1.
Haakon Lie
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Haakon Steen Lie was a Norwegian politician who served as party secretary for the Norwegian Labour Party from 1945 to 1969. Coming from humble origins, he involved in the labour movement at an early age. Lie is widely considered – along with Einar Gerhardsen – to be the architect of the success of the Labour Party. At the same time, he has also been the subject of criticism for organising surveillance of Norwegian opposition figures, in particular communists. Lie remained active in Norwegian public life, even after his 100th birthday, born 22 September 1905 into a family of Finnish origin in Oslo, he was baptized Håkon Steen Lie. He would later change the spelling to Haakon during World War II and his father was fireman Andreas Lie and his mother was homemaker Karen Halvorsdatter Gunderud. Though he describes his childhood as a one, his family was poor and, until 1916. With his parents, two brothers, and two sisters, he grew up at his fathers fire-station sharing one room and a kitchen in the St. Hanshaugen neighborhood, Lie got involved with the labour movement at the age of sixteen, in 1921. Here he met some of his friends and colleagues, Martin Tranmæl, Oscar Torp. When the Labour Party left the Third Communist International in 1923, the bitter strife between the two factions strongly influenced his lifelong anti-communist stance. He was happy with this occupation, but after a bout of tuberculosis in 1927, had to give it up as well, in 1931 he was made leader of Arbeidernes Opplysningsforbund, an institution recently created to promote education in the working class. Lie has cited the AOF as the proudest achievement of his career, in the early 1930s he made journeys to both Germany and Russia. His experience with authoritarian states – both fascist and communist – helped reinforce his political outlook of a democracy/dictatorship dichotomy rather than a simple right/left one. During the Spanish Civil War in 1936–39, he helped organise aid to those fighting the fascists and, during the winter of 1936–37, at one point the former pacifist Lie also took flying lessons to actively participate in the conflict, but this plan was never carried out. When Norway was invaded by Germany in April 1940, Lie immediately started organising resistance, at this point further broadcasts became impossible, and Lie had to make his way south, through Finland and Sweden, to Oslo. Here he became involved in the labour movement, mainly through printing newspapers. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, a strike over milk rations in September led to the arrest and execution of the two labour leaders Viggo Hansteen and Rolf Wickstrøm. This was followed by several high-profile arrests – among them Einar Gerhardsen – and he left his house only hours before the Germans appeared to arrest him
2.
Halden
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Halden, between 1665 and 1928 known as Frederikshald, is both a town and a municipality in Østfold county, Norway. The seat of the municipality, Halden is a town located at the mouth of Tista River on the Iddefjord. The town of Halden is located about 120 km south of Oslo,190 km north of Gothenburg, named after a small farm Hallen first mentioned in 1629, Halden, became the city of Frederikshald in 1665, named after Frederick III of Denmark. The Gud med oss coat-of-arms created in 1665 shows a standing on a mountain, yellow on a blue background. In 1718, the Great Northern War ended when Charles XII was shot, the fortress had been erected in the 17th century as a replacement for the Bohus Fortress lost at the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 when Bohuslän was ceded to Sweden. Halden has never captured by force by any invading army. The Swedes unsuccessfully attempted to invade the town six times between 1658 and 1814, in a 1835 census, Frederikshald was the seventh largest town or city in Norway, with 4,921 inhabitants. In 1838, Frederikshald became a city municipality, and in 1928, the 4 kilometres Tistedalen east of the Halden was part of the city from 1686 to 1967 until it was separated from Halden. At the same time, the area of Halden, Tistedalen, the political situation in Halden has become infamous in Norway for conflicts between individual politicians and between local political parties. As of 2013, the mayor of Halden is Thor Edquist from the Conservative Party, the municipality is governed by the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, the Christian Democratic Party, the Centre Party, and the Green Party. The slogan, Halden, IT- og Miljøbyen, is a reference to Haldens large number of IT companies, in the late 1960s, the most powerful mainframe computer in Norway at the time was located at the Institute for Energy Technologys facilities in Halden. From the 1960s-1980s, Halden was infamous for high levels of industrial pollution, one of Norways two nuclear reactors is located in Halden. The Halden Boiling Water Reactor is a research reactor located 100 metres within Månefjell and it is in operation about 50% of the time and, in addition to research data, supplies steam to the mill. The reactor is operated by the Institute for Energy Technology, one of Haldens largest employers, IFEs Man-Technology-Organisation laboratory is IFEs other major facility, and was opened by Norways crown prince regent in March 2004. This new laboratory building houses the most recent incarnations of the Halden Man-Machine Laboratory, the OECD Halden Reactor Project is one of the worlds longest running international research collaborations, with 20 countries participating and the largest international research project in Norway. This ensures a steady influx of international guest scientists to the city, the fact that Norway has no commercial interest in nuclear power ensures that Halden is viewed internationally as a neutral location. In national politics, the reactor is controversial, however locally it has had support from the majority of political parties, some of the largest IT companies in Halden, such as Hand-El Skandinavia and ScandPower, are spin-offs from IFE. Rød Herregård in Halden is one of the best preserved houses in Norway
3.
Opera Software
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Opera Software ASA is a Norwegian software company, primarily known for its Opera family of web browsers. Across multiple platforms, Opera browsers have more than 350 million users worldwide, Opera Software is also involved in promoting Web standards through participation in the W3C. The company has its headquarters in Oslo, Norway and is listed on Oslo Stock Exchange. The company also has offices in Sweden, Poland, the Peoples Republic of China, Japan, South Korea, Australia, Russia, Ukraine, Iceland, Singapore, Taiwan, Operas stated vision is to deliver the best Internet experience on any device. On 10 February 2016 a group of Chinese investors offered $1.2 billion USD to buy the company, the transaction for sale of Operas consumer business was approved on 31 October,2016 by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States. On 4 November,2016, Golden Brick Capital Private Equity Fund I L. P. completed the acquisition, Opera Software was founded as an independent company in Norway on 30 August 1995 by Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner and Geir Ivarsøy. The company was created to continue what was originally a project at Telenor. Opera Softwares first product, the Opera web browser version 2.1 for Windows, was released in 1997, Opera Software had an IPO in February 2004, and was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange March 11,2004. In an attempt to capitalize on the market for Internet-connected handheld devices. Opera 4.0, released in 2000, included a new core that facilitated creation of editions of Opera for multiple operating systems and platforms. Up to this point, the Opera browser was trialware and had to be purchased after the period ended, however this ended with version 5.0. Instead, Opera became ad-sponsored, displaying advertisements to users without a license, in newer versions, the user was allowed a choice of generic graphical banners or text-based targeted advertisements provided by Google based upon the page being viewed. In 2004, Opera Software settled a lawsuit with an international corporation paying $12.75 million USD to Opera and it was speculated that the international corporation named in the statement announcing the settlement was Microsoft, which had previously blocked Opera users from correctly viewing MSN. com. On 12 January 2005, Opera Software announced that it would offer free licenses to higher education institutions — a change from the previous cost of $1,000 USD for unlimited licenses. Schools that opted for the license included Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University, University of Oxford, Georgia Institute of Technology. With version 8.5 the advertisements were removed entirely and primary support came through revenue from Google. The complaint resulted in the creation of BrowserChoice. eu, in 2012, Opera Software and Bharti Airtel signed an agreement to provide Opera Mini browsers to the Airtel mobile customers. In 2013 Opera Software decided to not use their in-house rendering engine for the Desktop Browser anymore, from Version 15 on the Opera browser for computers would be using the Blink rendering engine, a fork of Webkit developed together with Google
4.
Cascading Style Sheets
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Cascading Style Sheets is a style sheet language used for describing the presentation of a document written in a markup language. It can also display the web page differently depending on the size or viewing device. Readers can also specify a different style sheet, such as a CSS file stored on their own computer, to override the one the author specified. Changes to the design of a document can be applied quickly and easily, by editing a few lines in the CSS file they use. The CSS specification describes a priority scheme to determine which style rules apply if more than one rule matches against a particular element, in this so-called cascade, priorities are calculated and assigned to rules, so that the results are predictable. The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium, Internet media type text/css is registered for use with CSS by RFC2318. The W3C operates a free CSS validation service for CSS documents, CSS has a simple syntax and uses a number of English keywords to specify the names of various style properties. A style sheet consists of a list of rules, each rule or rule-set consists of one or more selectors, and a declaration block. In CSS, selectors declare which part of the markup a style applies to by matching tags, Selectors may apply to, all elements of a specific type, e. g. Classes and IDs are case-sensitive, start with letters, and can include alphanumeric characters and underscores. A class may apply to any number of instances of any elements, an ID may only be applied to a single element. Pseudo-classes are used in CSS selectors to permit formatting based on information that is not contained in the document tree. One example of a widely used pseudo-class is, hover, which identifies content only when the points to the visible element. It is appended to a selector as in a, hover or #elementid, a pseudo-class classifies document elements, such as, link or, visited, whereas a pseudo-element makes a selection that may consist of partial elements, such as, first-line or, first-letter. Selectors may be combined in ways to achieve great specificity and flexibility. Multiple selectors may be joined in a spaced list to specify elements by location, element type, id, class, the order of the selectors is important. For example, div. myClass applies to all elements of class myClass that are inside div elements, the following table provides a summary of selector syntax indicating usage and the version of CSS that introduced it. A declaration block consists of a list of declarations in braces, each declaration itself consists of a property, a colon, and a value. If there are multiple declarations in a block, a semi-colon must be inserted to separate each declaration, properties are specified in the CSS standard
5.
Norwegians
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Norwegians are a Germanic ethnic group native to Norway. They share a culture and speak the Norwegian language. Towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC, Proto-Indo-European speaking Battle-Axe peoples migrated to Norway bringing domesticated horses, agriculture, cattle, during the Viking age, Harald Fairhair unified the Norse petty kingdoms after being victorious at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in the 880s. Two centuries of Viking expansion tapered off following the decline of Norse paganism with the adoption of Christianity in the 11th century, during The Black Death, approximately 60% of the population died and in 1397 Norway entered a union with Denmark. In 1814, following Denmark-Norways defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway entered a union with Sweden, rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led to a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norway remained officially neutral in World War I, the country was allied with the Entente powers. In World War II Norway proclaimed its neutrality, but was occupied for five years by Nazi Germany. In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO, discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norways economic fortunes but in referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU. Key domestic issues include integration of a fast growing immigrant population, maintaining the countrys generous social safety net with an aging population, as with many of the people from European countries, Norwegians are spread throughout the world. There are more than 100,000 Norwegian citizens living abroad permanently, mostly in the U. S, Norwegian Vikings travelled north and west and founded vibrant communities in the Faroe Islands, Shetland, Orkney, Iceland, Ireland, Scotland, and northern England. They conducted extensive raids in Ireland and founded the cities of Cork, Dublin, in 947, a new wave of Norwegian Vikings appeared in England when Erik Bloodaxe captured York. Apart from Britain and Ireland, Norwegian Vikings established settlements in largely uninhabited regions, the first known permanent Norwegian settler in Iceland was Ingólfur Arnarson. In the year 874 he settled in Reykjavík, after his expulsion from Iceland Erik the Red discovered Greenland, a name he chose in hope of attracting Icelandic settlers. Viking settlements were established in the fjords of the southern and western coast. Eriks relative Leif Eriksson later discovered North America, during the 17th and 18th centuries, many Norwegians emigrated to the Netherlands, particularly Amsterdam. The Netherlands was the second most popular destination for Norwegian emigrants after Denmark, loosely estimated, some 10% of the population may have emigrated, in a period when the entire Norwegian population consisted of some 800,000 people. The Norwegians left with the Dutch trade ships that when in Norway traded for timber, hides, herring, young women took employment as maids in Amsterdam. Young men took employment as sailors, large parts of the Dutch merchant fleet and navy came to consist of Norwegians and Danes
6.
Tim Berners-Lee
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Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee OM KBE FRS FREng FRSA FBCS, also known as TimBL, is an English computer scientist, best known as the inventor of the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium, which oversees the development of the Web. He is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation and is a researcher and holder of the founders chair at the MIT Computer Science. He is a director of the Web Science Research Initiative, in 2011, he was named as a member of the board of trustees of the Ford Foundation. In 2004, Berners-Lee was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work, in April 2009, he was elected a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences. Named in Time magazines list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and he tweeted This is for everyone, which instantly was spelled out in LCD lights attached to the chairs of the 80,000 people in the audience. Berners-Lee was born in London, England, United Kingdom, one of four born to Mary Lee Woods. His parents worked on the first commercially built computer, the Ferranti Mark 1, a keen trainspotter as a child, he learnt about electronics from tinkering with a model railway. He studied at The Queens College, Oxford, from 1973 to 1976, after graduation, Berners-Lee worked as an engineer at the telecommunications company Plessey in Poole, Dorset. In 1978, he joined D. G. Nash in Ferndown, Dorset, Berners-Lee worked as an independent contractor at CERN from June to December 1980. While in Geneva, he proposed a project based on the concept of hypertext, to demonstrate it, he built a prototype system named ENQUIRE. After leaving CERN in late 1980, he went to work at John Pooles Image Computer Systems, Ltd, in Bournemouth and he ran the companys technical side for three years. The project he worked on was a remote procedure call which gave him experience in computer networking. In 1984, he returned to CERN as a fellow and it then was accepted by his manager, Mike Sendall. He used similar ideas to those underlying the ENQUIRE system to create the World Wide Web, for which he designed and his software also functioned as an editor, and the first Web server, CERN HTTPd. The first web site was built at CERN, despite this being an international organisation hosted by Switzerland, the office that Berners-Lee used was just across the border in France. It was put online on 6 August 1991 for the first time, It provided an explanation of what the World Wide Web was and we can connect with each other instantly, all over the world. In 1994, Berners-Lee founded the W3C at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and it comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web
7.
Robert Cailliau
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Robert Cailliau is a Belgian informatics engineer and computer scientist who created the first web browser for the Mac. He also designed the logo of the WWW, and organized the first International World Wide Web Conference at CERN in 1994. Cailliau was born in Tongeren, Belgium, in 1958 he moved with his parents to Antwerp. After secondary school he graduated from Ghent University in 1969 as civil engineer in electrical and mechanical engineering and he also has an MSc from the University of Michigan in Computer, Information and Control Engineering,1971. During his military service in the Belgian Army he maintained Fortran programs to simulate troop movements, in December 1974 he started working at CERN as a Fellow in the Proton Synchrotron division, working on the control system of the accelerator. In April 1987 he left the PS division to become leader of Office Computing Systems in the Data Handling division. In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee proposed a system for access to the many forms of documentation at. Berners-Lee created the system, calling it World Wide Web, between September and December 1990, during this time, Cailliau and he co-authored a proposal for funding for the project. Cailliau later became a key proponent of the project and developed with Nicola Pellow the first web browser for the Classic Mac OS operating system called MacWWW, in 1993, in collaboration with the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft Cailliau started the European Commissions first web-based project for information dissemination in Europe. As a result of his work with CERNs Legal Service, CERN released the web technology into the domain on 30 April 1993. In December 1993 Cailliau called for the first International WWW Conference which was held at CERN in May 1994, the oversubscribed conference brought together 380 web pioneers and was a milestone in the development of the web. The conference led to the forming of the International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee which has organized a conference since then. Cailliau was a member of the Committee from 1994 until 2002, in 1995 Cailliau started the Web for Schools project with the European Commission, introducing the web as a resource for education. After helping to transfer the web development from CERN to the World Wide Web Consortium and he went on early retirement from CERN in January 2007. Cailliau is now a member of Newropeans, a pan-European political movement for which he. 1995, ACM Software System Award 1999, Christophe Plantin Prize, Antwerp 1999, southern Cross University 2000, Dr. Hon
8.
CERN
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The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN, is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, Israel is the only non-European country granted full membership. The main site at Meyrin hosts a large computing facility, which is used to store and analyse data from experiments. Researchers need remote access to facilities, so the lab has historically been a major wide area network hub. CERN is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web, the convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the council was dissolved. CERNs first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser, edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, while the first Director-General was Felix Bloch. The laboratory was originally devoted to the study of atomic nuclei, therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics, which better describes the research being performed there. Several important achievements in physics have been made through experiments at CERN. The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia, the 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber. The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web. Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended to facilitate the sharing of information between researchers, the first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, a copy of the original first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web Consortiums website as a historical document. Prior to the Webs development, CERN had pioneered the introduction of Internet technology, a short history of this period can be found at CERN. ch. More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of computing, hosting projects including the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. 48×10−5, a measurement with 6. 0-sigma significance. However, on 23 February, CERN stated in a release that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected GPS-synchronization cable. In March 2012, the ICARUS Collaboration reported that the measurement would be reproduced by both OPERA and ICARUS, further tests, after fixing the GPS connector, showed speed measurements consistent with the speed of light from four experiments at Gran Sasso, including OPERA
