1.
The Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company
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The Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company, L. L. C. is the parent company to the luxury hotel chain, The Ritz-Carlton Hotels. Ritz-Carlton operates 91 luxury hotels and resorts in cities around the world, the hotel company is today a subsidiary of Marriott International. The story of The Ritz-Carlton begins with Swiss hotelier César Ritz who was known in the hotel industry as the king of hoteliers. Ritz redefined luxury accommodation in Europe with his management of The Ritz in Paris, the restaurants on those ships ceased operating in 1914 with the outbreak of World War I. Although Ritz died in 1918, his wife Marie continued the tradition of opening hotels in his name, the Ritz-Carlton Investing Company was established by Albert Keller, who bought and franchised the name in the United States. The first Ritz-Carlton Hotel in the U. S. opened in New York in 1911 and it was located at 46th Street and Madison Avenue. Louis Diat ran the kitchens and invented Vichyssoise there, the Ritz-Carlton Montreal opened in 1912, not owned by Keller as it was located in Canada. Kellers Ritz-Carlton Atlantic City opened in 1921, the trust sold $2.1 million of bonds to finance the construction of an apartment building to be called the Mayflower. The 18-story, 201-foot brick building, designed by Strickland, Blodget & Law Architects, was far taller than anything else along Newbury Street at the time. Construction had started on the floor when Wyner was persuaded by then-Mayor James Michael Curly to make the Mayflower a world-class, 300-room Ritz-Carlton Hotel. Room rates were $5 to $15 per night, $40 per night for suites, after a hugely successful opening, the stock market crash of 1929 and ensuing Depression brought financial difficulties. The Wyner family funded the hotel’s operating losses during the early 1930s, still in 1933, when only 30 guests were registered in the hotel, Wyner turned on the lights in every guest room to give the appearance the hotel was full. The Philadelphia location was converted to a building after only a few years in operation. The Atlantic City hotel was sold to Schine Hotels in the late 1940s, the New York hotel was demolished in 1951, leaving only the Boston location. Edward Wyner died of an attack on December 5,1961. His six sons tried to continue operation of the Boston hotel, but were unable to overcome difficulties, the unpaid interest on the bonds dissuaded many from trying to buy the hotel. But Cabot, Cabot & Forbes principal Gerald F. Blakeley Jr. was interested.8 million, “Out of the 20 years I owned it, it made money three years. In the late 1960s Blakeley obtained the rights to the Ritz-Carlton name in North America, in June 1978, Blakeley was awarded the rights and privileges of the Ritz-Carlton trademark in the United States and was given a US Service Mark Registration
2.
Hotel
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A hotel is an establishment that provides paid lodging on a short-term basis. Small, lower-priced hotels may offer only the most basic guest services and facilities, Hotel rooms are usually numbered to allow guests to identify their room. Some boutique, high-end hotels have custom decorated rooms, some hotels offer meals as part of a room and board arrangement. In the United Kingdom, a hotel is required by law to serve food, in Japan, capsule hotels provide a tiny room suitable only for sleeping and shared bathroom facilities. The precursor to the hotel was the inn of medieval Europe. For a period of about 200 years from the mid-17th century, inns began to cater to richer clients in the mid-18th century. One of the first hotels in a sense was opened in Exeter in 1768. Hotels proliferated throughout Western Europe and North America in the early 19th century, Hotel operations vary in size, function, and cost. Most hotels and major hospitality companies have set standards to classify hotel types. Full service hotels often contain upscale full-service facilities with a number of full service accommodations, an on-site full service restaurant. Boutique hotels are independent, non-branded hotels that often contain upscale facilities. Small to medium-sized hotel establishments offer a limited amount of on-site amenities, economy hotels are small to medium-sized hotel establishments that offer basic accommodations with little to no services. Extended stay hotels are small to medium-sized hotels that offer full service accommodations compared to a traditional hotel. Timeshare and destination clubs are a form of property ownership involving ownership of a unit of accommodation for seasonal usage. A motel is a small-sized low-rise lodging with direct access to rooms from the car park. Boutique hotels are typically hotels with an environment or intimate setting. A number of hotels have entered the public consciousness through popular culture, some hotels are built specifically as a destination in itself, for example at casinos and holiday resorts. The organizational chart and volume of job positions and hierarchy varies by size, function and class
3.
1st arrondissement of Paris
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The 1st arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. Situated principally on the bank of the River Seine, it also includes the west end of the Île de la Cité. It is the least populated of the arrondissements and one of the smallest by area, a significant part of which is occupied by the Louvre Museum. Much of the remainder of the arrondissement is dedicated to business, the 1st arrondissement is very small, with a land area of only 1,83 km2. The area now occupied by the first arrondissement attained its peak population in the preceding the re-organization of Paris in 1860. In 1999, the population was 16,888, while the arrondissement hosted 63,056 jobs, making it one of the most active for business after the 2nd, 8th, and 9th. ¹The peak of population actually occurred before 1861, but the arrondissement was created in 1860, each of the 20 Paris arrondissements is divided into four quarters. The table below lists the four quarters of the 1st arrondissement, at one time Air Inters head office was located in the first arrondissement. When Minerve, an airline, existed, its office was in the first arrondissement. In terms of state-operated schools, the first arrondissement has two schools, two primary schools, one école polyvalente, one high school, and one sixth form college. The state-operated nursery schools are École Maternelle Auxerrois and École Maternelle Sourdiere, the state-operated primary schools are École Élémentaire Arbre Sec and École Élémentaire DArgenteuil. The arrondissement has one école polyvalente, École Polyvalente Cambon, collège Jean-Baptiste Poquelin is the sole state-operated high school in the arrondissement. Lycée Professionnel Commercial Pierre Lescot is the sole state-operated sixth form college in the first arrondissement
4.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Mohamed Al-Fayed
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Mohamed Al-Fayed is an Egyptian business magnate. Fayeds business interests include ownership of Hôtel Ritz Paris and formerly Harrods Department Store, Al-Fayed sold his ownership of Fulham F. C. to Shahid Khan in 2013. Fayed has four siblings, Ali, Salah, Soaad and Safia, Fayeds eldest son, Dodi, from his first marriage to Samira Khashoggi, died in a car crash in Paris with Diana, Princess of Wales and driver Henri Paul on 31 August 1997. Fayed married Finnish socialite and former model Heini Wathén in 1985, with whom he has four children, Jasmine, Karim, Camilla, in 2013, Fayeds wealth was estimated at US$1.4 billion, making him the 1, 031st-richest person in the world in 2013. Born on 27 January 1929 in Bakos, Alexandria, Egypt and he was married for two years, from 1954 to 1956, to Samira Khashoggi. Fayed worked for his wifes brother, Saudi Arabian arms dealer, Fayeds addition of Al- to his name, which implies aristocratic origins, has led to Private Eye nicknaming him the Phoney Pharaoh. According to his biographer Tom Bower, Fayed also claimed to have come from a town named Fayed after his family, Fayed and his brothers founded a shipping company in Egypt before moving its headquarters to Genoa, Italy with additional offices in London. Around 1964 Fayed entered a relationship with Haitian leader François Duvalier, known as Papa Doc Duvalier. He also associated with the geologist George de Mohrenschildt, Fayed terminated his stay in Haiti six months later when a sample of crude oil provided by Haitian associates proved to be low-grade molasses. It was then that Fayed moved to England where he lived in central London, in the mid 1960s, Fayed met the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid al Makhtoum who entrusted Fayed with helping transform Dubai. Fayed introduced British companies like the Costain Group, Bernard Sunley & Sons and he also became a financial adviser to the then Sultan of Brunei Omar Ali Saifuddien III, in 1966. Fayed set up IMS in 1968 in Dubai and he briefly joined the board of the mining conglomerate Lonrho in 1975 but left after a disagreement. In 1979, Fayed bought The Ritz hotel in Paris, France for US$30 million. In 1984, Fayed and his brothers purchased a 30 percent stake in House of Fraser, a group included the famous London store Harrods, from Roland Tiny Rowland. In 1985, he and his brothers bought the remaining 70 percent of House of Fraser for £615m, Rowland claimed the Fayed brothers had lied about their background and wealth and put pressure on the government to investigate them. A Department of Trade and Industry inquiry into the Fayeds was launched, the DTIs subsequent report was critical, but no action was taken against the Fayeds, and while many believed the contents of the report, others felt it was politically motivated. In 1998, Rowland accused Fayed of stealing papers and jewels from his Harrods safe deposit box, Fayed was arrested, but the charges were dropped. Fayed settled the dispute with a payment to his widow, he sued the Metropolitan Police for false arrest in 2002
7.
Jules Hardouin-Mansart
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Jules Hardouin-Mansart was a French architect whose work is generally considered to be the apex of French Baroque architecture, representing the power and grandeur of Louis XIV. Hardouin-Mansart was one of the most important European architects of the seventeenth century and he also learned from Libéral Bruant, architect of the royal veterans hospital in Paris known as Les Invalides. Hardouin-Mansart served as Louis XIVs chief architect, first enlarging the royal château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and he became the surintendant des Bâtiments du Roi. Outside the château proper, he built the Grand Trianon and the Orangerie, as well as subsidiary royal dwellings not far away, most of these works still set their stamp on the character of Paris and can be seen by a modern-day tourist. A traditional French touch is the modest pedimented entrance flanked by projecting pavilions. Behind, the axis is extended between the former parterres, now grass. The park with formally shaped water was out by André Le Nôtre. The small scale makes it easier to compare to the approximately contemporary Het Loo and he died at Marly-le-Roi in 1708. 17th-century French art Herbermann, Charles, ed. Jules Mansard
8.
Leading Hotels of the World, Ltd.
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Leading Hotels of the World, Ltd. is a global hospitality consortium of more than 375 hotels and resorts in over 75 countries. It is headquartered in New York City, and maintains offices in 25 cities worldwide, the consortium is owned by Swiss based Hotel Representative, A. G. The company was established in 1928 under the name Luxury Hotels of Europe and it initially had 38 member hotels, including Hotel Negresco in Nice, the Mena House in Cairo and King David Hotel in Jerusalem. The company does not own hotels, most member hotels are independent, as of 2011 Andrea Kracht, proprietor of Baur au Lac in Zürich, Switzerland, was the chairman of Hotel Representative, A. G. and Theodore Teng was the president and chief executive officer. The company had 24 offices around the world, the company restricts membership to hotels considered to be in the luxury category, which are inspected and voted on by the companys Executive Committee
9.
Auguste Escoffier
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Georges Auguste Escoffier was a French chef, restaurateur and culinary writer who popularized and updated traditional French cooking methods. In particular, he codified the recipes for the five mother sauces, referred to by the French press as roi des cuisiniers et cuisinier des rois, Escoffier was Frances preeminent chef in the early part of the 20th century. Escoffier published Le Guide Culinaire, which is used as a major reference work. Escoffiers recipes, techniques and approaches to kitchen management remain highly influential today, and have adopted by chefs and restaurants not only in France. Escoffier was born in the village Villeneuve-Loubet, today in Alpes-Maritimes, the house where he was born is now the Musée de lArt Culinaire, run by the Foundation Auguste Escoffier. However, only months after arriving in Paris, Escoffier was called to military duty. His army experiences led him to study the technique of canning food, some time before 1878, he opened his own restaurant, Le Faisan dOr, in Cannes. In 1880, he married Delphine Daphis, in 1884, the couple moved to Monte Carlo, where Escoffier was employed by César Ritz, manager of the new Grand Hotel, to take control of the kitchens. At that time, the French Riviera was a resort, during the summers, Escoffier ran the kitchens of the Grand Hôtel National in Lucerne. Ritz put together what he described as an army of hotel men for the conquest of London. The Savoy under Ritz and his partners was an success, attracting a distinguished and moneyed clientele. Gregor von Görög, chef to the family, was an enthusiast of Escoffiers zealous organization. Aristocratic women, hitherto unaccustomed to dining in public, were now seen in full regalia in the Savoy dining, Escoffier created many famous dishes at the Savoy. In 1893, he invented the pêche Melba in honour of the Australian singer Nellie Melba, other Escoffier creations, famous in their time, were the bombe Néro, fraises à la Sarah Bernhardt, baisers de Vierge and suprêmes de volailles Jeannette. He also created salad Réjane, after Gabrielle Réjane, and tournedos Rossini, on 8 March 1898, Ritz, Echenard and Escoffier were dismissed from the Savoy for. Gross negligence and breaches of duty and mismanagement, the real details of the dispute did not emerge at first. Ritz and his colleagues even prepared to sue for wrongful dismissal, for example, wines and spirits to the value of £6,400 had been diverted in the first six months of 1897. Escoffier additionally confessed to taking gifts or bribes from the Savoy’s suppliers worth up to 5% of the resulting purchases, Escoffier accepted an obligation to repay £8,000, but was allowed to settle his debt for £500
10.
Bathroom en suite
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A bathroom is a room in the home for personal hygiene activities, generally containing a sink and either a bathtub, a shower, or both. In some countries, the toilet is included in this room, for ease of plumbing, whereas other cultures consider this insanitary, historically, bathing was often a collective activity, which took place in public baths. In some countries the social aspect of cleansing the body is still important, as for example with sento in Japan. In North American English the word bathroom may be used to any room containing a toilet. The term for the used to clean the body varies around the English-speaking world. A full bathroom is generally understood to contain a bath or shower, a toilet, an ensuite bathroom or ensuite shower room is attached to and only accessible from a bedroom. A family bathroom, in British estate agent terminology, is a full bathroom not attached to a bedroom, a Jack and Jill bathroom or connected bathroom is situated between and shared by the occupants of two separate bedrooms. A wetroom is a room usually equipped with a shower. In the United States, there is a lack of a single, universal definition, in some U. S. markets, a toilet, sink, and shower are considered a full bath. In addition, there is the use of the bathroom to describe a room containing a toilet, usually a basin. See that article for further synonyms and euphemisms, bathrooms often have one or more towel bars or towel rings for hanging towels. Some bathrooms contain a medicine cabinet for personal hygiene products and medicines, some bathrooms contain a bidet, which might be placed next to a toilet. The design of a bathroom must account for the use of hot and cold water, in significant quantities, for cleaning the body. The water is used for moving solid and liquid human waste to a sewer or septic tank. Water may be splashed on the walls and floor, and hot air may cause condensation on cold surfaces. From a decorating point of view the bathroom presents a challenge, ceiling, wall and floor materials and coverings should be impervious to water and readily and easily cleaned. The use of ceramic or glass, as well as smooth plastic materials, is common in bathrooms for their ease of cleaning. Such surfaces are often cold to the touch, however, alternatively, the floor may be heated, possibly by strategically placing resistive electric mats under floor tile or radiant hot water tubing close to the underside of the floor surface
11.
Coco Chanel
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Gabrielle Bonheur Coco Chanel was a French fashion designer and businesswoman. She was the founder and namesake of the Chanel brand, a prolific fashion creator, Chanel extended her influence beyond couture clothing, realising her design aesthetic in jewellery, handbags, and fragrance. 5, has become an iconic product and she is the only fashion designer listed on TIME magazines list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. Chanel designed her iconic interlocked-CC monograph, meaning Coco Chanel, using it since the 1920s, Chanel was known for her lifelong determination, ambition, and energy which she applied to her professional and social life. She achieved both financial success as a businesswoman and catapulted to prominence in French high society, thanks to the connections she made through her work. These included many artists and craftspeople to whom she became a patron and her social connections appeared to encourage a highly conservative personal outlook. One of Chanels lovers was a German military officer, Hans Gunther von Dincklage, after the war ended, Chanel was interrogated about her relationship with von Dincklage, but she was not charged as a collaborator. After several years in Switzerland after the war, she returned to Paris, in 2011, Hal Vaughan published a book on Chanel based on newly declassified documents of that era, revealing that she had collaborated with Germans in intelligence activities. One plan in late 1943 was for her to carry an SS separate peace overture to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to end the war and she was Jeannes second child with Albert Chanel, the first, Julia, was born less than a year earlier. Albert Chanel was an itinerant street vendor who peddled work clothes and undergarments, living a life, traveling to. The family resided in rundown lodgings, in 1884, he married Jeanne Devolle, persuaded to do so by her family who had united, effectively, to pay Albert to marry her. At birth, Chanels name was entered into the registry as Chasnel. Jeanne was too unwell to attend the registration, and Albert was registered as travelling, with both parents absent, the infants last name was misspelled, probably due to a clerical error. The couple had five children who survived—two boys and three girls—who lived crowded into a lodging in the town of Brive-la-Gaillarde. When Gabrielle was 12, her mother died of bronchitis at the age of 32 and her father sent his two sons out to work as farm laborers and sent his three daughters to the Corrèze, in central France, to the convent of Aubazine, which ran an orphanage. Its religious order, the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Mary, was founded to care for the poor and rejected and it was a stark, frugal life, demanding strict discipline. Despite the tragedy of this, being placed in the orphanage may have been the best thing for Coco’s future because it is where she learned to sew. At age eighteen, Chanel, too old to remain at Aubazine, later in her life, Chanel would retell the story of her childhood somewhat differently, she would often include more glamorous accounts, which were generally untrue
12.
Ernest Hemingway
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Ernest Miller Hemingway was an American novelist, short story writer, and journalist. His economical and understated style had a influence on 20th-century fiction, while his life of adventure. Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s, and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 and he published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction works. Additional works, including three novels, four short story collections, and three works, were published posthumously. Many of his works are considered classics of American literature, Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After high school, he reported for a few months for The Kansas City Star, in 1918, he was seriously wounded and returned home. His wartime experiences formed the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms, in 1921, he married Hadley Richardson, the first of his four wives. The couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a correspondent and fell under the influence of the modernist writers. He published his novel, The Sun Also Rises, in 1926. Martha Gellhorn became his wife in 1940, they separated when he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II. He was present at the Normandy landings and the liberation of Paris, Hemingway maintained permanent residences in Key West, Florida, and Cuba, and in 1959, he bought a house in Ketchum, Idaho, where he killed himself in mid-1961. Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21,1899, in Oak Park, Illinois and his father, Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, was a physician, and his mother, Grace Hall Hemingway, was a musician. Both were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park, a community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said. For a short period after their marriage, Clarence and Grace Hemingway lived at first with Graces father, Ernest Hall, their first sons namesake. Later, Ernest Hemingway would say that he disliked his name, the family eventually moved into a seven-bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood with a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence. Hemingways mother frequently performed in concerts around the village, as an adult, Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm. The family spent summers at Windemere on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, from 1913 until 1917, Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School. He took part in a number of sports—boxing, track and field, water polo and he excelled in English classes, and with his sister Marcelline, performed in the school orchestra for two years
13.
Luftwaffe
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The Luftwaffe was the aerial warfare branch of the combined German Wehrmacht military forces during World War II. During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base, with the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe was officially established on 26 February 1935. The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a testing ground for new doctrines. By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwaders, during World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely, the Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffes fighter arm, in addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa and Southern Europe. In January 1945, during the stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority. After the defeat of Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946, the Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history, Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim. Throughout the war, the force was responsible for war crimes, one of the forerunners of the Luftwaffe, the Imperial German Army Air Service, was founded in 1910 with the name Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches, most often shortened to Fliegertruppe. It was renamed Luftstreitkräfte on 8 October 1916, after the defeat of Germany, the service was dissolved on 8 May 1920 under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which also mandated the destruction of all German military aircraft. Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to have an air force, to train its pilots on the latest combat aircraft, Germany solicited the help of its future enemy, the Soviet Union, which was also isolated in Europe. This base was known as 4th squadron of the 40th wing of the Red Army. Hundreds of Luftwaffe pilots and technical personnel visited, studied and were trained at Soviet air force schools in locations in Central Russia. The first steps towards the Luftwaffes formation were undertaken just months after Adolf Hitler came to power, in April 1933 the Reichsluftfahrtministerium was established. Görings control over all aspects of aviation became absolute, on 25 March 1933 the Deutschen Luftsportverband absorbed all private and national organizations, while retaining its sports title. On 15 May 1933, all military organizations in the RLM were merged, forming the Luftwaffe. The |Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps was formed in 1937 to give pre-military flying training to male youths, military-age members of the NSFK were drafted to the Luftwaffe. As all such prior NSFK members were also Nazi Party members, the absence of Göring in planning and production matters was fortunate
14.
Charles Ritz
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Ritz was a French hotelier and fly fishing specialist. Charles Ritz was the first of two born to Swiss hotelier César Ritz and Marie-Louise Beck. He did not know his itinerant father well, and César died when Charles was 27 years old, Charles Ritz emigrated to the United States in 1916 where he became a soldier in the US Army. When World War I ended, Ritz returned to the US, Ritz remarried in 1971 and retired from the hotel presidency in 1976, three months before his death. He is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery alongside his first wife, Ritz returned to France in the 1930s. His experience with fly fishing made him one of the foremost specialists on the subject, ernest Hemingway called him, One of the finest fly fisherman I know. Ritz wrote a book, A Fly Fishers Life, which has been read by anglers around the world and it has been regarded as one of the landmarks of fly fishing literature. He invented the parabolic fly-rod, a term coined by Everett Garrison, Fly rods of this type were commercially produced by Paul H. Young, Abu Garcia, Pezon et Michel, Jim Payne and Paul H. He was a publicist for the High speed - high line style of fly casting and he founded the Fario Club, which was the most select fishing club in the world during the later part of the twentieth century. Ritz spent several years assisting his mother to manage the Ritz Hotel, then assumed presidency of the empire in 1953 and he attempted to introduce his progressive ideas when he opened le bar Vendôme and the lEspadon restaurant but found himself hampered by the board of directors. A fly fishers life, Charles C, Ritz - Crown Publishers - Rev. and enl. ed edition generally agreed to be one of the best books on fly fishing skills ever written. Ritz, une histoire plus belle que la légende - Claude Roulet - Editions Quai Voltaire César Ritz, Paris, Hôtel Ritz - a biography of César Ritz written by his wife, Marie-Louise Beck
15.
Diana, Princess of Wales
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Diana, Princess of Wales, was the first wife of Charles, Prince of Wales, who is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Diana was born into a family of British nobility with royal ancestry and was the child and third daughter of John Spencer, Viscount Althorp. She grew up in Park House, situated on the Sandringham estate, in 1975, after her father inherited the title of Earl Spencer, she became known as Lady Diana Spencer. She came to prominence in February 1981 when her engagement to Prince Charles was announced and her wedding to the Prince of Wales on 29 July 1981, held at St Pauls Cathedral, reached a global television audience of over 750 million people. While married, Diana bore the titles Princess of Wales, Duchess of Cornwall, Duchess of Rothesay, the marriage produced two sons, the princes William and Harry, who were then respectively second and third in the line of succession to the British throne. As Princess of Wales, Diana undertook royal duties on behalf of the Queen and she was celebrated for her charity work and for her support of the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. She was involved with dozens of charities including Londons Great Ormond Street Hospital for children, Diana remained the object of worldwide media scrutiny during and after her marriage, which ended in divorce on 28 August 1996. Media attention and public mourning were extensive after her death in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997, Diana was born on 1 July 1961, in Park House, Sandringham, Norfolk. She was the fourth of five children of John Spencer, Viscount Althorp, the Spencer family has been closely allied with the British Royal Family for several generations. Both of Dianas grandmothers had served as ladies-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, on 30 August 1961, Diana was baptised at St. Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham, with wealthy commoners as godparents. Diana had three siblings, Sarah, Jane, and Charles and her infant brother, John, died shortly after his birth one year before Diana was born. The desire for an added strain to the Spencers marriage. Diana grew up in Park House, situated on the Sandringham estate, the Spencers leased the house from its owner, Queen Elizabeth II. The Royal Family frequently holidayed at the neighbouring Sandringham House, and Diana played with Princes Andrew, Diana was seven years old when her parents divorced. Her mother later had an affair with Peter Shand Kydd and married him in 1969, Diana lived with her mother in London during her parents separation in 1967, but during that years Christmas holidays, Lord Althorp refused to let Diana return to London with Lady Althorp. Shortly afterwards he won custody of Diana with support from his former mother-in-law, Ruth Roche, in 1972, Lord Althorp began a relationship with Raine, Countess of Dartmouth, the only daughter of Alexander McCorquodale and Dame Barbara Cartland. They married at Caxton Hall, London in 1976, as an upper-class child at the time, Diana was first educated under the supervision of her governess, Gertrude Allen. She began her education at Silfield Private School in Gayton, Norfolk, and moved to Riddlesworth Hall School, an all-girls boarding school near Diss
16.
Death of Diana, Princess of Wales
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On 31 August 1997, Diana, Princess of Wales, died as a result of injuries sustained in a car crash in the Pont de lAlma road tunnel in Paris, France. Dodi Fayed and Henri Paul, the driver of the Mercedes-Benz S280, were pronounced dead at the scene, the bodyguard of Diana and Fayed, Trevor Rees-Jones, was the only survivor. Although the media blamed the paparazzi following the car, an 18-month French judicial investigation found that the crash was caused by Paul, Paul was the deputy head of security at the Hôtel Ritz and had earlier goaded the paparazzi waiting outside the hotel. His inebriation may have been exacerbated by anti-depressants and traces of a tranquilising anti-psychotic in his body, the investigation concluded that the photographers were not near the Mercedes when it crashed. His claims were dismissed by a French judicial investigation and by Operation Paget, a Metropolitan Police Service inquiry that concluded in 2006. An inquest headed by Lord Justice Scott Baker into the deaths of Diana and Fayed began at the Royal Courts of Justice, London, on 2 October 2007, a continuation of the inquest that began in 2004. On 7 April 2008, the jury concluded that Diana and Fayed were the victims of a killing by the grossly negligent chauffeur Paul. On Saturday,30 August 1997, Diana left Sardinia on a jet and arrived in Paris with Dodi Fayed. They had stopped en route to London, having spent the preceding nine days together on board Mohamed Al-Fayeds yacht Jonikal on the French. They had intended to there for the night. Mohamed Al-Fayed was and is the owner of the Hôtel Ritz Paris and he also owned an apartment in Rue Arsène Houssaye, a short distance from the hotel, just off the Avenue des Champs Elysées. Diana and Fayed then departed from the rear entrance rue Cambon at around 00,20 on 31 August. They were the passengers, Trevor Rees-Jones, a member of the Fayed familys personal protection team, was in the front passenger seat. It then spun and hit the wall of the tunnel backwards. The impact caused damage, particularly to the front half of the vehicle. The Place de lAlma underpass is the one on that embankment road that has roof-supporting pillars. As the victims lay in the car, the photographers. Some rushed to help, tried to open the doors and help the victims, critically injured, Diana was reported to murmur repeatedly, Oh my God, and after the photographers and other helpers were pushed away by police, Leave me alone
17.
F. Scott Fitzgerald
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Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald, known professionally as F. Scott Fitzgerald, was an American novelist and short story writer, whose works illustrate the Jazz Age. While he achieved limited success in his lifetime, he is now regarded as one of the greatest American writers of the 20th century. Fitzgerald is considered a member of the Lost Generation of the 1920s and he finished four novels, This Side of Paradise, The Beautiful and Damned, The Great Gatsby, and Tender Is the Night. A fifth, unfinished novel, The Last Tycoon, was published posthumously, Fitzgerald also wrote numerous short stories, many of which treat themes of youth and promise, and age and despair. He was also named after his sister, Louise Scott Fitzgerald. Well, three months before I was born, he wrote as an adult, my mother lost her two children. I think I started then to be a writer and his mother was Mary Molly McQuillan Fitzgerald, the daughter of an Irish immigrant who had made his fortune in the wholesale grocery business. Fitzgerald was the first cousin once removed of Mary Surratt, hanged in 1865 for conspiring to assassinate Abraham Lincoln, Edward Fitzgerald had earlier worked as a wicker furniture salesman, he joined Procter & Gamble when the business failed. His parents, both Catholic, sent Fitzgerald to two Catholic schools on the West Side of Buffalo, first Holy Angels Convent and then Nardin Academy and his formative years in Buffalo revealed him to be a boy of unusual intelligence with a keen early interest in literature. His doting mother ensured that her son had all the advantages of an upper-middle-class upbringing and her inheritance and donations from an aunt allowed the family to live a comfortable lifestyle. In a rather unconventional style of parenting, Fitzgerald attended Holy Angels with the arrangement that he go for only half a day—and was allowed to choose which half. In 1908, his father was fired from Procter & Gamble, and the returned to Minnesota. When he was 13, he saw his first piece of writing appear in print—a detective story published in the school newspaper. In 1911, when Fitzgerald was 15 years old, his parents sent him to the Newman School, Fitzgerald played on the 1912 Newman football team. At Newman, he met Father Sigourney Fay, who noticed his incipient talent with the written word, after graduating from the Newman School in 1913, Fitzgerald decided to stay in New Jersey to continue his artistic development at Princeton University. He tried out for the football team, but was cut the first day of practice. He firmly dedicated himself at Princeton to honing his craft as a writer and he wrote for the Princeton Triangle Club, the Nassau Lit, and the Princeton Tiger. He also was involved in the American Whig-Cliosophic Society, which ran the Nassau Lit and his absorption in the Triangle—a kind of musical-comedy society—led to his submission of a novel to Charles Scribners Sons where the editor praised the writing but ultimately rejected the book
18.
Tender Is the Night
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Tender Is the Night is a novel by American writer F. Scott Fitzgerald. It was his fourth and final completed novel, and was first published in Scribners Magazine between January and April 1934 in four issues, the title is taken from the poem Ode to a Nightingale by John Keats. In 1932, Fitzgeralds wife Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald was hospitalized for schizophrenia in Baltimore and it was Fitzgeralds first novel in nine years, and the last that he would complete. The early 1930s, when Fitzgerald conceived and worked on the book, were the darkest years of his life, and the novels bleakness reflects his own experiences. The novel almost mirrors the events of Fitzgerald and Zeldas lives, as characters are pulled and put back into care. While working on the book, Fitzgerald was beset with financial difficulties and he borrowed money from both his editor and his agent and wrote short stories for commercial magazines. Two versions of the novel are in print, critics have suggested that Cowleys revision was undertaken due to negative reviews of the temporal structure of the first version of the book. Fitzgerald considered Tender Is the Night to be his greatest work, although it received a tepid response upon release, it has grown in acclaim over the years and is widely regarded as among Fitzgeralds best books. In 1998, the Modern Library ranked the novel 28th on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. Dick and Nicole Diver are a couple who take a villa in the South of France and surround themselves with a circle of friends. Also staying at the resort are Rosemary Hoyt, a young actress, Rosemary is sucked into the circle of the Divers, she becomes infatuated with Dick and is also adopted as a close friend by Nicole. Dick toys with, and later acts upon, the idea of an affair with Rosemary, Rosemary senses something is wrong with the couple, which is brought to light when one of the guests at a party reports having seen something strange in the bathroom. Tommy Barban, another guest, comes loyally to the defense of the Divers, the action involves various other friends, including the Norths, where a frequent occurrence is the drunken behavior of Abe North. The story becomes complicated when Jules Peterson, a man, is murdered and ends up in Rosemarys bed. Dick moves the body to cover up any implied relationship between Rosemary and Peterson. It is revealed through flashback that as a young doctor and psychiatrist. This patient was Nicole, whose complicated, incestuous relationship with her father is suggested as the cause of her breakdown, as her treatments progress, she becomes infatuated with Dick, who in turn develops Florence Nightingale syndrome. He eventually determines to marry Nicole, in part, as a means of providing her with lasting emotional stability, strong objections are raised by Nicoles sister who believes Dick is wedding her due to her status as an heiress
19.
The Sun Also Rises
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An early and enduring modernist novel, it received mixed reviews upon publication. Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes that it is recognized as Hemingways greatest work, the novel was published in the United States in October 1926 by the publishing house Scribners. A year later, the London publishing house Jonathan Cape published the novel with the title of Fiesta, since then it has been continuously in print. Hemingway began writing the novel on his birthday in 1925, finishing the draft manuscript barely two months later in September, after setting aside the manuscript for a short period, he worked on revisions during the winter of 1926. The basis for the novel was Hemingways 1925 trip to Spain, the setting was unique and memorable, showing seedy café life in Paris, and the excitement of the Pamplona festival, with a middle section devoted to descriptions of a fishing trip in the Pyrenees. Hemingways sparse writing style, combined with his use of description to convey characterizations and action. The novel is a roman à clef, the characters are based on people of Hemingways circle. In the novel, Hemingway presents his notion that the Lost Generation, considered to have been decadent, dissolute and irretrievably damaged by World War I, was resilient, additionally, Hemingway investigates the themes of love, death, renewal in nature, and the nature of masculinity. In the 1920s Hemingway lived in Paris, was foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star, with his wife Hadley Richardson, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, in 1923, where he was following his recent passion for bullfighting. The couple returned to Pamplona in 1924—enjoying the trip immensely—this time accompanied by Chink Dorman-Smith, John Dos Passos, the two returned a third time in June 1925 and stayed at the hotel of his friend Juanito Quintana. In Pamplona, the group quickly disintegrated, Hemingway, attracted to Duff, was jealous of Loeb, who had recently been on a romantic getaway with her, by the end of the week the two men had a public fistfight. Against this background was the influence of the young matador from Ronda, Cayetano Ordóñez, Ordóñez honored Hemingways wife by presenting her, from the bullring, with the ear of a bull he killed. Outside of Pamplona, the trip to the Irati River was marred by polluted water. Hemingway had intended to write a book about bullfighting. A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday, by 17 August, with 14 chapters written and a working title of Fiesta chosen, Hemingway returned to Paris. He finished the draft on 21 September 1925, writing a foreword the following weekend, a few months later, in December 1925, Hemingway and his wife spent the winter in Schruns, Austria, where he began revising the manuscript extensively. Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January, and—against Richardsons advice—urged him to sign a contract with Scribners, Hemingway left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers, and on his return, during a stop in Paris, began an affair with Pauline. He returned to Schruns to finish the revisions in March, in June, he was in Pamplona with both Richardson and Pfeiffer
20.
Billy Wilder
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Billy Wilder was a Austrian-born Jewish American filmmaker, screenwriter, producer, artist and journalist, whose career spanned more than fifty years and sixty films. He is regarded as one of the most brilliant and versatile filmmakers of Hollywoods golden age, with The Apartment, Wilder became the first person to win Academy Awards as producer, director and screenwriter for the same film. Wilder became a screenwriter in the late 1920s while living in Berlin, after the rise of the Nazi Party, Wilder, who was Jewish, left for Paris, where he made his directorial debut. He moved to Hollywood in 1933, and in 1939 he had a hit when he co-wrote the screenplay for the romantic comedy Ninotchka, Wilder established his directorial reputation with an adaption of James M. Cains Double Indemnity, a film noir. Wilder co-wrote the screenplay with crime novelist Raymond Chandler, Wilder earned the Best Director and Best Screenplay Academy Awards for the adaptation of a Charles R. Jackson story The Lost Weekend, about alcoholism. In 1950, Wilder co-wrote and directed the critically acclaimed Sunset Boulevard, from the mid-1950s on, Wilder made mostly comedies. Among the classics Wilder created in this period are the farces The Seven Year Itch and Some Like It Hot and he directed fourteen different actors in Oscar-nominated performances. Wilder was recognized with the American Film Institute Life Achievement Award in 1986, in 1988, Wilder was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award. In 1993, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts, born Samuel Wilder to a Polish-Jewish family in Sucha Beskidzka, Austria-Hungary, to Max and Eugenia Wilder, he was nicknamed Billie by his mother. He had a brother, William Lee Wilder, who also became a screenwriter, film producer. His parents had a successful and well-known cake shop in Sucha Beskidzkas train station, soon the family moved to Vienna, where Wilder attended school. Instead of attending the University of Vienna, Wilder became a journalist, to advance his career Wilder decided to move to Berlin, where, before achieving success as a writer, he allegedly worked as a taxi dancer. After writing crime and sports stories as a stringer for local newspapers, developing an interest in film, he began working as a screenwriter. He collaborated with several other tyros on the 1929 feature People on Sunday and he wrote the screenplay for the 1931 film adaptation of a novel by Erich Kästner, Emil and the Detectives. After the rise of Adolf Hitler, Wilder, Jewish, left for Paris and he relocated to Hollywood prior to its release. Wilders mother, grandmother and stepfather all perished in the Holocaust, after arriving in Hollywood in 1933, Wilder continued his career as a screenwriter. He became a citizen of the United States in 1934. Wilders first significant success was Ninotchka in 1939, a collaboration with fellow German immigrant Ernst Lubitsch and this romantic comedy starred Greta Garbo, and was popularly and critically acclaimed
21.
Love in the Afternoon (1957 film)
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Love in the Afternoon is a 1957 American romantic comedy film produced and directed by Billy Wilder which stars Audrey Hepburn and Gary Cooper. The screenplay by Wilder and I. A. L, Wilder was inspired by a 1931 German adaptation of the novel Ariane directed by Paul Czinner. Young cello student Ariane Chavasse eavesdrops on a conversation between her father, widowed private detective Claude Chavasse, and his client, Monsieur X, after learning of his wifes daily trysts with American business magnate Frank Flannagan, Monsieur X announces he will shoot Flannagan later that day. Claude is nonchalant, regretting only the business he will lose, when Ariane cannot get the police to intervene, she decides to warn him herself. When Monsieur X breaks into Flannagans hotel suite, he finds Flannagan with Ariane, Flannagan is intrigued by the mysterious girl, who refuses to give him any information about herself, even her name. He resorts to calling her thin girl and she has no romantic history but pretends to be a femme fatale to interest him, and soon falls in love with the considerably older man. She agrees to him the next afternoon, because her orchestral practice is in the evenings. She comes with mixed feelings, but ends up becoming his lover for the evening until his plane leaves, after a year, Flannagan returns to Paris. The two meet again when she sees him at an opera while surveying the crowd from a balcony and puts herself in his path in the lobby, and they start seeing each other again. This time, when he persists in his questioning, she makes up a long list of prior imaginary lovers based on her fathers files, Flannagan gradually goes from being amused to being tormented by the possible comparisons, but is unsure whether they are real. When he encounters a still-apologetic Monsieur X, the latter recommends Claude Chavasse to him and it does not take Chavasse long to realize the mystery woman is Ariane. He informs his client that his daughter fabricated her love life and he tells Flannagan that she is a little fish that he should throw back, since she is serious and he wants to avoid serious relationships. Flannagan decides to leave Paris, pretending to be on his way to former lovers. Chavasse reports that they got married and now live in New York, a. L. Diamond, who met when Wilder contacted Diamond after reading an article he had written for the Screen Writers Guild monthly magazine. The two men immediately hit it off, and Wilder suggested they collaborate on a project based on a German language film he had co-written in the early 1930s, Wilders first choices for Frank Flannagan were Cary Grant and Yul Brynner. It was a disappointment to me that never said yes to any picture I offered him and he had very strong ideas about what parts he wanted. The director decided to cast Gary Cooper because they shared similar tastes and interests and they talked about food and wine and clothes and art, according to co-star Audrey Hepburn, Wilders only choice for Ariane. Filming locations included the Château of Vitry in the Yvelines, the Palais Garnier, and it was Wilders insistence to shoot the film on location in Paris
22.
William Wyler
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William Wyler, born as Willy Wyler was an American film director, producer and screenwriter of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Wyler received his first Oscar nomination for directing Dodsworth in 1936, starring Walter Huston, Ruth Chatterton and Mary Astor, Film historian Ian Freer calls Wyler a bona fide perfectionist, whose penchant for retakes and an attempt to hone every last nuance, became the stuff of legend. Through his talent for staging, editing, and camera movement and he helped propel a number of actors to stardom, finding and directing Audrey Hepburn in her Hollywood debut film, Roman Holiday, and directing Barbra Streisand in her debut film, Funny Girl. He directed Olivia de Havilland to her second Oscar in The Heiress and Laurence Olivier in Wuthering Heights, Olivier credited Wyler with teaching him how to act for the screen. And Bette Davis, who received three Oscar nominations under his direction and won her second Oscar in Jezebel, said Wyler made her a far, far better actress than she had ever been. Other popular Wyler films include, Hells Heroes, Dodsworth, The Westerner, The Letter, Friendly Persuasion, The Big Country, The Childrens Hour, Wyler was born to a Jewish family in Mulhouse, Alsace. His Swiss father, Leopold, started as a traveling salesman which he turned into a thriving haberdashery business in Mulhouse. His mother, Melanie, was German, and a cousin of Carl Laemmle, during Wylers childhood, he attended a number of schools and developed a reputation as something of a hellraiser, being expelled more than once for misbehavior. His mother often took him and his older brother Robert to concerts, opera, sometimes at home his family and their friends would stage amateur theatricals for personal enjoyment. Wyler was supposed to take over the family business in Mulhouse. After World War I, he spent a year working in Paris at 100.000 Chemises selling shirts. He was so poor that he spent his time wandering around the Pigalle district. After realizing that Willy was not interested in the business, his mother, Melanie, contacted her distant cousin, Carl Laemmle who owned Universal Studios. Laemmle was in the habit of coming to Europe each year, in 1921, Wyler, while traveling as a Swiss citizen, met Laemmle who hired him to work at Universal Studios in New York. As Wyler said, America seemed as far away as the moon, booked onto a ship to New York with Laemmle upon his return voyage, he met a young Czech man, Paul Kohner, aboard the same ship. Their enjoyment of the first class trip was short-lived, however, after working in New York for several years, and even serving in the New York Army National Guard for a year, Wyler moved to Hollywood to become a director. Around 1923, Wyler arrived in Los Angeles and began work on the Universal Studios lot in the gang, cleaning the stages. His break came when he was hired as an assistant editor
23.
How to Steal a Million
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How to Steal a Million is a 1966 heist comedy film, directed by William Wyler and starring Audrey Hepburn, Peter OToole, Eli Wallach and Hugh Griffith. The picture is set and was filmed in France, though the characters speak entirely in English, Audrey Hepburns clothes were designed by Givenchy. Charles Bonnet is a skilled art forger who pretends to be an art collector. His daughter Nicole disapproves of his forgeries and is afraid that he may get caught, at the beginning of the film, he lends a renowned statue of Venus, ostensibly by Cellini, to the Kléber-Lafayette Museum in Paris as the centerpiece of an important exhibition. However, the statue was forged by Nicoles grandfather and would even a basic analysis as to its materials. That night, while Charles is at the opening event. She finds Simon Dermott holding a Van Gogh that her father made recently, accusing him of burglary, she aims an antique gun at him and accidentally shoots him in the arm. To avoid an investigation around the fake masterpieces, she not call the police. He suddenly kisses her goodbye outside, soon after, Nicole has a dinner date with wealthy American tycoon, Davis Leland. She is suspicious of Davis, believing he knows her father is an art forger and he confesses to Nicole he is obsessed with owning the Cellini Venus, and arranged the dinner in order to convince her to sell it to him. Relieved that he doesnt suspect anything, she kisses him and tells him that the statue is not for sale, the next day, an employee from the museum arrives at Charless home and asks for Charless signature on the million-dollar insurance policy for the sculpture. After Charles signs it, the man reveals that Charles just agreed that the Venus will undergo an examination the following Friday. Desperate to save her father from being caught and sent to prison, Nicole meets with Simon, believing him to be a burglar and they both examine the museums security measures, with Simon initially indicating he does not believe it is possible to steal the Venus. On the night of the heist, Davis shows up again at Nicole, Davis is so in love with the Cellini and desperate to acquire it that he asks her to marry him. Not wanting to be late, she takes the ring. Nicole and Simon hide in a utility closet until the museum closes, after making note of how often the guards check the museum, Simon sets off the security alarm surrounding the Cellini Venus using a boomerang he had bought at the park a few days before. The guards and police rush in and check the museum, but upon finding that nothing is missing, they soon leave and reset the alarm. Simon reveals that he knows that Nicole wants the statue stolen because of the examination the next day
24.
Baden-Baden
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Baden-Baden is a spa town, located in the state of Baden-Württemberg in southwestern Germany. The springs at Baden-Baden were known to the Romans as Aquae, in modern German, Baden is a gerund meaning bathing but Baden, the original name of the town, derives from an earlier plural form of Bad. As with the English placename Bath, there are various other Badens at hot springs throughout Central Europe, the current doubled name arose to distinguish it from the others, particularly Baden near Vienna in Austria and Baden near Zürich in Switzerland. It is a reference to the Margraviate of Baden-Baden, a subdivision of the Margraviate of Baden, Baden-Baden became its formal name in 1931. Baden-Baden lies in a valley of the Northern Black Forest in southwestern Germany, the western districts lie within the Upper Rhine Plain. The highest mountain of Baden-Baden is the Badener Höhe, which is part of the Black Forest National Park, the old town lies on the side of a hill on the right bank of the Oos. Since the 19th century, the resorts have been located on the other side of the river. There are 29 natural springs in the area, varying in temperature from 46 to 67 °C. The water is rich in salt and flows from artesian wells 1,800 m under Florentine Hill at a rate of 341 litre per minute and is conveyed through pipes to the towns baths. Roman settlement at Baden-Baden has been dated as far back as the emperor Hadrian, the known ruins of the Roman bath were rediscovered just below the New Castle in 1847 and date to the reign of Caracalla, who visited the area to relieve his arthritic aches. The facilities were used by the Roman garrison in Strasbourg, the town fell into ruin but its church was first constructed in the 7th century. By 1112, it was the seat of the Margraviate of Baden, the Lichtenthal Convent was founded in 1254. The margraves initially used Hohenbaden Castle, whose ruins still occupy the summit above the town, Baden suffered severely during the Thirty Years War, particularly at the hands of the French, who plundered it in 1643. They returned to occupy the city in 1688 at the onset of the Nine Years War, the margravine Sibylla rebuilt the New Castle in 1697, but the margrave Louis William removed his seat to Rastatt in 1706. The Stiftskirche was rebuilt in 1753 and houses the tombs of several of the margraves, the town began its recovery in the late 18th century, serving as a refuge for émigrés from the French Revolution. The town was frequented during the Second Congress of Rastatt in 1797–99 and she came for medicinal reasons, as the waters were recommended for gout, rheumatism, paralysis, neuralgia, skin disorders, and stones. The Ducal government subsequently subsidized the resorts development, guests included Queen Victoria, Wilhelm I, and Berlioz. The pumproom was completed in 1842, the Grand Duchys railways mainline reached Baden in 1845
25.
Richard D'Oyly Carte
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Richard DOyly Carte was an English talent agent, theatrical impresario, composer and hotelier during the latter half of the Victorian era. Carte started his working for his father, Richard Carte, in the music publishing. As a young man, he conducted and composed music, Carte believed that a school of wholesome, well-crafted, family-friendly, English comic opera could be as popular as the risqué French works dominating the London musical stage in the 1870s. To that end, he brought together the dramatist W. S. Gilbert and composer Arthur Sullivan and, together with his wife Helen Carte and he founded the DOyly Carte Opera Company and built the state-of-the-art Savoy Theatre to host the Gilbert and Sullivan operas. Carte also built the Savoy Hotel in London, and acquired other luxury hotels and his opera company, later operated by Helen and then by his son, Rupert, and granddaughter, Bridget, promoted those works for over a century, and they are still performed regularly today. Carte was born in Greek Street in the West End of London on 3 May 1844 and he was the eldest of six children. His father, Richard Carte, was a flautist, and his mother was the former Eliza Jones, they had eloped, to the disappointment of her father, Thomas Jones and his siblings were Blanch, Viola, Rose, Henry and Eliza. Carte was of Welsh and Norman ancestry, DOyly is a Norman French name which was a forename, to supplement his income as a performer, Cartes father joined the firm of Rudall, Rose & Co. musical instrument makers and music publishers, in 1850. After he became a partner in the business, it changed its name to Rudall, Rose, Carte and Co. and later to Rudall, Carte was brought up in Dartmouth Park Road. His cultured mother exposed her family to art, music and poetry, the family spoke French at home two days a week, and his parents often took their children to the theatre. He was educated at University College School, which he left in 1860, in 1861, he achieved First Class level in the matriculation examination and then attended University College, London. However, he later that year to work in his fathers business, along with his brother. He studied music during this time and composed pieces, which he dedicated to the actress Kate Terry. He also acted in amateur theatricals, spencer Mott, at Londons Opera Comique in 1871, and Happy Hampstead, with librettist Frank Desprez, which debuted on an 1876 provincial tour and then played at the Royalty Theatre in 1877. On tour in 1871, Carte conducted Cox and Box by composer Arthur Sullivan, burnand, in tandem with English adaptations of two Offenbach pieces, called Rose of Auvergne and Breaking the Spell, in which Cartes client Selina Dolaro appeared. Cartes musical talent would be later in his career, as he was able to audition singers himself from the pianoforte. Hesketh Pearson said of Carte, His acute business sense was aided by a frank and he took what other people thought were risks, but he felt were certainties. And his practical judgement was as sure as his sense of artistry, Carte announced his ambitions on the front of the programme for the latter, It is my desire to establish in London a permanent abode for light Opera
26.
Savoy Hotel
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The Savoy Hotel is a luxury hotel located in the Strand in the City of Westminster in central London, England. Built by the impresario Richard DOyly Carte with profits from his Gilbert and Sullivan opera productions and it was the first in the Savoy group of hotels and restaurants owned by Cartes family for over a century. The hotel became Cartes most successful venture and its bands, Savoy Orpheans and the Savoy Havana Band, became famous, and other entertainers included George Gershwin, Frank Sinatra, Lena Horne and Noël Coward. Winston Churchill often took his cabinet to lunch at the hotel, the hotel is now managed by Fairmont Hotels and Resorts. It has been called Londons most famous hotel and it has 268 rooms and panoramic views of the River Thames across Savoy Place and the Thames Embankment. The hotel is a Grade II listed building, the House of Savoy was the ruling family of Savoy, descended from Humbert I, Count of Sabaudia, who became count in 1032. The name Sabaudia evolved into Savoy, Count Peter of Savoy was the maternal uncle of Eleanor of Provence, queen-consort of Henry III of England, and came with her to London. King Henry III made Peter Earl of Richmond and, in 1246, Peter gifted the palace and the manor of the Savoy to the Congregation of Canons of the Great Saint Bernard, and the palace became the Great Hospital of St Bernard de Monte Jovis in Savoy. The manor was purchased by Queen Eleanor, who gave the site to her second son, Edmund. Edmunds great-granddaughter, Blanche, inherited the site and her husband, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, built a magnificent palace that was burned down by Wat Tylers followers in the Peasants Revolt of 1381. King Richard II was still a child, and his uncle John of Gaunt was the power behind the throne, in about 1505, Henry VII planned a great hospital for pouer, nedie people, leaving money and instructions for it in his will. The hospital was built in the ruins and licensed in 1512. Drawings show that it was a magnificent building, with a dormitory, dining hall, Henry VIIs hospital lasted for two centuries, but suffered from poor management. The sixteenth-century historian Stow noted that the hospital was being misused by loiterers, vagabonds, in 1702, the hospital was dissolved, and the hospital buildings were used for other purposes. Part of the old palace was used as a prison in the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century, the old buildings were demolished. Opened in 1889, the hotel was designed by architect Thomas Edward Collcutt, Carte chose the name Savoy to commemorate the history of the property. His investors in the venture were, in addition to his relatives, Carl Rosa, George Grossmith, François Cellier, George Edwardes, Augustus Harris and his friend, the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan, was a shareholder and sat on the Board of Directors
27.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
28.
Marcel Proust
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He is considered by critics and writers to be one of the most influential authors of the 20th century. Proust was born in Auteuil at the home of his great-uncle on 10 July 1871 and he was born during the violence that surrounded the suppression of the Paris Commune, and his childhood corresponded with the consolidation of the French Third Republic. Prousts father, Adrien Proust, was a prominent pathologist and epidemiologist, studying cholera in Europe and he wrote numerous articles and books on medicine and hygiene. Prousts mother, Jeanne Clémence Weil, was the daughter of a wealthy Jewish family from Alsace, literate and well-read, she demonstrated a well-developed sense of humour in her letters, and her command of English was sufficient to help with her sons translations of John Ruskin. Proust was raised in his fathers Catholic faith and he was baptized and later confirmed as a Catholic, but he never formally practiced that faith. He later became an atheist and was somewhat of a mystic, by the age of nine, Proust had had his first serious asthma attack, and thereafter he was considered a sickly child. Proust spent long holidays in the village of Illiers, in 1882, at the age of eleven, Proust became a pupil at the Lycée Condorcet, but his education was disrupted by his illness. Despite this he excelled in literature, receiving an award in his final year, thanks to his classmates, he was able to gain access to some of the salons of the upper bourgeoisie, providing him with copious material for In Search of Lost Time. As a young man, Proust was a dilettante and a social climber whose aspirations as a writer were hampered by his lack of self-discipline. His reputation from this period, as a snob and an amateur, contributed to his troubles with getting Swanns Way. It is through Mme Arman de Caillavet that he made the acquaintance of Anatole France, Proust had a close relationship with his mother. To appease his father, who insisted that he pursue a career, after exerting considerable effort, he obtained a sick leave that extended for several years until he was considered to have resigned. He never worked at his job, and he did not move from his parents apartment until after both were dead and his life and family circle changed markedly between 1900 and 1905. In February 1903, Prousts brother, Robert Proust, married and his father died in November of the same year. Finally, and most crushingly, Prousts beloved mother died in September 1905 and she left him a considerable inheritance. His health throughout this period continued to deteriorate, Proust spent the last three years of his life mostly confined to his bedroom, sleeping during the day and working at night to complete his novel. He died of pneumonia and an abscess in 1922. He was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, Proust was involved in writing and publishing from an early age
29.
Pierre-Georges Jeanniot
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Pierre-Georges Jeanniot was a Swiss-French Impressionist painter, designer, watercolorist, and engraver who was born in Geneva, Switzerland, and died in France. His work often depicts the life in Paris. The artistic education of Pierre-Georges Jeanniot began with his father, Pierre-Alexandre Jeanniot, nevertheless, Pierre-Georges Jeanniot started out pursuing a military career, as an infantry officer, but he never ceased drawing. He was known for the first time in 1872 at the art exhibition Salon de Paris, the next year he presented the painting Le Vernan à Nass-sous-Sainte-Anne. From then on he was a contributor to the Salon de Paris, where he presented new works with views of Toulouse, Paris, Troyes, the edges of the Seine. In 1881, after the army offered him the rank of commandant and he took up residence in Paris. His works from this period represent mainly scenes of life that allowed him to forge a reputation. Jeanniot established himself permanently in 1882 and obtained his first award the year with his les Flanqueurs. In 1886, La ligne de feu, souvenirs de la bataille de Rezonville, remembering the Battle of Mars-La-Tour, from then on, he started to show a certain artistic independence. He then mostly portrayed Parisian women during the Belle Epoque, women in bathing suits on the beaches or scenes on the race course and these paintings give us a vivid sociological portrayal of his times. But as soon as the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts was founded in 1899, in Paris, he secured himself friendships and memories of Édouard Manet, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Jean-Louis Carnival, Paul Helleu, and especially with Edgar Degas, whom he revered as a master. He spent much time with Edgar Degas in his home in Diénay. He was gifted with many talents and also excelled with his drawings and he showed in his drawings his passion and his artistic strength. They are vivacious, expressive and enthusiastic, while at the same time, during the next decades he illustrated a large number of literary books, among them Le Voyage à Saint-Cloud, Germinie Lacerteux, Contes choisis, Tartarin de Tarascon, Les Liaisons dangereuses. He was also one of the illustrators of Les Misérables, La Débâcle et La Curée, Le Calvaire, Le Misanthrope, Les Paysans and he was one of the first collaborators of the review La Vie Moderne and also contributed to the review La Lutte Moderne. In a later stage he became the director of Journal amusant, while also offering contributions to Rire, as an engraver, he also sketches ironic scenes from the daily life depicting in lively traits the snobs of Paris. His talents suggest a resemblance to the works of Toulouse-Lautrec and Mary Cassatt, at the same time he also used the woodcut printing technique allowing vivid contrasts between dark and bright parts of the image. His works can be found in museums, though most are situated in France
30.
Remembrance of Things Past
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In Search of Lost Time – previously also translated as Remembrance of Things Past – is a novel in seven volumes, written by Marcel Proust. The novel began to shape in 1909. Proust continued to work on it until his illness in the autumn of 1922 forced him to break off. Proust established the early on, but even after volumes were initially finished he kept adding new material. The work was published in France between 1913 and 1927, Proust paid for the publication of the first volume after it had been turned down by leading editors who had been offered the manuscript in longhand. The novel had great influence on literature, some writers have sought to emulate it. In the centenary year of Du côté de chez Swann, Edmund White pronounced À la recherche du temps perdu the most respected novel of the twentieth century. The novel was published in seven volumes, Swanns Way was rejected by a number of publishers, including Fasquelle, Ollendorff. Proust eventually arranged with the publisher Grasset to pay the cost of publication himself, when published it was advertised as the first of a three-volume novel. Du côté de chez Swann is divided into four parts, Combray I, Combray II, Un Amour de Swann, a third-person novella within Du côté de chez Swann, Un Amour de Swann is sometimes published as a volume by itself. Combray I is also similarly excerpted, it ends with the famous madeleine cake episode, in early 1914 Gide, who had been involved in NRFs rejection of the book, wrote to Proust to apologize and to offer congratulations on the novel. For several days I have been unable to put your book down, Gallimard offered to publish the remaining volumes, but Proust chose to stay with Grasset. In the Shadow of Young Girls in Flower was scheduled to be published in 1914 but was delayed by the onset of World War I, at the same time, Grassets firm was closed down when the publisher went into military service. This freed Proust to move to Gallimard, where all of the subsequent volumes were published, meanwhile, the novel kept growing in length and in conception. When published, the novel was awarded the Prix Goncourt in 1919, the Guermantes Way was originally published in two volumes as Le Côté de Guermantes I and Le Côté de Guermantes II. Sodom and Gomorrah was originally published in two volumes, the first forty pages of Sodome et Gomorrhe initially appeared at the end of Le Côté de Guermantes II, the remainder appearing as Sodome et Gomorrhe I and Sodome et Gomorrhe II. It was the last volume over which Proust supervised publication before his death in November 1922, the publication of the remaining volumes was carried out by his brother, Robert Proust, and Jacques Rivière. The Prisoner is the first volume of the section within In Search of Lost Time known as le Roman dAlbertine, the name Albertine first appears in Prousts notebooks in 1913
31.
Marie of Romania
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Princess Marie of Edinburgh, more commonly known as Marie of Romania, was the last Queen consort of Romania as the wife of King Ferdinand I. Born into the British royal family, she was titled Princess Marie of Edinburgh at birth and her parents were Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh and Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia. Maries early years were spent in Kent, Malta and Coburg, after refusing a proposal from her cousin, the future King George V, she was chosen as the future wife of Crown Prince Ferdinand of Romania, the heir apparent of King Carol I, in 1892. Marie was Crown Princess between 1893 and 1914, and became popular with the Romanian people. After the outbreak of World War I, Marie urged Ferdinand to ally himself with the Triple Entente and declare war on Germany, during the early stages of fighting, Bucharest was occupied by the Central Powers and Marie, Ferdinand and their five children took refuge in Moldavia. There, she and her three daughters acted as nurses in hospitals, caring for soldiers who were wounded or afflicted by cholera. On 1 December 1918, the province of Transylvania, following Bessarabia and Bukovina, Marie, now Queen consort of Greater Romania, attended the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, where she campaigned for international recognition of the enlarged Romania. In 1922, she and Ferdinand were crowned in a cathedral in the ancient city of Alba Iulia, in an elaborate ceremony which mirrored their status as queen. As queen, she was popular, both in Romania and abroad. In 1926, Marie and two of her children undertook a tour of the United States. They were received enthusiastically by the people and visited several cities before returning to Romania, there, Marie found that Ferdinand was gravely ill and he died a few months later. Now queen dowager, Marie refused to be part of the council which reigned over the country under the minority of her grandson. In 1930, Maries eldest son Carol, who had waived his rights to succession, deposed his son and usurped the throne and he removed Marie from the political scene and strived to crush her popularity. As a result, Marie moved away from Bucharest and spent the rest of her either in the countryside. In 1937, she became ill with cirrhosis and died the following year, following Romanias transition to a Socialist Republic, the monarchy was excoriated by communist officials. In the years preceding the Romanian Revolution of 1989, Maries popularity recovered, Marie is primarily remembered for her work as a nurse, but is also known for her extensive writing, including her critically acclaimed autobiography. She was born at her parents residence, Eastwell Manor in Kent, on 29 October 1875 and her birth was celebrated by firing the Park and Tower guns. She was named Marie Alexandra Victoria, after her mother and grandmothers, the Duke of Edinburgh wrote that his daughter promises to be as fine a child as her brother and gives every evidence of finely developed lungs and did so before she was fairly in the world
32.
Greater Romania
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The term Greater Romania usually refers to the borders of the Kingdom of Romania in the interwar period. It also refers to a pan-nationalist idea, as concept, the main goal is the re-creation of a nation-state which would incorporate all Romanian speakers. The phrase is associated with the Kingdom of Romania between 1918 and 1940, often considered the realization of the pan-Romanian goal. In 1918, after the incorporation of Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia, nowadays, the concept serves as a guiding principle for the unification of Romania and Moldova. The idea is comparable to other similar such as Greek Megali Idea, Greater Hungary, Greater Bulgaria, Greater Serbia. The theme of national identity had always a key concern for Romanian culture. The Romanian national ideology in the first decades of the century was a typical example of ethnocentric nationalism. The concept of Greater Romania shows similarities to the idea of national state, the Romanian territorial claims were based on primordial racial modalities, the essential goal of them was to unify the biologically defined Romanians. The nation-building based on the French model of a unitary nation-state became an all time priority especially in the interwar and this theory became a point of reference for nationalists, as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state. The concept owes its life to Dumitru Brătianu, who introduced the term Greater Romania in 1852, the concept became a political reality when, in 1881, the Romanian National Party of Transylvania gathered Romanians on a common political platform to fight together for Transylvanias autonomy. According to Livezeanu the creation of Greater Romania with a concept of nationhood started to evolve in the late 1910s. The Word War One played a part in the development of Romanian national consciousness. The Treaty of Bucharest was signed between Romania and the Entente Powers on 4 /17 August 1916 in Bucharest, the treaty stipulated the conditions under which Romania agreed to join the war on the side of the Entente, particularly territorial promises in Austria-Hungary. The signatories bound themselves to keep secret the contents of the treaty until a peace was concluded. The war which for the last two years has been encircling our frontiers more and more closely has shaken the ancient foundations of Europe to their depths and it is the day of the union of all branches of our nation. For us the mountains and plains of Bukowina, where Stephen the Great has slept for centuries, part of the proclamation by King Ferdinand,28 August 1916 The concept of Greater Romania materialized as a geopolitical reality after the First World War. Romania gained control over Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania, the borders established by the treaties concluding the war did not change until 1940. Its constitution, proclaimed in 1923, largely ignored the new ethnic, in January 1918, the Sfatul Ţării called on Romanian troops to protect the province from the Bolsheviks who were spreading the Russian Revolution
33.
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
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It took place in Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. The main result was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and this provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for the expensive reparations Germany was intended to pay. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, the conference opened on 18 January 1919. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the five major powers controlled the Conference. Amongst the Big Five, in practice Japan played a small role, the four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the approved the decisions made by the Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations, the main result was the Treaty of Versailles, with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and her allies. This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany was supposed to pay, republican Germany was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia were present, a central issue of the Conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany. The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice, Australia wanted New Guinea, New Zealand wanted Samoa, and South Africa wanted South West Africa. Wilson wanted the League of Nations to administer all the German colonies until such time as they were ready for independence, Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions, and he proposed a compromise that there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category, they would be divided up between Britain and France, Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution. The dominions received Class C Mandates to the colonies they wanted, Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the equator. Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States, his top advisor Colonel House was deeply involved in awarding the others, Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands. He and Hughes had some clashes, with the most famous being, Wilson, But after all. Hughes, I represent sixty thousand dead, prior to Wilsons arrival in Europe in December 1918, no American president had ever visited Europe while in office. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era, in doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged and he worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French and British delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe, as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East
34.
Ledoyen
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The Ledoyen is one of the oldest restaurants in Paris, situated in the square gardens in the eastern part of the Champs-Élysées in the 8th arrondissement. Its long history places it on the Champs-Élysées before the streets beautification, situated in a two-storey pavilion with gardens, Ledoyen is considered to be one of Paris best gourmet restaurants, and boasts three Michelin stars. Initially, it began in 1779 as a small inn named Au Dauphin. It was located near the Place Louis XV, near the Café des Ambassadeurs, at that time it was a country inn on the outskirts and cows grazed in the fields outside. On 4 August 1791, Pierre-Michel Ledoyen, a son of caterers, rented it, Ledoyen, a plongeur in his early years, renamed the restaurant after himself in 1814, and it was owned by the Desmazures for many years. In 1842, architect Jacques Hittorff, responsible for the development of the gardens of the Champs-Élysées, six years later, it was repaired and renovated following a fire. Today, the walls are owned by the city of Paris. Despite its prestige and its three Michelin Star status under Christian Le Squer since 2002, the restaurant is reportedly inexpensive and it is currently operated by Yannick Alleno, who in his first year achieved 3 Michelin Stars. The original building was 13 by 4 metres, with white walls, when the restaurant was relocated in 1784 it was to a two-storey pavilion with terraced gardens, designed in the Neoclassical style. Its features include many windows, ornate ceilings, and historic second floor rooms. Dining areas include outdoor seating, interior salons, and a 1950s style grill room, during the late 18th century, it was a haunt of Louis de Saint-Just and Maximilien Robespierre and they dined there on 26 July 1794, two days before their execution. A mid-19th-century account states that the restaurant was also the breakfast place of duellists, list of Michelin three starred restaurants Restaurant site French gourmet internet website
35.
Nazism
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National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
36.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
37.
Dodi Fayed
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Emad El-Din Mohamed Abdel Munaim Al-Fayed, better known as Dodi Fayed, was the son of Egyptian billionaire Mohamed Al-Fayed. He was in a relationship with Diana, Princess of Wales. Fayed was born in Alexandria, Egypt and was the eldest son of billionaire Mohamed Al-Fayed and his father was also the former owner of Fulham Football Club and the Hôtel Ritz Paris. His mother was Samira Khashoggi, sister of Saudi Arabian-born billionaire arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi, Fayed was a student at Collège Saint Marc before attending the Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland. After completing his education, he served as an attaché at the United Arab Emirates Embassy in London, Fayed was the executive producer of the films Chariots of Fire, Breaking Glass, F/X, F/X2, Hook, and The Scarlet Letter. He also served as the creative consultant for the F/X. Fayed also worked for his father on Harrods marketing, in 1986, Fayed married model Suzanne Gregard, but the couple divorced after eight months of marriage. In July 1997, Fayed became romantically involved with Diana, Princess of Wales, earlier that summer, Fayed had become engaged to an American model, Kelly Fisher, and had bought a house in Malibu, California for himself and Fisher with money from his father. He threw her away in a callous way with no regard for her whatsoever. She dropped the lawsuit shortly afterwards, in the early-morning hours of 31 August 1997, Diana and Fayed died in a car crash in the Pont de lAlma underpass, in Paris. They had stopped in Paris en route to London, after having spent nine days together on holiday in the French and Italian Rivieras aboard his familys yacht, neither Fayed nor Diana was wearing a seat belt. Fayeds father, Mohamed Al-Fayed, has claimed that the couple were executed by MI6 agents, fayeds former spokesman, Michael Cole, has claimed that the couple had become engaged before their deaths. Fayed was originally interred in Brookwood Cemetery near Woking, Surrey but was moved to the Fayed estate in Oxted, fayeds father has erected two memorials to his son and Diana at Harrods. The second, unveiled in 2005 and titled Innocent Victims, is a 3-metre-high bronze statue of the two dancing on a beach, beneath the wings of an albatross. The memorials were designed by 80-year-old Bill Mitchell, a friend of Dodis fathers. Operation Paget Peter Pan dedicated to Fayed Dodi Fayed at the Internet Movie Database
38.
Henri Paul
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Henri Paul was the driver of the Mercedes S280 in which Princess Diana died on 31 August 1997. As Deputy Head of Security at the Hôtel Ritz Paris, Paul had been off-duty that evening but was called back to drive Diana, the car crashed at high speed in the Pont de lAlma tunnel, with only bodyguard Trevor Rees-Jones survived. There have been many theories surrounding the car crash. However, British and French police investigations put the blame largely on Paul for being affected by alcohol and prescription drugs, Paul had worked for the Fayed family for almost 11 years. He received his pilots licence in 1974 and was said to have enjoyed renting an aircraft to fly over to Lorient. Three days before the crash, Paul successfully passed his annual physical examination. Pauls parents, Jean and Giselle, claim this test would have if he had serious problems with alcohol. The original Certificat d’aptitude physique et mentale was shown on Diana - Geheimnisse der Todesnacht, on the German TV channel ZDF, Paul made no certification of alcohol problems and none were externally apparent to the doctor who examined him. Pauls blood alcohol content level was found to be between 1.73 g/L and 1.75 g/L, a figure more than three times the threshold for drunk driving as defined under French law. Pauls parents dispute the authenticity and the accuracy of the test results, as does Dodis father, in her statement to French police, his medical doctor Dominique Mélo, who was also a friend, explained, Henry drank like everyone else, but not to excess. He did not have the clinical stigmata or the behaviour of a chronic alcoholic and she believed he was not alcohol-dependent but she was worried that he might become so, and in about June 1996, she prescribed him the anti-depressant Prozac, and an anti-alcoholism medication, Aotal. Dr Mélo said that sometimes he would not take his anti-alcoholism medication so that he could drink in reasonable quantities, an empty packet of Aotal tablets was found in the wastepaper basket of Pauls office at the Ritz Hotel. The blood samples analysed did not contain traces of Aotal, which means he could not have any for at least a few days. Traces of the anti-depressants were found in post-mortem examinations of his blood, the inquest revealed that the autopsy also found Pauls liver to be normal with no indicating signs of problems connected with alcoholism. Operation Paget investigated the reliability of the post-mortem examinations using DNA comparison of the blood sample by comparing a DNA profile from it with Pauls mothers DNA profile. The test produced a result there was maternal relationship between the two profiles to a probability of 99. 9997%. It was disclosed that in November 2006 John Stevens had a meeting with Pauls parents and told them that their son was not drunk, five weeks later the report stated that Paul was twice over the British drink-drive limit and three times over the French limit. An expert cited in the report estimated that Paul had drunk the equivalent of ten small glasses of Ricard, his favourite anise-flavoured French aperitif and he was though clearly under the influence of alcohol and unfit to drive
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