a k because it was stronger and more dynamic, and to remove the silent s for the same reason, forming parkour. A practitioner of parkour is called a traceur, with the form being traceuse. They are nouns derived from the French verb tracer, which means to trace, as in tracing a path. The verb tracer used familiarly means, to buck up, the term traceur was originally the name of a parkour group headed by David Belle which included Sébastien Foucan and Stéphane Vigroux. A jam refers to a meeting of traceurs, involving training lasting anywhere from hours to several days, the first parkour jam was organised in July 2002 by Romain Drouet, with a dozen people including Sébastien Foucan and Stéphane Vigroux. In Western Europe, a forerunner of parkour was French naval officer Georges Hébert and he noted, their bodies were splendid, flexible, nimble, skillful, enduring, and resistant but yet they had no other tutor in gymnastics but their lives in nature. His rescue efforts during the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on Saint-Pierre, Martinique, reinforced his belief that athletic skill must be combined with courage, Hébert became a physical education tutor at the college of Reims in France. Hébert set up a méthode naturelle session consisting of ten groups, walking, running, jumping, quadrupedal movement, climbing, balancing, throwing, lifting, self-defence. These were intended to develop the three forces, energetic, moral and physical. During World War I and World War II, teaching continued to expand, becoming the system of French military education
14.
Wheel gymnastics
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Wheel gymnastics is a form of gymnastics that originated in Germany. Wheel gymnasts do exercises in a large wheel known as the Rhönrad, gymnastics wheel, gym wheel, or German wheel, in the also known as ayro wheel, aero wheel. There are three categories of exercise, curved line, gicho, macho turn super duper flip wheel. The wheel was invented in 1925 by Otto Feick in Schönau an der Brend and he filed for a patent as wheel-gymnastic and sports equipment. He had invented the wheel in Ludwigshafen am Rhein ca, 1920-1922, on the grounds of the VSK Germania, a sports club, of which he was the founding chairman. The patent was issued on 8 November 1925, the name Rhönrad has been registered and protected since 1926, in 1936, this sport was shown at the Olympic Games in Berlin, but was not presented as an Olympic discipline. The focus of wheel gymnastics remains largely in Germany
15.
Mallakhamba
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Mallakamba is a traditional Indian sport in which a gymnast performs feats and poses in concert with a vertical wooden pole or rope. The word also refers to the used in the sport. Mallakhamba derives from the terms malla/mallar which denotes a wrestler and khamba/kambam which means a pole, literally meaning wrestling pole, the term originally referred to a traditional training implement used by wrestlers. On April 9,2013, the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh declared mallakhamba as the state sport, the earliest recorded reference to mallakhamba is found in Someshvara Chalukyas classic. Originally mallakamba was used as an exercise for wrestlers. His student Balambhattdada Deodhar realized that only major grips can be developed with a pole, subsequently, the unavailability of cane resulted in rope mallakhamba. Today it is used often as a performance art rather than a method of training. The Mallakhamb Federation of India is the official Indian National Federation,29 states of India has participate in mallakhamba competitions at the national level. National level mallakhamba tournaments were first organized more than 25 years ago, the national level tournament is organized in four separate groups according to age. Almost 25 to 30 types of apparatus were tried and tested over the years. 16 various types are recognized presently, but for sport, only six types are used, mallakhamba is present in the Hind Kesari, Indian Wrestling championship. Competitively there are three variations of mallakhamba. In this variation, a wooden pole is fixed in the ground. Wrestlers mount, dismount and utilize this pole for various complex callisthenics designed to develop their grip, stamina, there are a number of pillars, although the most common is a free-standing upright pole, some eight to ten inches in diameter, planted into the ground. The pole used in competitions is a pole made of teak or sheesham wood. It gradually tapers to a circumference of 35 centimetres at the top, the hanging mallakhamba is a wooden pole that is shorter in length than the standard pole and is hung from chain and hooks, leaving a gap between the ground and the bottom of the mallakhamba. In this variation, the participant performs exercises while hanging on a suspended from a support at the top. Typically the rope is 5.5 mt long, and approximately 1 to 2 cm in diameter, the Rope is caught by the performer in the gap between big toe and the second toe, along with one or both hands
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Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths
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Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths, also called Guts Muth or Gutsmuths, was a teacher and educator in Germany, and is especially known for his role in the development of physical education. He is thought of as the grandfather of gymnastics – the father being Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, GutsMuths introduced systematic physical exercise into the school curriculum, and he developed the basic principles of artistic gymnastics. He attended the University of Halle from 1778 to 1782, where he studied pedagogy, sometime after 1785 while a private tutor in Schnepfenthal he was appointed as a teacher, and it was there he taught gymnastics supervised by Salzmann. In 1793, GutsMuths published Gymnastik für die Jugend, the first systematic coursebook on gymnastics and his literary output on both moral and physical education continued upwards of twenty-five years after the production of his seminal work Gymnastik. GutsMuths used the known to his students in composing those within the work. In-as-much his work relied on a bed-rock or foundation of thought originating in the European tradition, Gutsmuths is thought to have in some way imitated Johann Bernhadt Basedow and his Philanthropinum. Ultimately Gutsmuths work was most influential in the formalizing of a way of understanding physical exercise. He describes twenty-nine different exercises in his manual, GutsMuths designed the core of the curriculum as the Greek pentathlon and new exercises he himself had invented. His work also included climbing, dancing, jumping, military exercises, running, swimming, throwing, Gutsmuths described gymnastics as culture for the body, which is integral to an holistic education with the aim of building a foundation of strength of character and achieving self-control. The first principle of an education in gymnastics for him was that it might, a second edition of Gyymnastic for the Youth was published during 1804. Clias, a Captain in the English army and Superintendent of gymnastics in the Royal Military College, was a follower of the teachings of GutsMuths and he subsequently wrote his own work on gymnastics, which was in its fourth edition in 1825
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Friedrich Ludwig Jahn
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Friedrich Ludwig Jahn was a German gymnastics educator and nationalist. His admirers know him as Turnvater Jahn, roughly meaning father of gymnastics Jahn, Jahn was born in Lanz in Brandenburg, Prussia. He studied theology and philology from 1796 to 1802 at Halle, after the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806 he joined the Prussian army. In 1809 he went to Berlin, where he became a teacher at the Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster, the first Turnplatz, or open-air gymnasium, was opened by Jahn in Berlin in 1811, and the Turnverein movement spread rapidly. Young gymnasts were taught to regard themselves as members of a kind of guild for the emancipation of their fatherland and this nationalistic spirit was nourished in no small degree by the writings of Jahn. Early in 1813 Jahn took a part in the formation of the famous Lützow Free Corps. He commanded a battalion of the corps, though he was employed in the secret service during the same period. After the war he returned to Berlin where he was appointed teacher of gymnastics. A man of nature, rugged, eccentric and outspoken. The authorities finally realized he aimed at establishing a united Germany, the conflict resulted in the closing of the Turnplatz in 1819 and Jahns arrest. Kept in semi-confinement successively at Spandau, Küstrin, and at the fortress in Kolberg until 1824, the sentence was reversed in 1825, but he was forbidden to live within ten miles of Berlin. He therefore took up residence at Freyburg on the Unstrut, where he remained until his death, with the exception of a period in 1828. In the spring of 1848 he was elected by the district of Naumburg to the German National Parliament, Jahn died in Freyburg, where a monument was erected in his honor in 1859. Jahn popularized the motto Frisch, Fromm, Fröhlich, Frei in the early 19th century, a complete edition of his works appeared at Hof in 1884-1887. See the biography by Schultheiss, and Jahn als Erzieher, by Friedric, Jahn promoted the use of parallel bars, rings and high bar in international competition. In honor and memory of him, some clubs, called Turnvereine, took up his name. A memorial to Jahn exists in St. Louis, Missouri and it features a large bust of Jahn in the center of an arc of stone, with statues of a male and female gymnast, one on each end of the arc. The monument is on the edge of Art Hill next to the path running north and south along the edge of Post-Dispatch lake
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Olympic Games
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The Olympic Games are considered the worlds foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating. The Olympic Games are held four years, with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years. Their creation was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee in 1894, leading to the first modern Games in Athens in 1896. The IOC is the body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th and 21st centuries has resulted in changes to the Olympic Games. The IOC has had to adapt to a variety of economic, political, as a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship, World wars led to the cancellation of the 1916,1940, and 1944 Games. Large boycotts during the Cold War limited participation in the 1980 and 1984 Games, the Olympic Movement consists of international sports federations, National Olympic Committees, and organising committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Games, the IOC also determines the Olympic programme, consisting of the sports to be contested at the Games. There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, over 13,000 athletes compete at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive Olympic medals, gold, silver, the Games have grown so much that nearly every nation is now represented. This growth has created numerous challenges and controversies, including boycotts, doping, bribery, every two years the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national and sometimes international fame. The Games also constitute an opportunity for the host city and country to themselves to the world. The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat such as wrestling. It has been written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce and this idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars. The truce did allow those religious pilgrims who were travelling to Olympia to pass through warring territories unmolested because they were protected by Zeus
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Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
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Floor (gymnastics)
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In gymnastics, the floor refers to a specially prepared exercise surface, which is considered an apparatus. It is used by male and female gymnasts. The event in gymnastics performed on floor is called floor exercise, the English abbreviation for the event in gymnastics scoring is FX. A spring floor is used in most competitive gymnastics to provide bounce, spring floors are also used sometimes in cheerleading. The sprung floor used for athletics, however, is designed to reduce bounce. The apparatus originated as an exercise for men, very similar to the floor exercise of today. It wasnt until 1948 that women were allowed to compete on the floor, most competitive gymnastics floors are spring floors. They contain springs and/or a rubber foam and plywood combination which make the floor bouncy, soften the impact of landings, floors have clearly designated perimeters—the out of bounds area is always indicated by a border of white tape or a differently colored mat. The allowed time for an exercise is up to 70 seconds for males. Unlike men, women always perform routines to music, measurements of the apparatus are published by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique in the Apparatus Norms brochure. The dimensions are the same for male and female competitors, the routine is choreographed in advance, and is composed of acrobatic and dance elements. This event, above all others, allows the gymnast to express her personality through her dance, the moves that are choreographed in the routine must be precise, in sync with the music and entertaining. At the international level of competition, the composition of the routine is decided by the gymnast. Many gymnasiums and national federations hire special choreographers to design routines for their gymnasts, well known gymnastics choreographers include Lisa Luke, Adriana Pop, Nancy Roche and Geza Pozar. Others opt to choreograph their FX routines in-house, some gymnasts adopt a new FX every year, others keep the same routine for several competitive seasons. It is not uncommon for coaches to modify a routines composition between meets, especially if it is used for a length of time. The music used for the routine is also the choice of the gymnast and it may be of any known musical style and played with any instrument, however, it may not include spoken words or sung lyrics of any kind. Vocalization is allowed if the voice is purely done as an instrument and it is the responsibility of the coach to bring the music to every competition on CD
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Pommel horse
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The pommel horse is an artistic gymnastics apparatus. Traditionally, it is used by male gymnasts. Originally made of a frame with a wooden body and a leather cover, modern pommel horses have a metal body covered with foam rubber and leather. The pommel horse was developed centuries ago as a horse used by soldiers to practice mounting and dismounting. Alexander the Great is believed to have used two, single leg skills are generally in the form of scissors. Double leg work however, is the staple of this event. The gymnast swings both legs in a motion and performs such skills on all parts of the apparatus. Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount, either by swinging his body over the horse or going through a handstand to land on the mat, the pommel horse, its gymnastic elements, and various rules are all regulated by the Code of Points. Pommel horse is considered one of the more difficult mens events, while it is well noted that all events require a certain build of muscle and technique, pommel horse tends to favor technique over muscle. This is because horse routines are done from the shoulders in a leaning motion, therefore, stress induced in ones arms is reduced meaning less muscle is needed in this event than events like still rings or parallel bars. A pommel horse routine should contain at least one element from all element groups, single leg swings and scissors II. Circles and flairs, with and/or without spindles and handstands III, side and cross support travels IV. Kehrswings, wendeswings, flops and combined elements V. Dismounts As with all events in the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique guidelines, for pommel horse, form consists of keeping ones feet pointed and legs straight during the entire routine. The gymnast should keep his legs together during all elements, exceptions beings scissors, single legged elements, gymnasts are also deducted for not using all three sections of the horse and pausing or stopping on the apparatus. Deductions also apply for brushing and hitting the apparatus, international Federation of Gymnastics Rules and Regulations Apparatus description at the FIG website History of the Pommel Horse Description of gymnastics technique by animation
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Rings (gymnastics)
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The rings, also known as steady rings or still rings, is an artistic gymnastics apparatus and the event that uses it. It is traditionally used only by male gymnasts, due to its extreme upper-body strength requirements, Gymnasts typically wear ring grips while performing on the rings. The apparatus consists of two rings that hang freely from a metal frame. Each ring is supported by a strap, which in turn connects to a cable that is suspended from the metal frame. The gymnast, who grips one ring with each hand, must control the movement of the rings, generally, gymnasts are required to fulfill various requirements including a swing to held handstand, a static strength hold, and an aerial dismount. More experienced gymnasts will often perform more than one strength element, other common strength moves include the inverted cross and the Maltese cross, in which the gymnast holds his body parallel to the ground at ring height with arms extended laterally. Swing elements include giant swings from handstand to handstand, similar to giants performed on the horizontal bar, elements on the rings are regulated by the Code of Points. A rings routine should contain at least one element from all element groups, swings to strength hold elements IV. Strength elements and hold elements V. Dismounts Gymnasts will take deductions for form similar to other apparatus, on rings gymnasts will also take deductions for having bent arms in strength elements, or using the straps/cables to support or balance themselves. There are also deductions for excessive swinging of the cables during the routine, list of gymnasts specializing in rings
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Vault (gymnastics)
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The vault is an artistic gymnastics apparatus on which gymnasts perform, as well as the skill performed using that apparatus. Vaulting is also the action of performing a vault, both male and female gymnasts perform the vault. The English abbreviation for the event in scoring is VT Early forms of the vault were invented by German Friedrich Ludwig Jahn. The apparatus itself originated as a horse, much like the horse but without the handles. The horse was set up with its long dimension perpendicular to the run for women, the vaulting horse was the apparatus used in the Olympics for over a century, beginning with the Mens vault in the first modern Olympics and ending with the Gymnastics at the 2000 Summer Olympics. The horse has been blamed for several accidents over the years. In 1988, American Julissa Gomez was paralyzed in a vaulting accident, during warmups at the 1998 Goodwill Games, Chinese gymnast Sang Lan fell and suffered paralysis from a cervical-spine injury. In 2007, Dutch junior gymnast Imke Glas was seriously injured after a fall on a vault and they hurdle onto a springboard and spring onto the vault with their hands. For vaults in the Yurchenko family, the gymnast will put their hands onto a mat that is placed before the springboard, round-off onto the board, the off-flight may be as simple as leaping over the apparatus or as complicated as executing several twists and turns in the air. The gymnast then lands on the mat on the side of the apparatus. Gymnasts are expected to land cleanly, with no hops or steps and they must also demonstrate good technique and execution in the actual vault. Falling or stepping on landing incurs deduction, as lack of height off the table. Gymnasts show one vault in Qualification, Team Final, and All Around Final, if the gymnast wishes to qualify for vault apparatus finals, they must perform a second vault during qualifications. In the Apparatus Finals gymnasts must also show two vaults, for men, the two vaults must be from different element groups, while women must show two vaults with different repulsion from the vault table. Yurchenko-style vaults must be performed with a safety collar placed around the springboard, if the collar is not used, the vault is considered invalid and the gymnast will receive a score of zero. Every vault is assigned a number, this number is displayed on a board or electronic screen before the gymnast begins. Gymnasts will be penalized if they fail to show the number of their intended vault, if a female gymnast balks, for example stops in the middle of the runway or breaks their run before touching the springboard, no deductions are taken. The gymnast is given thirty seconds to return to the end of the runway, if, however, the gymnast touches any portion of the springboard or vault itself, they receive a score of zero and may not make another attempt
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Parallel bars
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Parallel bars is an apparatus used by gymnasts in artistic gymnastics. Gymnasts may optionally wear grips when performing a routine on the parallel bars, the apparatus consists of two parallel bars that are held parallel to, and elevated above, the floor by a metal supporting framework. The bars are composed of wood or other material, with a coating of wood. The vertical members of the framework are adjustable so the height of the bars above the floor. In 1819 the first transportable parallel bars were described, in 1856 in Germany Hermann Otto Kluge used tubes to make the parallel bars and the horizontal bar adjustable. In Tolstoys Anna Karenina, published between 1873-1877, their use for exercise is described, a routine performed on the parallel bars must include various elements that depend on the gymnasts competitive level. A typical performance will involve swinging skills in a position, a hanging position. Also, parallel bar routines often feature a strength or static hold skill, each routine ends with a dismount from either the ends of the bars or the side of the apparatus. A parallel bar routine should contain at least one element from all element groups, elements in support or through support II. Elements starting in upper arm position III, long swings in hang, on 1 or 2 rails IV. Underswings V. Dismounts Deductions are taken for form and exactness of elements performed, there are specific deductions for adjusting hand position in handstand and not controlling swing elements, swing type elements should momentarily show handstand
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Horizontal bar
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The horizontal bar, also known as the high bar, is an apparatus used by male gymnasts in artistic gymnastics. It traditionally consists of a metal bar that is rigidly held above and parallel to the floor by a system of cables. Gymnasts typically wear suede leather grips while performing on the bar, current elite-level competition uses a more elastic fiberglass core rail similar in material to the rails used in the womens uneven bars and mens parallel bars apparatus. The gymnastics elements performed on the bar are regulated by a Code of Points. A bar routine, which is a sequence of several bar skills, usually includes giants with various grips, in-bar work, turns, release and regrasp skills, the horizontal bar was used by acrobats in ancient Greece and Rome, and on through the Middle Ages. Each grip is used for a particular set of skills. When gymnasts compete on the bar they are often required by the Code of Points to use specific grips. The overhand grip, or regular grip, is the grip used for the horizontal bar. On the overhand grip the hands circle the bar with the backs of the hands facing the gymnast, a dorsal grip is an overhand grip employed while the gymnasts legs pass through the arms into a skin the cat position. The overhand grip is used in giant swings, and the grip in German Giant Swings. The reverse grip and underhand grip, is the opposite of the overhand grip, the palms of the hands face the gymnast. It is similar to the used in chin-ups. Forward giant swings are among the skills that use this grip, the elgrip is also an underhand grip, In an elgrip or L-Grip or eagle grip a gymnasts hands are turned 180 degrees outward from an over grip. Thumbs are turned out, but in the direction of an undergrip. This position requires flexible shoulders to swing comfortably, the mixed grip is a combination of the overhand and underhand grips with one hand in each position. This grip can be used to gain height on release skills
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Uneven bars
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The uneven bars or asymmetric bars is an artistic gymnastics apparatus. It is made of a steel frame, the bars are made of fiberglass with wood coating, or less commonly wood. The English abbreviation for the event in scoring is UB or AB. The bars are placed at different heights and widths, allowing the gymnast to transition from bar to bar, uneven bars used in international gymnastics competitions has to conform to the guidelines and specifications set forth by the International Gymnastics Federation Apparatus Norms brochure. Several companies manufacture and sell bars, including AAI, Jannsen and Fritsen, gymnasts will often use a single bar to practice skills on the bar, mostly for safety and for ease of spotting. Many gyms also have a bar or a set of uneven bars over a loose foam pit for learning new skills to provide an additional level of safety. Measurements of the bars are provided by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique in the Apparatus Norms brochure, consequently, the bars were very close together, and gymnasts could transition from one to the other with little difficulty. Routines of the early 1950s chiefly consisted of circles, kips. In the late 1950s the trend shifted toward fluid motion, and gymnasts began to perform routines composed of more difficult circles, kips, beats, wraps and transitions. Release moves also began to come into play, although they were almost entirely limited to transitions between the low and high bars, in the late 1960s/early 1970s, companies began manufacturing uneven bars as a separate specific apparatus. The design was changed slightly to allow the bars to be adjustable, as a result of this change, coaches could set the bars farther apart. Additionally, the circumference of the bars themselves decreased, allowing gymnasts to grasp, as other events in gymnastics increased in difficulty, so did the uneven bars. Gymnasts and coaches began experimenting with elements, attempting more challenging dismounts, in 1972, Olga Korbut pioneered the Korbut Flip, the first high bar salto release move. Nadia Comăneci continued the trend with her original Comaneci salto at the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal, the giant swing, the staple of high bar in mens artistic gymnastics, was also adopted into the womens Code of Points, and quickly became a basic uneven bars skill. By the mid 1980s, routines had become so based on swing, the distance between bars increased even more as gymnasts developed difficult transition elements that required space, such as the Pak salto. For international elite level gymnasts, there is a distance between the low and high bar, called FIG setting, where all elite level gymnasts must compete. Of all the apparatus in womens gymnastics, uneven bars is probably the one that has seen the most radical changes. In USAG levels 1-5, everyone in the same level performs the same compulsory routine, in levels 1-3 the gymnasts stay only on the lower bar
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Balance beam
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The balance beam is a cube / rectangular object an artistic gymnastics apparatus, as well as the event performed using the apparatus. Both the apparatus and the event are simply referred to as beam. The English abbreviation for the event in scoring is BB. The beam is a small, thin beam which is raised from the floor on a leg or stand at both ends. The balance beam is performed by female gymnasts. Beams are usually made of leather like material, balance beams used in international gymnastics competitions must conform to the guidelines and specifications set forth by the International Gymnastics Federation Apparatus Norms brochure. Several companies manufacture and sell beams, including AAI, Janssen Fritsen, most gymnastics schools purchase and use balance beams that meet the FIGs standards, but some may also use beams with carpeted surfaces for practice situations. While learning new skills, gymnasts often work on low beams that have the dimensions and surface of regulation apparatus. They may also work on practice beams, mini beams, road beams, originally, the beam surface was plain polished wood. In earlier years, some gymnasts competed on a made of basketball-like material. However, this type of beam was eventually banned due to its extreme slipperiness, since the 1980s, beams have been covered in leather or suede. In addition, they are now also sprung to accommodate the stress of high-difficulty tumbling, measurements of the apparatus are published by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique in the Apparatus Norms brochure. Height,125 centimetres Length,500 centimetres Width,10 centimetres In the early days of womens artistic gymnastics, routines even at the elite level were composed with combinations of leaps, dance poses, handstands, rolls and walkovers. In the 1960s, the most difficult acrobatic skill performed by the average Olympic gymnast was a back handspring, balance beam difficulty began to increase dramatically in the 1970s. Olga Korbut and Nadia Comăneci pioneered advanced tumbling combinations and aerial skills on beam, the change was also facilitated by the transition from wooden beams to safer, less slippery models with suede-covered surfaces. By the mid-1980s, top gymnasts routinely performed flight series and multiple aerial elements on beam, today, balance beam routines still consist of a mixture of acrobatic skills, dance elements, leaps and poses, but with significantly greater difficulty. It is also an individual competition in the Olympics. For detailed information on score tabulation, please see the Code of Points article, the routines can last up to 90 seconds
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Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
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Lamination
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A laminate is a permanently assembled object by heat, pressure, welding, or adhesives. There are different lamination processes, depending on the type of materials to be laminated, the materials used in laminates can be the same or different, depending on the processes and the object to be laminated. An example of the type of laminate using different materials would be the application of a layer of plastic film—the laminate—on either side of a sheet of glass—the laminated subject, vehicle windshields are commonly made by laminating a tough plastic film between two layers of glass. This is to prevent shards of glass detaching from the windshield in case it breaks, plywood is a common example of a laminate using the same material in each layer. Glued and laminated dimensioned timber is used in the industry to make wooden beams, Glulam. Another reason to laminate wooden strips into beams is quality control, as with this method each, examples of laminate materials include melamine adhesive countertop surfacing and plywood. A new type of HPDL is produced using wood veneer or multilaminar veneer as top surface. High-pressure laminates consists of laminates molded and cured at pressures not lower than 1,000 lb per sq in. meanwhile, low pressure laminate is defined as a plastic laminate molded and cured at pressures in general of 400 pounds per square inch. Corrugated fiberboard boxes are examples of laminated structures, where an inner core provides rigidity and strength, and the outer layers provide a smooth surface. Laminating paper products, such as photographs, can prevent them from becoming creased, faded, water damaged, wrinkled, stained, smudged, abraded, photo identification cards and credit cards are almost always laminated with plastic film. Boxes and other containers are also laminated using a UV coating, lamination is also used in sculpture using wood or resin. An example of an artist who used lamination in his work is the American Floyd Shaman, further, laminates can be used to add properties to a surface, usually printed paper, that would not have them otherwise. Sheets of vinyl impregnated with ferro-magnetic material can allow portable printed images to bond to magnets, specially surfaced plastic sheets can be laminated over a printed image to allow them to be safely written upon, such as with dry erase markers or chalk. Multiple translucent printed images may be laminated in layers to achieve certain visual effects or to hold holographic images, many printing businesses that do commercial lamination keep a variety of laminates on hand, as the process for bonding many types is generally similar when working with arbitrarily thin material
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Magnesium carbonate
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Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3, is an inorganic salt that is a white solid. Several hydrated and basic forms of magnesium carbonate also exist as minerals, the most common magnesium carbonate forms are the anhydrous salt called magnesite and the di, tri, and pentahydrates known as barringtonite, nesquehonite, and lansfordite, respectively. Some basic forms such as artinite, hydromagnesite, and dypingite also occur as minerals, magnesite consists of white trigonal crystals. The anhydrous salt is insoluble in water, acetone. All forms of magnesium carbonate react in acids, magnesium carbonate crystallizes in the calcite structure where in Mg2+ is surrounded by six oxygen atoms. The dihydrate one has a structure, while the trihydrate has a monoclinic structure. References to light and heavy magnesium carbonates actually refer to the magnesium hydroxy carbonates hydromagnesite and dypingite, magnesium carbonate is ordinarily obtained by mining the mineral magnesite. This process is important in the production of magnesium oxide and this process is called calcining, MgCO3 → MgO + CO2 The decomposition temperature is given as 350 °C. However, calcination to the oxide is not considered complete below 900 °C due to interfering readsorption of liberated carbon dioxide. It is also interesting to note that the hydrates of the salts lose water at different temperatures during decomposition, magnesite and dolomite minerals are used to produce refractory bricks. MgCO3 is also used in flooring, fireproofing, fire extinguishing compositions, cosmetics, dusting powder, and toothpaste. Other applications are as filler material, smoke suppressant in plastics, an agent in neoprene rubber, a drying agent, a laxative to loosen the bowels. In addition, high purity magnesium carbonate is used as antacid, because of its water-insoluble, hygroscopic properties MgCO3 was first added to salt in 1911 to make the salt flow more freely. The Morton Salt company adopted the slogan When it rains it pours in reference to the fact that its MgCO3-containing salt would not stick together in humid weather. Magnesium carbonate, most often referred to as chalk, is used as a agent for hands in rock climbing, gymnastics. As a food additive magnesium carbonate is known as E504, for which the known side effect is that it may work as a laxative in high concentrations. Magnesium carbonate is used in taxidermy for whitening skulls. It can be mixed with peroxide to create a paste
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Plywood
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Plywood is a sheet material manufactured from thin layers or plies of wood veneer that are glued together with adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated up to 90 degrees to one another. It is a wood from the family of manufactured boards which includes medium-density fibreboard. All plywoods bind resin and wood fibre sheets to form a composite material, there is usually an odd number of plies, so that the sheet is balanced—this reduces warping. Because plywood is bonded with grains running against one another and with an odd number of composite parts, the word ply derives from the French verb plier, to fold, from the Latin verb plico, from the ancient Greek verb πλέκω. In 1797 Samuel Bentham applied for patents covering several machines to produce veneers, in his patent applications, he described the concept of laminating several layers of veneer with glue to form a thicker piece – the first description of what we now call plywood. Samuel Bentham was a British naval engineer with many shipbuilding inventions to his credit. Veneers at the time of Bentham were flat sawn, rift sawn or quarter sawn, i. e. cut along or across the log manually in different angles to the grain and thus limited in width and length. One can thus presume that rotary lathe plywood manufacture was a process in France in the 1860s. Plywood was introduced into the United States in 1865 and industrial production started shortly after, in 1928, the first standard-sized 4 ft by 8 ft plywood sheets were introduced in the United States for use as a general building material. Artists use plywood as a support for paintings to replace traditional canvas or cardboard. Ready-made artist boards for oil painting in three-layered plywood were produced, in India, plywood is more commonly called Kitply after a leading brand which pioneered the concept of waterproof plywood in the early 1970s. A typical plywood panel has face veneers of a higher grade than the core veneers, the principal function of the core layers is to increase the separation between the outer layers where the bending stresses are highest, thus increasing the panels resistance to bending. As a result, thicker panels can span greater distances under the same loads, in bending, the maximum stress occurs in the outermost layers, one in tension, the other in compression. Bending stress decreases from the maximum at the layers to nearly zero at the central layer. Shear stress, by contrast, is higher in the center of the panel, the most common dimension is 1.2 by 2.4 metres or the slightly larger imperial dimension of 4 feet ×8 feet. Plies vary in thickness from 1.4 mm to 4.3 mm, the number of plies—which is always odd—depends on the thickness and grade of the sheet. Roofing can use the thinner 5/8 plywood, subfloors are at least 3/4 thick, the thickness depending on the distance between floor joists. T&G plywood is usually found in the 1/2 to 1 range, hardwood plywood is made out of wood from angiosperm trees and used for demanding end uses
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Chris Cameron (gymnast)
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Chris Cameron is an American artistic gymnast. Competing for the University of Michigan, he won the individual title at the 2010 NCAA Mens Gymnastics championship in West Point. Camerons hometown is Winter Haven, Florida, where he attended Lake Region High School and he enrolled at the University of Michigan in 2007. As a freshman in the spring of 2008, Cameron was named an Academic All-American by the College Gymnastics Association, at the 2008 Big Ten Conference championship, he tied for third on pommel horse with a score of 14.850. As a sophomore in 2009, Cameron won his first individual title at the Windy City Invitational on January 17,2009. He followed with a title at the Pacific Coast Classic on February 21,2009. At the Big Ten Conference team championship on April 3,2009, Cameron was also named to U. S. senior mens national team following the Winter Cup Invitational at the Las Vegas Sports Center on February 9,2009. He was the first Michigan Wolverine gymnast to make the team since Scott Vetere in 1999-2000. After the selection, Cameron told a reporter, It was the most exhilarating, I could not believe what had happened. As a junior in 2010, Cameron was again named to the national team after placing third in the all-around at the Winter Cup Invitational in Las Vegas on February 6,2010. At the Big Ten championship in early April 2010, Cameron won the all-around competition and he was also named the Big Ten Gymnast of the Year. After Cameron won the Big Ten title, Michigan coach Kurt Golder told a reporter, I think he just has a drive to succeed. Its really hard to find, and were fortunate at Michigan to have a guy thats driven that hard, teammate Thomas Kelley added, Hes more dedicated than any other gymnast Ive ever met. Hes got that little extra drive and little extra confidence that I think a lot of us aspire to have in our gymnastics, just to go out, and know that youre going to hit no matter what. On April 16,2010, Cameron won the individual title and led Michigan to the team championship at the NCAA Mens Gymnastics championship at Christl Arena in West Point. Cameron won the title with 90.500 points, including 15.600 on the floor,15.450 on rings and vault,15.150 on parallel bars,15.050 on pommel horse. His score was 1.55 points ahead of second-place finisher Steven Legendre, camerons Michigan teammate Mel Anton Santander finished third in the all-around. After winning the title, Cameron told International Gymnast Magazine, Its been a lot of hard work
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Grip (gymnastics)
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Grips are devices that are worn on the hands of artistic gymnasts when performing on various apparatus. They are worn by gymnasts on the uneven bars, and by male gymnasts on the high bar and still rings. Grips are used to enhance the grip on the apparatus and to reduce friction. Grips are optional and are not used by all gymnasts, some athletes substitute sports tape or gauze for grips, while others use bare hands. Most gymnasts apply powdered chalk to their grips, or to their hands if not using grips, grips can also be used to help protect wrist injuries. A grip consists of a strip of leather joined to a wrist strap. The leather strip, which covers and protects the palm of the hand, is five centimeters wide and has finger holes at one end. On properly fitted grips, the holes will be positioned at the first knuckles of the inserted fingers. Some types of grips, known as dowel grips, incorporate a leather-covered dowel rod or pipe to create a bump on the outer face of the grip. This bump, in conjunction with the bar, forms a detent that serves to leverage the gymnasts grip, the wrist strap is used to secure the grip to the gymnasts hand and to transfer body weight from the fingers to the wrist. It encircles the wrist and is locked in place with either velcro or buckles. Gymnasts typically wear soft material, such as cloth wristbands, under the wrist straps to prevent skin chafing, some brands of grips include soft, removable pads that fit under the wrist straps. Most competitive gymnasts wear dowel grips, on the high bar, men use grips that have three finger holes and a small dowel, whereas grips used on the still rings have a larger dowel and two finger holes. Grips used on the bars have two finger holes and a small dowel. Womens grips have two holes and resemble mens ring grips. Gymnasts at lower levels and those participating in recreational gymnastics typically use grips without dowel rods. Such grips provide no advantage for gripping the bar, they are used primarily to minimize friction injuries. These grips are usually expensive and are made of thinner leather
34.
Irina Tchachina
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Irina Viktorovna Tchachina is a retired Russian individual rhythmic gymnast. She is the 2004 Olympic silver medalist in all-around, a two-time World all-around bronze medalist, Tchachina was born to a Russian family as the eldest of three children. She has a brother and sister. In late 2011, Tchachina married Russian businessman Evgeny Arkhipov, Tchachina was a technical gymnast, known for her expressive hands, high and big leaps, her switch leap with changing legs was her signature leap. She has also executed reverse illusion turns, Tchachina began training at the age of six in her hometown of Omsk. After she became impressed watching the World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships on television, her grandfather and her early days were filled with music lessons, swimming and rhythmic gymnastics. Faced with a choice at age 11, she chose gymnastics and she was coached by Vera Shtelbaums and her daughter Elena Arais since the age of five. Her favourite gymnasts are Olena Vitrychenko and Yanina Batyrchina, Tchachinas first victory was at age eight at the Omskaya oblast championship. By age 12 she was a member of Russias national team, as a junior, she placed first at the CIS Spatakiada, and won the Russian womens championships twice in a row. In August 1999, Tchachina began training at the Olympic Preparatory School under the guidance of Irina Viner, when the supply ran out shortly before the Goodwill Games, the team physiotherapist restocked at a local pharmacy. According to Viner, the supplement sold there was fake and contained furosemide, the commission requested the Goodwill Games organizing committee nullify Kabaeva and Tchachinas results. In 2003, Tchachina sustained an injury, and dealt with it for two years. The same year she and Kabaeva made their return to competitive gymnastics following their ban, Tchachina won the all-around bronze medal at the 2003 World Championships, silver in clubs and bronze in hoop event finals. In 2004, Tchachina won the bronze medal at the 2004 European Championships behind Ukraines Anna Bessonova. At the 2004 Athens Olympics, Tchachina won the medal in the all-around competition. After the Olympic season, Tchachina experienced a recurring ankle injury, although no longer in top form, she was still able to win the bronze medal in all-around at the 2005 World Championships and a pair of bronze medals in clubs and rope finals. She retired from gymnastics in early 2006. After her retirement, Tchachina was invited to the Russian television project Dances on Ice and she also appeared on the project Circus with stars along with other athletes, including Svetlana Khorkina
35.
Ballet
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Ballet /ˈbæleɪ/ is a type of performance dance that originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th century and later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia. It has since become a widespread, highly technical form of dance with its own based on French terminology. It has been influential and has defined the foundational techniques used in many other dance genres. Becoming a ballet dancer requires years of training, Ballet has been taught in various schools around the world, which have historically incorporated their own cultures to evolve the art. Ballet may also refer to a dance work, which consists of the choreography. A well-known example of this is The Nutcracker, a ballet that was originally choreographed by Marius Petipa. Ballets are choreographed and performed by trained artists, the word came into English usage from the French around 1630. Ballet originated in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th and 16th centuries before being spread from Italy to France by an Italian aristocrat, Catherine de Medici, in France, ballet developed even further under her aristocratic influence. The dancers in these early court ballets were mostly noble amateurs, Ballets in this period were lengthy and elaborate and often served a political purpose. Ornamented costumes were meant to impress viewers and restricted freedom of movement. The ballets were performed in large chambers with viewers on three sides, French court ballet reached its height under the reign of King Louis XIV. Known as the Sun King, Louis symbolized the brilliance of France, in 1661 Louis founded the Académie Royale de Danse to establish standards and certify dance instructors. In 1672, Louis XIV made Jean-Baptiste Lully the director of the Académie Royale de Musique from which the first professional ballet company, Lully is considered the most important composer of music for ballets de cour and instrumental to the development of the form. Ballet went into decline in France after 1830, though it continued to develop in Denmark, Italy, the arrival in Europe on the eve of First World War of the Ballets Russes of Sergei Diaghilev, revived interest in the ballet and started the modern era. The Russian choreographer Michel Fokine challenged tradition and called for reforms that reinvigorated ballet as an art form, in the 20th century, ballet had a wide influence on other dance genres, and subgenres of ballet have also evolved. In the United States, choreographer George Balanchine developed what is now known as neoclassical ballet, other developments include contemporary ballet and post-structural ballet. Also in the century, ballet took a turn dividing it from classical ballet to the introduction of modern dance. Stylistic variations have emerged and evolved since the Italian Renaissance, early, classical variations are primarily associated with geographic origin
36.
Dance
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Dance is a performance art form consisting of purposefully selected sequences of human movement. This movement has aesthetic and symbolic value, and is acknowledged as dance by performers and observers within a particular culture, Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire of movements, or by its historical period or place of origin. Other forms of movement are sometimes said to have a dance-like quality, including martial arts, gymnastics, figure skating, synchronized swimming. Theatrical dance, also called performance or concert dance, is intended primarily as a spectacle and it often tells a story, perhaps using mime, costume and scenery, or else it may simply interpret the musical accompaniment, which is often specially composed. Examples are western ballet and modern dance, Classical Indian dance and Chinese and Japanese song, most classical forms are centred upon dance alone, but performance dance may also appear in opera and other forms of musical theatre. Such dance seldom has any narrative, a group dance and a corps de ballet, a social partner dance and a pas de deux, differ profoundly. Even a solo dance may be solely for the satisfaction of the dancer. On the other hand, some cultures lay down strict rules as to the dances in which, for example. Archeological evidence for early dance includes 9, 000-year-old paintings in India at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka and it has been proposed that before the invention of written languages, dance was an important part of the oral and performance methods of passing stories down from generation to generation. The use of dance in trance states and healing rituals is thought to have been another early factor in the social development of dance. References to dance can be found in very early recorded history, Greek dance is referred to by Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, the Bible and Talmud refer to many events related to dance, and contain over 30 different dance terms. In Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period, groups of people are depicted dancing in a line holding hands, Dance is further described in the Lüshi Chunqiu. Primitive dance in ancient China was associated with sorcery and shamanic rituals, during the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life. Bharata Munis Natyashastra is one of the earlier texts and it mainly deals with drama, in which dance plays an important part in Indian culture. It categorizes dance into four types - secular, ritual, abstract, the text elaborates various hand-gestures and classifies movements of the various limbs, steps and so on. A strong continuous tradition of dance has since continued in India, through to modern times, where it continues to play a role in culture, ritual, and, notably, the Bollywood entertainment industry. Many other contemporary dance forms can likewise be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial, Dance is generally, though not exclusively, performed with the accompaniment of music and may or may not be performed in time to such music. Some dance may provide its own audible accompaniment in place of music, many early forms of music and dance were created for each other and are frequently performed together
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