1.
Corps de logis
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Corps de logis is an architectural term referring to the principal block of a large, usually classical, mansion or palace. It contains the rooms, state apartments and an entry. The grandest and finest rooms are often on the first floor above the ground level, the corps de logis is usually flanked by lower secondary wings. When the secondary wings form a three sided courtyard, the courtyard is known as the Cour dHonneur, examples of a corps de logis can be found in many of the most notable Classical Era buildings of Europe including the Palace of Versailles, Blenheim Palace and the Palazzo Pitti. In France, the block of medieval castles and manor houses is often referred to as the corps de logis
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Archives Nationales (France)
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In 1800 the Archives Nationales became an autonomous body of the French state. Today, they contain about 406 km. of documents, a mass of documents growing every year. The original documents stored by the Archives Nationales range from AD625 to today, the Archives Nationales are under the authority of the French Archives Administration in the Ministry of Culture. The Archives of France also manage the 100 departmental archives located in the préfectures of each of the 100 départements of France, as well as various other local archives. The Archives Nationales has been located since 1808 in a group of buildings comprising the Hôtel de Soubise and this centre stores all the documents and records from before 1958 as well as the archives of the French heads of state. Since 1867 it has housed the Musée de lHistoire de France. The Archives Nationales, however, do not keep the records of Paris. These were entirely destroyed by fires set by extremists at the end of the Paris Commune in 1871, the oldest document kept at the AN is a papyrus dated AD625 coming from the archives of the Basilica of St Denis seized at the time of the French Revolution. This papyrus is the confirmation of a grant of land in the city of Paris to the Abbey of Saint-Denis issued by King Chlothar II. This document is the oldest original one kept by the Archives Nationales, in total the Archives Nationales possess 47 original documents from the Merovingian period. It was inscribed on UNESCOs Memory of the World Programme Register in 2003 in recognition of its historical significance, the Centre for Contemporary Archives, founded as the Cité interministérielle des archives, opened in Fontainebleau in 1969. It is the repository for documents issued by the French central state since 1958 and it contains 193 km. of archives. The National Overseas Archives, originally the Centre for Overseas Archives, the ANOM also possesses private and corporate archives related to the former French colonies and Algeria. In total the ANOM keeps 37 km. of archives from the 17th to the 20th century covering more than 40 currently independent countries spread over 5 continents. Note that the archives concerning Tunisia and Morocco, which were protectorates and not colonies, are kept by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in its Diplomatic Archives. In addition to these 37 km. of archives, the ANOM also possesses 60,000 maps and plans going back to the 17th century,150,000 photographs,20,000 postcards, and 100,000 books. The National Archives of the World of Work, originally the Centre for the Archives of the World of Work and it stores the archives of businesses, trades unions, associations and societies, and architects. In total it contains 35 km. of archives, most of the archives in this centre are private archives
4.
House of Rohan
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The House of Rohan is a French noble family of viscounts, later dukes and princes, coming from the locality of Rohan in Brittany. Their line descends from the viscounts of Porhoët and is said to back to the legendary Conan Meriadoc. Through the Porhoët, the Rohan are related to the Dukes of Brittany and they developed ties with the French and English royal houses as well, and played an important role in France and European history. Alain I de Rohan, son of the viscount of Porhoët, was the first to take on the name of Rohan, the main branch of the family became extinct when Jean II died childless in 1638, his title and possessions passed on to the cadet branch of Rohan-Gié. When the first duke of Rohan, Henri II de Rohan-Gié, died, his title and this created the Rohan-Chabot lineage, which was not really a branch of the Rohan family. Rohan-Gié, extinct 1638 Rohan-Soubise, extinct 1787 The family of Rohan has a documented history. Spanish Royal Genealogy, Henri Vanoene The Rohan-Chabot family in Josselin Marek, Miroslav
5.
Cour d'honneur
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The Palace of Versailles and Blenheim Palace both feature such entrance courts. Its open courtyard is presented like the permanent theatre set of a proscenium stage. Like the theatre set the environment is defined and enclosed from the more public space by ornate wrought iron gilded railings. Other 16th century urban palazzi remained resolutely enclosed, like Palazzo Farnese, in Rome, the wings of Carlo Madernos Palazzo Barberini design, were the first that reached forward from a central block to create a cour dhonneur floorplan. On a condensed, urban scale the formula is expressed in Parisian private houses, hôtels particuliers built entre cour et jardin, between court and garden. Nearby, the Tuileries Palace is gone, but the cour dhonneur with its Arc du Carrousel remains, vanderbilt House on the Plaza were the rare exceptions. The much-photographed front façade of Buckingham Palace was refashioned by Sir Aston Webb in 1913, the cour dhonneur, now known as The Quadrangle, still retains the principal entrance to the palace however
6.
Rue des Francs-Bourgeois
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Rue des Francs-Bourgeois is one of the longer and more interesting streets in the Marais district of Paris, France. Starting near Centre Georges Pompidou, the road is considered trendy, rue des Francs-Bourgeois is one of the few streets which largely ignores Frances strong tradition of Sunday closure, even within Paris. As such, it is a location for weekend brunches. Notable buildings include the ancient hôtels Carnavalet, Lamoignon, Sandreville, dAlbret, dAlméras, Poussepin, de Coulanges, Hérouet, de Jaucourt, de Fontenay, de Breteuil, hôtel Carnavalet houses the museum of the history of Paris. The street was known as rue des Poulies. In 1415, a noble called le Mazurier offered the Chief Prior of France a huge mansion with 24 bedrooms to receive 48 poor people. These people were so poor that they didnt pay the taxes of the city, in 1868, the street was joined with rue neuve Saint-Catherine and rue du Paradis au Marais
7.
3rd arrondissement of Paris
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The 3rd arrondissement of Paris, situated on the right bank of the River Seine, is the smallest in area after the 2nd arrondissement. The arrondissement contains the northern, quieter part of the district of Le Marais. The oldest surviving house of Paris, built in 1407, is to be found in the 3rd arrondissement. The ancient Jewish quarter, the Pletzel which dates from the 13th century begins in the part of the 3rd arrondissement. It is home to the Musée dart et dhistoire du judaïsme, although trendy boutiques are now taking up many of the storefronts, there are still landmark stores selling traditional Jewish foods. With a land area of 1.171 km2, the 3rd arrondissement is the second smallest arrondissement in the city, the area now occupied by the third arrondissement attained its peak population in the period preceding the re-organization of Paris in 1860. In 1999, the population was 34,248, while the arrondissement hosted a total of 29,723 jobs, ¹The peak of population actually occurred before 1861, but the arrondissement was created in 1860, so we do not have figures before 1861
8.
Manor house
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A manor house was historically the main residence of the lord of the manor. The term is loosely applied to various country houses, frequently dating from the late medieval era. They were sometimes fortified, but this was intended more for show than for defence. Manor houses existed in most European countries where feudalism existed, where they were known as castles, palaces. Many buildings, such as schools, are named Manor, the reason behind this is because the building was or is close to a manor house. The lord of the manor may have several properties within a county or, for example in the case of a feudal baron, spread across a kingdom. A large and suitable building was required within the manor for such purpose, generally in the form of a hall. This also gave the opportunity for the manor house to be cleaned, especially important in the days of the cess-pit. Thus such non-resident lords needed to appoint a steward or seneschal to act as their deputy in such matters, the day-to-day administration was carried out by a resident official in authority at each manor, who in England was called a bailiff, or reeve. Although not typically built with strong fortifications as were castles, many manor-houses were fortified and they were often enclosed within walls or ditches which often also included agricultural buildings. The primary feature of the house was its great hall. A late 16th-century transformation produced many of the smaller Renaissance châteaux of France, the Tudor period of stability in England saw the building of the first of the unfortified great houses, for example Sutton Place in Surrey, circa 1521. During the second half of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and under her successor King James I the first mansions designed by architects not by mere masons or builders, began to make their appearance. Such houses as Burghley House, Longleat House, and Hatfield House are among the best known of this period, nearly every large mediaeval manor house had its own deer-park adjoining, emparked by royal licence, which served primarily as a store of food in the form of venison. Within these licensed parks deer could not be hunted by royalty and this gave them more privacy and space. Court was a suffix which came into use in the 16th century, the obvious origin of the suffix would appear to be that the building was the location where the manorial courts were held. True castles, when not royal castles, were generally the residences of feudal barons, the manor on which the castle was situated was termed the caput of the barony, thus every true ancient defensive castle was also the manor house of its own manor. The suffix -Park came into use in the 18th and 19th centuries, the usage is often a modern catch-all suffix for an old house on an estate, true manor or not
9.
Olivier de Clisson
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Olivier V de Clisson, nicknamed The Butcher, was a Breton soldier, the son of Olivier IV de Clisson. His father had put to death by the French in 1343 on the suspicion of having willingly given up the city of Vannes to the English. Olivier de Clisson was born on April 23,1336 at the Château de Clisson in Brittany and his father was captured by the English and imprisoned, but was released after a relatively low ransom was paid. Because of the amount, the King of France, Philip VI, after a peace treaty was signed, his father was invited to Paris for a tournament, but was arrested, tried and executed by beheading on 2 August 1343. This expeditious execution shocked the nobility as the evidence of guilt was never made public, moreover, the notion of betrayal does not refer in the same way for nobles of that time, they claimed the right to choose whom to honor. Olivier IVs body received additional posthumous humiliation, his body was hanged by the armpits at the gallows at Montfaucon in Paris, olivier’s mother, Jeanne de Belleville née de Clisson, swore Olivier and his brother Guillaume to avenge their father. She raised funds for an army to attack troops loyal to France, eventually she armed ships and started a piratical war against French ships. These ships were eventually lost and Jeanne with her two sons set adrift for five days, Guillaume died of thirst, cold and exhaustion. Olivier and his mother were rescued and taken to Morlaix by Montfort supporters. It was after these events that Olivier was taken by his mother to England when he was years old. He was raised in the court of King Edward III with John IV de Montfort, Oliviers mother Jeanne, eventually married her fourth husband, an English military commander of King Edward III. 1359, After ten years in England, Olivier, then twenty-three, accompanied King Edward III and John IV at the head of an Breton-English force to Brittany as part of a guerilla campaign near Poitou. 1360, Olivier was reconciled by the new King of France, John II, the Good as part of the Treaty of Brétigny on 8 May and this treaty opened a nine-year truce between the two Kingdoms. This process allowed for the rehabilitation of Oliviers fathers honour and regaining his family’s rights. In the same year, Olivier also married Catherine of Laval and Chateaubriant, heiress of the family Laval, and granddaughter of the Duke Arthur II. He therefore became both first cousin of both Ducal claimants, John IV de Montfort and Joan, Duchess of Brittany, wife of Charles de Blois, This also made Olivier a relative of the King of France and this alliance opened up new political possibilities. 1365, John IV besieged the city of Auray, the two opposing Breton armies clashed under the walls of the city on September 29. Monfortistes were entrenched there and John IV attempted to overcome the numerical inferiority of his army by attacking the Breton-French camp by surprise, the Breton-English commander however adopted a proposal from Olivier and waited for the Breton-French army to climb a slope leading to Auray
10.
Knights Templar
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The order was founded in 1119 and active from about 1129 to 1312. The order, which was among the wealthiest and most powerful, became a favoured charity throughout Christendom and grew rapidly in membership and they were prominent in Christian finance. Templar knights, in their distinctive white mantles with a red cross, were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades, the Templars were closely tied to the Crusades, when the Holy Land was lost, support for the order faded. Rumours about the Templars secret initiation ceremony created distrust, and King Philip IV of France – deeply in debt to the order – took advantage of the situation to control over them. In 1307, he had many of the members in France arrested, tortured into giving false confessions. Pope Clement V disbanded the order in 1312 under pressure from King Philip, the abrupt reduction in power of a significant group in European society gave rise to speculation, legend, and legacy through the ages. The re-use of their name for later organizations has kept the name Templar alive to the modern day, after Europeans in the First Crusade recovered Jerusalem in 1099, many Christians made pilgrimages to various sacred sites in the Holy Land. Although the city of Jerusalem was under relatively secure Christian control, in 1119, the French knight Hugues de Payens approached King Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Warmund, Patriarch of Jerusalem, and proposed creating a monastic order for the protection of these pilgrims. The Temple Mount had a mystique because it was above what was believed to be the ruins of the Temple of Solomon. The Crusaders therefore referred to the Al-Aqsa Mosque as Solomons Temple, and from this location the new order took the name of Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon, or Templar knights. The order, with about nine knights including Godfrey de Saint-Omer and André de Montbard, had few financial resources and their emblem was of two knights riding on a single horse, emphasising the orders poverty. The impoverished status of the Templars did not last long, another major benefit came in 1139, when Pope Innocent IIs papal bull Omne Datum Optimum exempted the order from obedience to local laws. This ruling meant that the Templars could pass freely through all borders, were not required to pay any taxes, with its clear mission and ample resources, the order grew rapidly. One of their most famous victories was in 1177 during the Battle of Montgisard, although the primary mission of the order was military, relatively few members were combatants. The others acted in support positions to assist the knights and to manage the financial infrastructure, the Templar Order, though its members were sworn to individual poverty, was given control of wealth beyond direct donations. A nobleman who was interested in participating in the Crusades might place all his assets under Templar management while he was away, based on this mix of donations and business dealing, the Templars established financial networks across the whole of Christendom. The Order of the Knights Templar arguably qualifies as the worlds first multinational corporation, in the mid-12th century, the tide began to turn in the Crusades. The Muslim world had become united under effective leaders such as Saladin, and dissension arose amongst Christian factions in, and concerning
11.
House of Lorraine
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The House of Lorraine originated as a cadet branch of the House of Metz. It inherited the Duchy of Lorraine in 1473 after the death of duke Nicholas I without a male heir, Francis, his sons Joseph II and Leopold II, and grandson Francis II were the last four Holy Roman Emperors from 1745 to the dissolution of the empire in 1806. Habsburg-Lorraine inherited the Habsburg Empire, ruling the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary until the dissolution of the monarchy in 1918, the house claims descent from Gerard I of Paris whose immediate descendants are known as the Girardides. The Matfridings of the 10th century are thought to have been a branch of the family, at the turn of the 10th century they were Counts of Metz and ruled a set of lordships in Alsace and Lorraine. Mary of Guise, mother of Mary, Queen of Scots, louis XIVs imperialist ambitions forced the dukes into a permanent alliance with his archenemies, the Holy Roman Emperors from the House of Habsburg. Following the failure of both Emperor Joseph I and Emperor Charles VI to produce a son and heir, the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 left the throne to the yet unborn daughter. In 1736 Emperor Charles arranged her marriage to Francis of Lorraine who agreed to exchange his hereditary lands for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, at Charless death in 1740 the Habsburg lands passed to Maria Theresa and Francis, who was later elected Holy Roman Emperor as Francis I. The Habsburg-Lorraine nuptials and dynastic union precipitated, and survived, the War of the Austrian Succession, another member of the house, Archduke Maximilian of Austria, was Emperor of Mexico. In 1900, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria contracted a marriage with Countess Sophie Chotek. Their descendants, known as the House of Hohenberg, have been excluded from succession to the Austro-Hungarian crown, but not that of Lorraine, where morganatic marriage has never been outlawed. Nevertheless, Otto von Habsburg, the eldest grandson of Franz Ferdinands younger brother, was regarded as the head of the house until his death in 2011. It was at Nancy, the capital of the House of Vaudemont. House of Metz Adalbert, Duke of Upper Lorraine r, 1047/8 Gérard, Duke of Lorraine, r. 1390–1431 Charles II died without heir, the duchy passing to Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine. The duchy passed to their son John II, whose son Nicholas I died without male heir, the title now went to Nicholas aunt Yolande. René inherited the title of Duke of Lorraine upon his marriage in 1473, René II, Duke of Lorraine, r. 1608–1624 Nicole Claude Francis II, Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine r, 1624–1675 Nicholas Francis Charles V, r. 1690–1729 Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, r, 1745–1765 House of Habsburg-Lorraine Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, r
12.
Marie de Lorraine, Duchess of Guise
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Marie de Lorraine was the daughter of Charles de Lorraine, Duke of Guise and Henriette Catherine de Joyeuse and the last member of the House of Guise, a branch of the House of Lorraine. Marie de Lorraine de Guise was a foreign princess naturalized in France, exiled to Florence with her family, 1634–43, Marie became close to the Medicis and came to love Italy and especially Italian music. For over forty years scarcely a week passed that she did not write to her Medici friends in Florence, as guardian for her nephew, Louis Joseph, Duke of Guise, she was preoccupied with returning the House of Guise to its former glory. This meant giving the man a fine residence and a prestigious bride. In 1666 Marie therefore commissioned Jacques Gabriel to carry out extensive renovations for the familys urban residence and she also ordered a total reworking of the garden by the famous garden designer, André Le Nôtre. For a bride, Marie de Lorraine aimed high and was victorious, Isabelle dOrléans, Louis XIVs first cousin, the marriage was celebrated on May 5,1667. The newly-weds settled down into their apartment on the noble floor of the Hôtel de Guise. Starting in 1670, Marc-Antoine Charpentier began composing for the three Guises, sometimes singing haute-contre lines, mlle de Guise protected him and advanced his career by soliciting commissions from people or establishments who were seeking her continued patronage. Indeed, for eighteen years her patronage fostered a number of works, most of them devotional. In 1671 her nephew Louis Joseph, Duke of Guise died and she and the young widow fought over who would be guardian of the late Dukes little son, François Joseph, the last male of the House of Guise. Marie de Lorraine won the battle, but her guardianship was short-lived, the little boy died in 1675. Henceforth, as the last member of the House of Guise, she used her vast wealth not only to live splendidly, in a cartouche beneath her portrait by Mignard, above, a solitary tree stands in a forest of stumps, to indicate her position as last survivor. A Latin motto makes the explicit, Succisas dat conjectare superstes. After these two closely spaced deaths, Marie turned to devotion, with the help of Father Nicolas Barré, Minim, she founded a teachers training institute and created schools for girls and hospitals for the poor in her Parisian parish and in her provincial lands. Music was the entertainment at these events. Both Guise women had private apartments at Montmartre, in the early 1670s, Marie had begun to assemble a small ensemble of household musicians to perform pieces by a variety of French and Italian composers, among them Marc-Antoine Charpentier. Then, in the early 1680s she enlarged the group, until it rivaled both in size and quality the ensembles maintained by several sovereigns. Over the years she made her composer and her musicians available to her nephews widow, Mme de Guise, for performances in churches and at the royal court
13.
Anne de Rohan-Chabot
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Anne de Rohan-Chabot was a French noble. A member of the House of Rohan, she was wife of the Prince of Soubise and it was she who brought the lordship of Soubise into the junior line of the House of Rohan. She was for some time the mistress of Louis XIV and she was sometimes called Madame de Frontenay due to being the Dame of Frontenay. Born to Henri Chabot and his wife Marguerite de Rohan, she was the third of five children and her parents marriage had caused a scandal as Marguerite was a Foreign Princess as a member of the House of Rohan. This had obliged Louis XIV to issue a decree that she was able to marry Henri and her family were allowed to bear the name of Rohan-Chabot, the Rohans being her maternal family. On 17 April 1663, at not more than fifteen years old, François was a widower and the younger son of Hercule de Rohan Duke of Montbazon, and his wife Marie de Bretagne dAvaugour. His older half sister was Marie de Rohan, Duchess of Chevreuse and she was presented at court in 1665. Anne was the Dame of Soubise in her own right, as such, at the time of her marriage she passed the title onto her husband. The couple styled themselves as the Prince and Princess of Soubise after March 1667 based on letters patent which raised the title of Soubise to a principality, Anne was also the Dame of Frontenay in her own right. She received an excellent education for the time, although only a teenager, she was devoted to her husband. She was also a beauty of the era with her red hair, fresh pale skin. Known as la Belle Florice, she maintained her beauty by keeping to a diet of chicken and salad, fruit, dairy products. Anne became Louis XIVs mistress in 1669 when he was staying at the Château of Chambord where Anne was also present, at the time, Louis affections were split between Louise de La Vallière and her future successor Madame de Montespan. Some time later Anne gave birth to her son, Hercule Mériadec de Rohan. In January 1674 Anne became a Lady-in-waiting to Queen Marie Thérèse, although nothing was proved, Louis XIV did allot a large sum of money to the compliant husband, in consideration of his services. In the portraits of the time, the similarity between the king and Armand is obvious, the couples affair ended in 1675 having been on an off for some six years. At the same relationship between Madame de Montespan and the King also came to an end. She persuaded her husband to purchase the Hôtel de Guise from the trustees of the late Duchess of Guise and he bought the property on 27 March 1700 and renamed it the Hôtel de Soubise
14.
Marie Sophie de Courcillon
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Marie Sophie de Courcillon was a French noblewoman and Duchess of Rohan-Rohan as well as Princess of Soubise by marriage. She was the daughter of Philippe de Courcillon, better known as the marquis de Dangeau. She was praised for being a woman for the age. Marie Sophie was the child of Philippe Egon de Courcillon styled as the marquis de Courcillon and his wife Françoise de Pompadour. Her paternal grandfather was Philippe de Courcillon, the marquis de Dangeau. Another first cousin was Ernest Leopold, Landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg and her first cousins included Charles Philippe dAlbert de Luynes, Duke of Luynes, she was a second cousin Charles Louis dAlbert de Luynes another famous memoir writer of the court of Louis XV. Mademoiselle de Courcillon was married twice, firstly to Charles François dAlbert dAilly, son of Louis Auguste dAlbert de Luynes and Marie Anne Romaine de Beaumanoir. The couple married on 17 January 1729 and she was thus known as the Duchess of Pecquigny. The couple had a daughter who died young and little information exists, soon after, Louis Auguste himself died and Marie Sophie was a widow at the age of 17. Her second husband was Hercule Mériadec de Rohan, Duke of Rohan-Rohan, son of François de Rohan, Prince de Soubise, Hercule Mériadec was a widower, his first wife Anne Geneviève de Lévis dying in 1727. The couple were married in Paris on 2 September 1732, the duke of Rohan-Rohan was a member of the House of Rohan and had the prestigious rank of Foreign Princes at Versailles. This entitled Marie Sophie, styled as the Princess of Rohan the style of Highness, the bride was some forty four years younger than the groom, Marie Sophie was closer to her daughter in law the Princess of Guéméné. To celebrate the union, her husband commissioned Germain Boffrand to redecorate the interior of the Hôtel de Soubise and she kept a fashionable salon at the hôtel. In 1737, it was she who presented Anne Marie Louise de La Tour dAuvergne to the court at Versailles, Anne Marie Louise was wife of Charles de Rohan, Prince of Soubise - grandson of Hercule Mériadec and his heir. Her husband died in 1749 in Paris and she was the mistress of Duke de Richelieu, who lost his last wife, born Élisabeth Sophie de Lorraine in 1740. She died in Paris at the age of 42, with her, the Courcillon family died out
15.
Philippe de Courcillon
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Philippe de Courcillon, Marquis de Dangeau was a French officer and author. Born in Dangeau, he is most remembered for keeping a diary from 1684 until the year of his death and these Memoirs, which, as Saint-Simon said of an insipidity to make you sick, contain many facts about the reign of Louis XIV. Brother of Louis de Courcillon de Dangeau, he was born into a Calvinist family but converted very early in his life to Catholicism. He first gained repute for his skill at playing cards, to the extent that “jouer à la Dangeau” became an expression in the language of the time and he attracted the attention of Louis XIV. In 1665, he was named colonel of the king’s regiment and he became, in 1667, governor of Touraine and undertook several diplomatic missions to Trier, Mainz and Modena. A patron of men of letters, he became friends with Boileau, la Bruyère depicted him in his Caractères through the traits of “Pamphile”. From 1684 to 1720, he kept a journal on daily life at the court of Versailles, extracts from it were published by Voltaire in 1770, by Madame de Genlis in 1817 and by Pierre-Édouard Lémontey in 1818. It was whilst writing notes on these memoirs that Saint-Simon undertook to write his own Mémoires, the 19 volumes of the complete edition of Journal de la cour de Louis XIV appeared for the first time between 1854 and 1860. In 1686, Philippe de Courcillon married his second wife Sophia Maria Wilhelmina von Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort and she was the daughter of Ferdinand Karl, Count of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort and his wife Countess Anna Maria of Fürstenberg. Together they had at least one son, also called Philippe de Courcillon, Dangeau willingly lent his pen to the king and his entourage. The abbé de Choisy relates a time when Louis XIV asked him to compose his letters to Louise de la Vallière, the king, on his part confessed that he had had the same idea
16.
Charles, Prince of Soubise
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Charles de Rohan, duke of Rohan-Rohan, seigneur of Roberval, and marshal of France from 1758, was a military man, and a minister to the kings Louis XV and Louis XVI. The last male of his branch of the House of Rohan, he was also the great-grandfather to the duc dEnghien, styled prince dEpinoy at birth, he became the Prince of Soubise after 1749. The prince was born at Versailles on 16 January 1715, the son of Jules, Prince of Soubise, lieutenant captain of the gendarmes of the Royal Guard, the eldest of five children, he was styled the Prince of Epinoy till his fathers death in 1724. His parents died in Paris of smallpox in 1724, remaining his siblings, including Marie Louise and his sister lost her husband to smallpox in 1743. He was entrusted to his grandfather Hercule Mériadec, Duke of Rohan-Rohan, who raised Soubise to the court, where he became the companion of Louis XV, who was the same age as he. One of his grandmothers was Madame de Ventadour, via his paternal grandmother Anne Geneviève de Lévis, Madame de Ventadour. He accompanied Louis XV in the campaign of 1744-1748 and attained high military rank, along with the failure to hold Hanover following the Invasion of Hanover this marked a dramatic turnaround for French fortunes as just months before they have seemed on the brink of victory. Soubise also refers to a dish with a sauce made with a rice and onion purée, named to compliment Charles de Rohan, prince of Soubise. Their daughter was, Charlotte Élisabeth Godefride de Rohan 1737–1760 known as Charlotte and she married Louis Joseph de Bourbon, a Prince du sang and descendant of Louis XIV of France and Madame de Montespan. Charlotte was the grandmother of the murdered Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien. Anna Teresa gave birth to another daughter Victoire Armande Josèphe de Rohan 1743–1807 and she married Henri Louis Marie de Rohan, Prince of Guéménée who was a cousin. Victoire was later the governess to the daughter of Marie Antoinette, the same year Charles married again to a German Princess and Landgravine, Anne Victoire of Hesse-Rotenburg 1728–1792. Anna Viktoria was a niece of an old Princess of Condé,16 July 1715 –6 May 1724 His Highness the Prince of Epinoy 6 May 1724 –4 July 1787 His Highness the Prince of Soubise
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Charlotte de Rohan
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Charlotte de Rohan was a French aristocrat who married into the House of Condé, a cadet branch of the ruling House of Bourbon, during the Ancien Régime. She was Princess of Condé by her marriage and she has no known descendants today as her grandson, heir to the Condé family, died without children and her daughter remained childless. Charlotte was praised for being a cultured and attractive princess of her age, Charlotte Godefride Élisabeth de Rohan was born on 7 October 1737 in Paris. Her father was Charles de Rohan, prince de Soubise, a friend of King Louis XV of France. Her mother was Anne Marie Louise de La Tour dAuvergne, Anne Marie Louise was a granddaughter of Marie Anne Mancini, one of the famous Mazarinettes. Through Marie Anne Mancini, Charlotte was a cousin of both Prince Eugene of Savoy and Louis Joseph de Bourbon, two famous generals during the reign of Louis XIV. Anne Marie Louise was also the great-granddaughter of Madame de Ventadour, Charlotte was born at the Hôtel de Soubise in Paris, the townhouse of the Rohan family in the fashionable Marais. She had a half sister, Victoire Armande Josèphe de Rohan. Victoire would later become the governess of the future King Louis XVI, Victoire was also a cousin of Queen Marie Antoinettes ill fated friend, the princesse de Lamballe. As the House of Rohan claimed descent from the Dukes of Brittany, Charlotte, in 1739, she was created Marchioness of Gordes and Countess of Moncha, both of which she received from her mother when she died. In 1745, she was made the Viscountess of Guignen in her own right, in her dowry, she was given the Lordship of Annonay, which she passed onto the Bourbons. Charlotte and Louis Joseph de Bourbon, prince de Condé were married in a ceremony at the Palace of Versailles on 3 May 1753, charlottes father reportedly gave a dowry of 20 million Livres. Louis Joseph was an older than Charlotte. Louis Joseph had been the prince de Condé since 1740 when at the age of four he had lost his father, Louis Henri. His father, as the duc de Bourbon, had been at one time the minister of King Louis XV and had been instrumental in arranging the young kings marriage to the Polish princess Marie Leszczyńska. He was only forty-eight at the time of his death, Louis Josephs mother, the German princess, Caroline of Hesse-Rotenburg, died the next year in 1741 at the age of twenty-two. As a result, Louis Joseph was an orphan and had raised by his uncle the Count of Clermont. Louis Joseph possessed the rank of prince du sang at court with the style of Serene Highness
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Victoire de Rohan
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Victoire de Rohan, Princess of Guéméné was a French aristocrat who was the governess of the children of Louis XVI of France. She is known better as Madame de Guéméné and she was Lady of Clisson in her own right. Victoire Armande Josèphe de Rohan was the daughter of Charles de Rohan. The Princes of Soubise were a branch of the House of Rohan. Her mother was Princess Anna Teresa of Savoy, a daughter of Victor Amadeus and her mother was also a first cousin of Louis XV through an illegitimate line. She had an older half-sister, Charlotte de Rohan, who married in 1753 Louis Joseph de Bourbon, as the princesse de Condé, Charlotte was a princesse du sang and far outranked her younger half-sister. As the House of Rohan claimed descent from the medieval Dukes of Brittany, at the age of seventeen, Victoire married her cousin, Henri Louis de Rohan, duc de Montbazon, who was fifteen at the time. He was a member of the main House of Rohan, the Princes of Guéméné and he was a nephew of the cardinal de Rohan, who was disgraced in the famous Affair of the Diamond Necklace involving Marie Antoinette. Henri Louis eventually became the Grand Chamberlain of France, upon the death of his father in 1788, the duke inherited the title of prince de Guéméné. Afterwards, Victoire was known at court as Madame de Guéméné and she and her family lived lavishly in Paris at the Hôtel de Rohan-Guéméné, located on the famous Place des Vosges. The couple had to sell the property in 1797 in order to pay off a debt of 33 million livres. In 1775, Marie Louise de Lorraine, comtesse de Marsan resigned the post of governess to the children in favour of Victoire. From 1778 to 1782, Victoire was in charge of the household of King Louis XVIs oldest child, Marie Thérèse of France, in this role, she was in charge of a staff of over one hundred courtiers and servants. Victoire and her went on to various affairs with others. She became the mistress of Augustin Gabriel de Franquetot de Coigny, comte de Coigny, Madame de Fleury inspired the famous poet André Chénier. The prince de Guéméné meanwhile had an affair with a Victoires close friend, Thérèse Lucy de Dillon, comtesse de Dillon, at the death of her father, her husband became the legal heir to the title Prince of Soubise. Victoire and her husband lived to see the French Revolution, later fleeing to Austria and they lived at Sychrov Castle, and it was here that the Rohan Family lived for 125 years. Victoire died in Paris in September 1807 at the age of sixty-three, having far outlived her older half-sister, Charlotte and her husband, the prince, outlived her by two years
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Germain Boffrand
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Germain Boffrand was a French architect. A pupil of Jules Hardouin-Mansart, Germain Boffrand was one of the creators of the precursor to Rococo called the style Régence. His uncle, Philippe Quinault, introduced him to prospective clients among the aristocracy of Paris, in 1709, he was placed in charge of the interior apartments of the Hôtel de Soubise, where he soon succeeded the architect Pierre-Alexis Delamair. None of his early interiors survive, largely replaced by his spectacular Rococo work of the years following 1735, Boffrand was received by the Académie royale darchitecture in 1709. The following year he was among those employed in the additions to the Palais Bourbon, in 1732, he was appointed inspecteur général des ponts et chaussées and produced plans for restructuring Les Halles. He was a participant in the competition for the design of Place Louis XV, named chief architect to the hôpital général in 1724, he constructed in the Île de la Cité a foundling hospital, the Hôpital des Enfants Trouvés. Boffrand also worked for the hospitals at the Salpêtrière, at Bicêtre and he built a series of hôtels particuliers in Paris as speculative business enterprises. Boffrands pavilion of 1712-15 that inaugurated the new quarter of the Faubourg Saint-Honoré was purchased, abroad, Boffrand worked for the Duke of Lorraine, where he was appointed Premier Architecte to Duke Léopold in 1711, but little of significance remains. He also constructed a fountain and a hunt pavilion, Bouchefort, in the gardens of the schloss belonging to the Elector of Bavaria, in 1724 Boffrand worked on site at Würzburg with Balthasar Neumann, who had been consulting him in Paris, on the Prince-Bishops Residenz. His designs were carried out in the suite of rooms. Among the architects trained in his atelier were François Dominique Barreau de Chefdeville, Charles-Louis Clérisseau and Emmanuel Héré de Corny, Boffrands two sons collaborated in the office, both dying young, in 1732 and 1745. Boffrands folio, Livre darchitecture, was published in 1745, there are no surviving caches of his drawings. In January 1745 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, Germain Boffrand died in Paris in 1754 at age 86. The following commissions of Boffrand are largely taken from Fiske Kimball, Hôtel Le Brun,49 rue du Cardinal-Lemoine, for Charles II Le Brun, the nephew and heir of the premier peintre du roi Charles Le Brun and a relative of Boffrands. One of the first hôtels particuliers noted and commended by contemporary critics, remodelling of the Hôtel de Mesme. Remodelling of the Hôtel de Livry, Hôtel de Soubise,60 rue des Francs-Bourgeois, and the suite of interiors, Boffrands last major work and his masterpiece, for the prince de Rohan and his wife Marie Sophie de Courcillon. Façade of the Convent of Fathers of Mercy,45 rue des Archives, built for the prince de Soubise to provide a suitable sdtreet front opposite his new hôtel. Renovation for Anne Henriette of Bavaria, princess Palatine, widow of the Henri Jules, much of Boffrands decoration survives, including the staircase with its coved cornices filled with scrolls and foliage and rounded corners
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Rococo
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Rococo artists and architects used a more jocular, florid, and graceful approach to the Baroque. Their style was ornate and used light colours, asymmetrical designs, curves, unlike the political Baroque, the Rococo had playful and witty themes. By the end of the 18th century, Rococo was largely replaced by the Neoclassic style. In 1835 the Dictionary of the French Academy stated that the word Rococo usually covers the kind of ornament, style and design associated with Louis XVs reign and it includes therefore, all types of art from around the middle of the 18th century in France. The word is seen as a combination of the French rocaille and coquilles, the term may also be a combination of the Italian word barocco and the French rocaille and may describe the refined and fanciful style that became fashionable in parts of Europe in the 18th century. The Rococo love of shell-like curves and focus on decorative arts led some critics to say that the style was frivolous or merely modish, when the term was first used in English in about 1836, it was a colloquialism meaning old-fashioned. While there is some debate about the historical significance of the style to art in general. Italian architects of the late Baroque/early Rococo were wooed to Catholic Germany, Bohemia and Austria by local princes, an exotic but in some ways more formal type of Rococo appeared in France where Louis XIVs succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. By the end of the long reign, rich Baroque designs were giving way to lighter elements with more curves. These elements are obvious in the designs of Nicolas Pineau. During the Régence, court life moved away from Versailles and this change became well established, first in the royal palace. The delicacy and playfulness of Rococo designs is seen as perfectly in tune with the excesses of Louis XVs reign. The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France, the style had spread beyond architecture and furniture to painting and sculpture, exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and François Boucher. The Rococo style was spread by French artists and engraved publications, william Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty that the lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace. The development of Rococo in Great Britain is considered to have connected with the revival of interest in Gothic architecture early in the 18th century. The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality, Blondel decried the ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants in contemporary interiors. By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order, in Germany, late 18th century Rococo was ridiculed as Zopf und Perücke, and this phase is sometimes referred to as Zopfstil
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Piano nobile
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The piano nobile is the principal floor of a large house, usually built in one of the styles of Classical Renaissance architecture. This floor contains the reception and bedrooms of the house. The piano nobile is often the first or sometimes the second storey, located above a ground floor containing minor rooms, the reasons for this were so the rooms would have finer views, and more practically to avoid the dampness and odors of the street level. This is especially true in Venice where the piano nobile of the many palazzi is especially obvious from the exterior by virtue of its windows and balconies. Examples of this are Ca Foscari, Ca dOro, Ca Vendramin Calergi, larger windows than those on other floors are usually the most obvious feature of the piano nobile. Often in England and Italy the piano nobile is reached by an outer staircase. Kedleston Hall is an example of this in England, as is Villa Capra in Italy, most houses contained a secondary floor above the piano nobile which contained more intimate withdrawing and bedrooms for private use by the family of the house when no honoured guests were present. Above this floor would often be an attic floor containing staff bedrooms, in these instances, occasionally in museums etc. the principal piano nobile is described as the primo piano nobile to differentiate it. Though often found, this usage is potentially misleading, rooms in the piano nobile are always the grandest, the term is not used in Britain. This arrangement of floors continued throughout Europe for as long as large houses continued to be built in the classical styles and this arrangement was designed at Buckingham Palace as recently as the mid-19th century. Holkham Hall, Osterley Park and Chiswick House are among the innumerable 18th-century English houses which employed this design, Life in the English Country House. Harris, John, de Bellaigue, Geoffrey, & Miller, Oliver, English Country Houses, Early Georgian 1715–1760 London, Country Life. Pavilion Books Ltd. Kaminski Marion, Art and Architecture of Venice,1999, Könemann, ISBN 3-8290-2657-9 Masson, Georgina
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Panelling
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Panelling is a millwork wall covering constructed from rigid or semi-rigid components. These are traditionally interlocking wood, but could be plastic or other materials, panelling was developed in antiquity to make rooms in stone buildings more comfortable. The panels served to insulate the room from the cold stone, in more modern buildings, such panelling is often installed for decorative purposes. The term wainscot originally applied to high quality riven oak boards, Wainscot oak came from large, slow-grown forest trees, and produced boards that were knot-free, low in tannin, light in weight, and easy to work with. It was preferred to home-grown oak, especially in Holland and Great Britain, because it was a far superior product, the Oxford English Dictionary states that it derives from the medieval German wagenschot as well as wageschot or wall-board. Johnsons Dictionary defined it thus, Wainscot, the inner wooden covering of a wall, to wainscot, to line the walls with boards A wainscot was therefore a board of riven oak, and wainscoting was the panelling made from it. Also in the 18th century, the style of panelling changed from a covering to one in which only the lower part of the wall was covered. Hence wainscot or wainscoting became a panelling style applied to the lower 90 to 150 cm of a wall, below the dado rail or chair rail. It is traditionally constructed from tongue-and-groove boards, though bead-board or decorative panels, new manufacturing techniques are capable of milling large panels from one sheet, reducing seams, caulking, and expansion/contraction cracks that have plagued traditional construction. Wainscoting may also refer to materials used in a similar fashion. The original purpose of wainscoting was to cover the part of walls. Boiserie is the French term used to define ornate and intricately carved wood panelling, early examples of boiseries were unpainted, but later the raised mouldings were often painted or gilded. Boiseries were popular in seventeenth and eighteenth century French interior design, the panels were not confined to just the walls of a room but were used to decorate doors, frames, cupboards, and shelves also. Often pictures would be set into the boiseries, the framing the picture rather like a conventional frame. Moulding Ornament Panel edge staining Structural insulated panel Vacuum insulated panel Wainscot
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Overdoor
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An overmantel serves a similar function above a fireplace mantel. Overdoors of such pieces, allegorical subjects, and landscapes were favoured through the end of the 18th century
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Charles-Joseph Natoire
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Charles-Joseph Natoire was a French painter in the Rococo manner, a pupil of François Lemoyne and director of the French Academy in Rome, 1751-1775. Considered during his lifetime the equal of François Boucher, he played a prominent role in the life of France. In 1721 he obtained the Prix de Rome with a Sacrifice of Manoah to obtain a son, on 30 June 1723 he was appointed a pensionnaire at the French Academy in Rome, at the time lodged in the Palazzo Mancini, where he arrived in October. During his stay he executed a copy of Pietro da Cortonas Rape of the Sabine Women, in December 1725 he won a first prize from the Accademia di San Luca with a Moses Returning from Sinai. In 1728 he painted for the French ambassador, the prince de Polignac, Natoire returned to Paris via Venice in the early part of 1729. He was received into the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture on 30 September 1730 and his reputation was quickly established, and he received major commissions. From 1731 to 1740 he provided several suites of canvasses for Philibert Orry, contrôleur général des finances, during the same period, in 1732 he provided three overdoors on Old Testament subjects for the duc dAntin in Paris. In June 1734, Natoire submitted to an Exposition de la Jeunesse in place Dauphine a Galatea, in 1737 he received the commission at the Hôtel de Soubise. From 1741, he produced a series of cartoons for the History of Mark Anthony woven at the Gobelins, in 1747, he painted the portrait of Louis, Dauphin of France. In a more familiar vein, he provided a Saint Stephen, a major loss was his illusionistic decor for the chapel in the Hôpital des Enfants-Trouvés, built by Germain Boffrand but demolished in the 19th century. Also in 1747 he participated in the organized by the new general director of the Bâtiments du Roi, Le Normant de Tournehem, with the Triumph of Bacchus. In 1751, Natoire was appointed director of the French Academy in Rome, a prestigious position, far from court, Natoire witnessed his rivals Carle Van Loo, then François Boucher named premier peintre du Roi in turn. His own fresco of the Apotheosis of Saint Louis for the French national Church of San Luigi dei Francesi, 1754–1756, Natoires late work, in the two decades that remained to him was largely confined to numerous drawings of the Campagna for his own pleasure, and few canvasses. The new general director of the Bâtiments, the comte dAngiviller retired Natoire from office in June 1775 and he withdrew to Castel Gandolfo, where he died. This article depends in part on a translation from French Wikipedia
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Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
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Fiske Kimball
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Sidney Fiske Kimball was an American architect, architectural historian and museum director. A pioneer in the field of preservation in the United States, he played a leading part in the restoration of Monticello. Over his nearly-30-year tenure as director of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, he moved the museum into its current building, Kimball was born in Newton, Massachusetts on December 8,1888. He was educated at Harvard University, where he took both his bachelors and masters degrees in architecture and he then taught at the University of Illinois and the University of Michigan, receiving a Ph. D from the latter institution in 1915. In 1919, Kimball was appointed to head the newly formed department of art, while at the University of Virginia, he served as the supervising architect for Memorial Gymnasium, and the McIntire Amphitheatre on grounds at the university. He also designed the campus of Woodberry Forest School, in 1923, Kimball left the University of Virginia to establish the Institute of Fine Arts at New York University. In 1925, he was appointed director of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Kimball continued to work on projects in Virginia. Kimball designed his own home, Shack Mountain, in Albemarle County, Virginia, Kimball used Jeffersons architectural principles as the basis of his design of Shack Mountain, short for Shackelford Mountain, the surname of a branch of Jeffersons descendants. Built in 1935-1936, Shack Mountain is a Jefferson-style pavilion, like Monticello, Fiske Kimball died in Munich, Germany, on August 14,1955. He and his wife are buried at Monticello Memorial Gardens on Monticello Mountain, Kimball married, in June 1913, Marie Christina Goebel, the half Dutch, half German daughter of Julius Goebel, a professor of Germanic languages at the University of Illinois. She eventually was the recipient of two Guggenheim Fellowships and served as Monticellos first curator and she also wrote a three-volume biography of Jefferson. Kimball and Mr. Jefferson, Hugh Howard, Bloomsbury,2006, Fiske Kimball, Thomas Jeffersons Monticello, monticello. org Fiske Kimball Papers, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Fiske Kimball, Culmination and Legacy, University of Virginia
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Tourism in Paris
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Tourism in Paris is a major income source for Paris and the city ranks in the worlds most visited cities. In 2013, the City of Paris welcomed 15.6 million international visitors, the Paris Region received 32.3 million visitors in 2013, putting it just ahead of London as the worlds top tourist destination region, measured by hotel occupancy. In the Paris region, the largest numbers of tourists came in order from Britain. In 2012,263,212 salaried workers in the city of Paris, or 18.4 percent of the number, were engaged in tourism-related sectors, hotels, catering, transport. In 2014 visitors to Paris spent 17 billion dollars, the third highest sum globally after London, the Eiffel Tower is acknowledged as the universal symbol of Paris and France. It was originally designed by Émile Nouguier and Maurice Koechlin, in March 1885 Gustave Eiffel, known primarily as a successful iron engineer, submitted a plan for a tower to the French Ministre du Commerce et de lIndustrie. He entered a competition for students studying at the university, the winning proposal would stand as the centerpiece of the 1889 Exposition. Eiffels was one of over 100 submissions, eiffels proposal was finally chosen in June 1886. Even before its construction, the Towers uniqueness was noticed, the Eiffel Tower was finally inaugurated on March 31,1889. Currently about 6.9 million people visit the Eiffel tower each year, Centre Georges Pompidou was officially opened on January 31,1977 by President Valéry Giscard dEstaing. The designers of Pompidou are Renzo Piano, Richard Rogers, the Centre Pompidou has had over 150 million visitors since 1977. Centre Georges Pompidou is a complex in the Beaubourg area of the 4th arrondissement of Paris, near Les Halles, rue Montorgueil, in 1997 renovations had begun to drastically change the interior spaces of the Centre Pompidou. The renovation also developed the capacity to host the performing arts. The Arc de Triomphe de lÉtoile is one of the most famous monuments in Paris and it stands in the centre of the Place Charles de Gaulle, at the western end of the Champs-Élysées. It should not be confused with an arch, the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel. Beneath its vault lies the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I. The Arc de Triomphe is the linchpin of the historic axis – a sequence of monuments and grand thoroughfares on a route which goes from the courtyard of the Louvre, the Musée dOrsay is a museum in Paris, France, on the left bank of the Seine. It started to be constructed in 1897 and was designed by Gae Aulenti, Victor Laloux, the Musée dOrsay is an art museum for works from 1848 to 1914 and has an emphasis on French Impressionism artwork
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Landmarks in Paris
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This article presents the main landmarks in the City of Paris within its administrative limits divided by the 20 Arrondissements of Paris. Landmarks located in the suburbs of Paris, outside of its administrative limits, the 1st arrondissement forms much of the historic centre of Paris. The old Halles were demolished in 1971 and replaced by the Forum des Halles, the central market of Paris, the biggest wholesale food market in the world, was transferred to Rungis, in the southern suburbs. The former Conciergerie prison held some prominent Ancien Régime members before their deaths during the French Revolution, the 2nd arrondissement of Paris lies to the north of the 1st. The Boulevard des Capucines, Boulevard Montmartre, Boulevard des Italiens, Rue de Richelieu, also of note are the Académie Julian, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Café Anglais and Galerie Vivienne. The 3rd arrondissement is located to the northeast of the 1st, Le Marais is a trendy district spanning the 3rd and 4th arrondissements. It is architecturally very well preserved, and some of the oldest houses and it is a very culturally open place, known for its Chinese, Jewish and gay communities. Several hotels are located in this district including Hôtel de Guénégaud, the 4th arrondissement is located to the east of the 1st. Place de la Bastille is a district of historical significance, for not just Paris. Bibliothèque de lArsenal, La Force Prison, Centre Georges Pompidou, roads running through the 4th arrondissement include Rue Charlemagne, Rue de Rivoli, Rue des Francs-Bourgeois, and Rue des Rosiers. It is known for its atmosphere and many bistros. The Panthéon church is where many of Frances illustrious men and women are buried, the 6th arrondissement, to the south of the centre and Seine has numerous hotels and restaurants and also educational institutions. Among the museums located in the 6th arrondissement are the Musée Bible et Terre Sainte, Musée dAnatomie Delmas-Orfila-Rouvière, Musée Dupuytren, and Musée Edouard Branly. A symbol of the Revolution are the two Statues of Liberty located on the Île aux Cygnes in the Luxembourg Garden of the 6th arrondissement and on the Seine between the 15th and 16th arrondissements. A larger version of the statues was sent as a gift from France to the United States in 1886, the Odéon-Théâtre de lEurope is located in this district, as is the Luxembourg Palace. The Pont des Arts, Pont Neuf, and Pont Saint-Michel bridges lead across the Seine to the historic centre, the 7th arrondissement lies to the southwest of the centre, across the Seine. The Eiffel Tower is the most famous landmark of the 7th arrondissement and it was a temporary construction by Gustave Eiffel for the 1889 Universal Exposition, but was never dismantled and is now an enduring symbol of Paris, instantly recognized throughout the World. The Axe historique is a line of monuments, buildings, many hotels are located in this district including Hôtel Biron, Hôtel de Castries, Hôtel de Conti, Hôtel de Mademoiselle de Condé, Hôtel du Châtelet, and Hôtel Matignon
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Arc de Triomphe
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The Arc de Triomphe should not be confused with a smaller arch, the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, which stands west of the Louvre. Beneath its vault lies the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I and it set the tone for public monuments with triumphant patriotic messages. Inspired by the Roman Arch of Titus, the Arc de Triomphe has an height of 50 metres, width of 45 m. The smaller transverse vaults are 18.68 m high and 8.44 m wide, three weeks after the Paris victory parade in 1919, Charles Godefroy flew his Nieuport biplane under the archs primary vault, with the event captured on newsreel. Pariss Arc de Triomphe was the tallest triumphal arch until the completion of the Monumento a la Revolución in Mexico City in 1938, the Arch of Triumph in Pyongyang, completed in 1982, is modelled on the Arc de Triomphe and is slightly taller at 60 m. The Arc is located on the bank of the Seine at the centre of a dodecagonal configuration of twelve radiating avenues. It was commissioned in 1806 after the victory at Austerlitz by Emperor Napoleon at the peak of his fortunes, the architect, Jean Chalgrin, died in 1811 and the work was taken over by Jean-Nicolas Huyot. On 15 December 1840, brought back to France from Saint Helena, prior to burial in the Panthéon, the body of Victor Hugo was displayed under the Arc during the night of 22 May 1885. The sword carried by the Republic in the Marseillaise relief broke off on the day, it is said, the relief was immediately hidden by tarpaulins to conceal the accident and avoid any undesired ominous interpretations. On 7 August 1919, Charles Godefroy successfully flew his biplane under the Arc, Jean Navarre was the pilot who was tasked to make the flight, but he died on 10 July 1919 when he crashed near Villacoublay while training for the flight. Following its construction, the Arc de Triomphe became the point of French troops parading after successful military campaigns. Famous victory marches around or under the Arc have included the Germans in 1871, the French in 1919, the Germans in 1940, and the French and Allies in 1944 and 1945. A United States postage stamp of 1945 shows the Arc de Triomphe in the background as victorious American troops march down the Champs-Élysées, after the interment of the Unknown Soldier, however, all military parades have avoided marching through the actual arch. The route taken is up to the arch and then around its side, out of respect for the tomb, both Hitler in 1940 and de Gaulle in 1944 observed this custom. By the early 1960s, the monument had grown very blackened from coal soot and automobile exhaust, and during 1965–1966 it was cleaned through bleaching. In the prolongation of the Avenue des Champs-Élysées, a new arch, after the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and the Arc de Triomphe de lÉtoile, the Grande Arche is the third arch built on the same perspective. In 1995, the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria placed a bomb near the Arc de Triomphe which wounded 17 people as part of a campaign of bombings, the astylar design is by Jean Chalgrin, in the Neoclassical version of ancient Roman architecture. Major academic sculptors of France are represented in the sculpture of the Arc de Triomphe, Jean-Pierre Cortot, François Rude, Antoine Étex, James Pradier and Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire
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Paris Bourse
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The Paris Bourse is the historical Paris stock exchange, known as Euronext Paris from 2000 onwards. The building, known as the Palais Brongniart, is located in the Place de la Bourse, in the II arrondissement, historically, stock trading took place at several spots in Paris, including rue Quincampoix, rue Vivienne, and the back of the Opéra Garnier. Brogniart had spontaneously submitted his project, which was a rectangular neoclassical Roman temple with a giant Corinthian colonnade enclosing a vaulted and arcaded central chamber and his designs were greatly admired by Napoleon and won Brogniart a major public commission at the end of his career. Initially praised, the building was attacked for academic dullness. The authorities had required Brogniart to modify his designs, and after Brogniarts death in 1813, Labarre altered them even further, from 1901 to 1905 Jean-Baptiste-Frederic Cavel designed the addition of two lateral wings, resulting in a cruciform plan with innumerable columns. According to the architectural historian Andrew Ayers, these alterations did nothing to improve the reputation of this uninspiring monument. From the second half of the 19th century, official stock markets in Paris were operated by the Compagnie des agents de change, the number of dealers in each of the different trading areas of the Bourse was limited. There were around 60 agents de change, in Paris, only agents de change could receive a commission, at a rate fixed by law, for acting as an intermediary. However, parallel arrangements were usual in order to some clients quote. The Commodities Exchange was housed in the building until 1889. Moreover, until about the middle of the 20th century, a market known as La Coulisse was in operation. Until the late 1980s, the market operated as an open outcry exchange, in 1986, the Paris Bourse started to implement an electronic trading system. This was known generically as CATS, but the Paris version was called CAC, by 1989, quotations were fully automated. The Palais Brongniart hosted the French financial derivatives exchanges MATIF and MONEP, in the late 1990s, the Paris Bourse launched the Euronext initiative, an alliance of several European stock exchanges. List of works by James Pradier External sculpture Lehmann, P. -J,1991 La Bourse de Paris, Paris, Dunod. 1997 Histoire de la Bourse de Paris, Paris, PUF, muniesa, F.2005 Contenir le marché, la transition de la criée à la cotation électronique à la Bourse de Paris, Sociologie du Travail 47, 485-501. Walker, D. A.2001 A factual account of the functioning of the nineteenth-century Paris Bourse, European Journal of the History of Economic Thought 8, 186-207. Foucault, T. and Hillion, P.1997 Microstructure des marchés financiers, institutions, modèles et tests empiriques, Paris, hamon, J.1995 Marché dactions, architecture et microstructure, Paris, Economica
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Catacombs of Paris
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The Catacombs of Paris are underground ossuaries in Paris, France, which hold the remains of more than six million people in a small part of the ancient Mines of Paris tunnel network. Nightly processions of bones from 1786 to 1788 transferred remains from cemeteries to the reinforced tunnels, the Catacombs are among the 14 City of Paris Museums managed by Paris Musées since January 1,2013. The catacombs are known formally as lOssuaire Municipal or Catacombes officiels and have been called The Worlds Largest Grave due to the number of remains buried. Although the ossuary comprises only a section of the underground carrières de Paris. Paris earliest burial grounds were to the outskirts of the Roman-era Left Bank city. Thus, instead of burying its dead away from inhabited areas as usual, by the end of the same century Saints Innocents was neighbour to the principal Parisan marketplace Les Halles, and already filled to overflowing. To make room for more burials, the long-dead were exhumed and their bones packed into the roofs, much of the Left Bank area rests upon rich Lutetian limestone deposits. This stone built much of the city, but it was extracted in suburban locations away from any habitation, Paris had annexed its suburbs many times over the centuries, and by the 18th century many of its arrondissements were or included previously mined territories. This resulted in the creation of the inspection Générale des Carrières service, the need to eliminate Les Innocents gained urgency from May 30,1780, when a basement wall in a property adjoining the cemetery collapsed under the weight of the mass grave behind it. The cemetery was closed to the public and all intra muros burials were forbidden after 1780, the problem of what to do with the remains crowding intra muros cemeteries was still unresolved. Lenoir endorsed the idea of moving Parisian dead to the subterranean passageways that were renovated during 1782, after deciding to further renovate the Tombe-Issoire passageways for their future role as an underground sepulchre, the idea became law during late 1785. It would take two years to empty the majority of Paris cemeteries, cemeteries whose remains were moved to the Catacombs include Saints-Innocents, Saint-Étienne-des-Grès, Madeleine Cemetery, Errancis Cemetery, and Notre-Dame-des-Blancs-Manteaux. In addition to directing the stacking of skulls and femurs into the patterns seen in the catacombs today, also created was a room dedicated to the display of the various minerals found under Paris, and another showing various skeletal deformities found during the catacombs creation and renovation. Later they opened for daily visits. After an incident of vandalism, the Catacombs were closed to the public during September 2009, the entry to the catacombs is in the western pavilion of the former Barrière dEnfer city gate. Soon after, they find themselves before a stone portal, the ossuary entry, CEST İCİ LEMPİRE DE LA MORT. Beyond begin the halls and caverns of walls of carefully arranged bones, along the way there are other monuments created in the years before catacomb renovations, such as a source-gathering fountain baptised La Samaritaine because of later-added engravings. There are also rusty gates blocking passages leading to other parts of the catacombs – many of these are either un-renovated or were too un-navigable for regular tours
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Conciergerie
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The Conciergerie is a building in Paris, France, located on the west of the Île de la Cité, formerly a prison but presently used mostly for law courts. It was part of the royal palace, the Palais de la Cité, which consisted of the Conciergerie, Palais de Justice. Hundreds of prisoners during the French Revolution were taken from the Conciergerie to be executed by guillotine at a number of locations around Paris, the west part of the island was originally the site of a Merovingian palace, and was known initially as the Palais de la Cité. From the 10th to the 14th centuries it was the palace of the medieval Kings of France. During the reigns of Louis IX and Philippe IV the Merovingian palace was extended and fortified more extensively, Louis IX added the Sainte-Chapelle and associated galleries, while Philippe IV created the towered facade on the Seine river side and a large hall. Both are excellent examples of French religious and secular architecture of the period, the Sainte-Chapelle was built in the French royal style to house the crown of thorns that was brought back from the Crusades and to serve as a royal chapel. The Grande Salle was one of the largest in Europe, and its lower story and it was used as a dining room for the 2,000 staff members who worked in the palace. It was heated with four fireplaces and lit by many windows. It was also used for banquets and judicial proceedings. The neighboring Salle des Gardes was used as an antechamber to the Great Hall immediately above, the early Valois kings continued to modify the palace during the 14th century, but Charles V abandoned the palace during 1358, relocating across the river to the Louvre Palace. The palace continued to serve a function and still included the chancellery. In the kings absence, he appointed a concierge to command of the palace, during 1391, part of the building was converted for use as a prison and took its name from the ruling office. Its prisoners were a mixture of common criminals and political prisoners, in common with other prisons of the time, the treatment of prisoners was dependent on their wealth, status and associates. Wealthy or influential prisoners usually got their own cells with a bed, desk, less-well-off prisoners could afford to pay for simply furnished cells known as pistoles, which would be equipped with a rough bed and perhaps a table. The poorest, known as the pailleux from the paille that they slept on, would be confined to dark, damp, vermin-infested cells known as oubliettes. In keeping with the name, they were left to live or die in conditions that were ideal for the plague and other infectious diseases, the building was extended during the reigns of later kings with Frances first public clocks being installed about 1370. The current clock dates from 1535, despite lasting only ten months, the Reign of Terror had a profound effect on France. More than 40,000 people died from execution and imprisonment, the National Convention enacted the Law of Suspects on September 17,1793
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Eiffel Tower
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The Eiffel Tower is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed, the Eiffel Tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world,6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. The tower is 324 metres tall, about the height as an 81-storey building. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres on each side, due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres. Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second-tallest structure in France after the Millau Viaduct, the tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top levels upper platform is 276 m above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union, tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually only accessible by lift. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853, sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments. Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffels scheme and its rivals, which, after some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. Eiffel was to all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition. He later established a company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself. The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and these objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. And for twenty years … we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the column of bolted sheet metal. Gustave Eiffel responded to criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids. Will it not also be grandiose in its way, and why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris. Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built, others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible
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Flame of Liberty
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The monument, which measures approximately 3.5 metres in height, is a sculpture of a flame, executed in gilded copper, supported by a pedestal of gray-and-black marble. It is located near the end of the Pont de lAlma, on the Place de lAlma. It was offered to the city of Paris in 1989 by the International Herald Tribune on behalf of donors who had contributed approximately $400,000 for its fabrication and it represented the culmination of that newspapers 1987 celebration of its hundredth anniversary of publishing an English-language daily newspaper in Paris. This project was overseen by the director of the French craft unions at that time, Jacques Graindorge. He foresaw an installation of the Flame of Liberty in a square called Place des États-Unis in the 16th arrondissement. After a protracted period of negotiations, it was decided that the Flame would be placed in an area near the intersection of lAvenue de New-York. The monument was dedicated on May 10,1989 by Chirac, on the base of the monument, a commemorative plaque recounts the following story, The Flame of Liberty. An exact replica of the Statue of Libertys flame offered to the people of France by donors throughout the world as a symbol of the Franco-American friendship, on the occasion of the centennial of the International Herald Tribune. Anthropologist Guy Lesoeurs said, Most people who come here think this was built for her, a new Flame of Liberty, a sculpture by Jean Cardot, was unveiled on June 14,2008. It symbolizes the warm and respectful relations between the French and the Americans
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Gare d'Austerlitz
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Paris Austerlitz is one of the six large terminus railway stations in Paris. It is situated on the bank of the Seine in the southeastern part of the city. It is the start of the Paris–Bordeaux railway, the line to Toulouse is connected to this line, since the introduction of the TGV Atlantique — using Gare Montparnasse — Austerlitz has lost most of its long-distance southwestern services. It is used by some 30 million passengers annually, about half the number passing through Montparnasse, the Elipsos Train Hotels operated jointly between RENFE and SNCF operated from here to Madrid and Barcelona. They would leave in the evening and arrive next morning. With the start of a direct TGV from Paris to Barcelona, on 15 December 2013, the Gare dAusterlitz was built in 1840 in order to serve first the Paris-Corbeil then the Paris-Orleans line. The station was called the Gare dOrléans. An 1865-1868 extension was designed by architect Pierre-Louis Renaud, the station takes its name from the Czech town once known as Austerlitz. Napoleon I defeated the superior numbers of the Third Coalition on 2 December 1805 there in the Battle of Austerlitz, a large refurbishment project of the Paris Austerlitz is currently underway. Four new platforms are being constructed and all the tracks are being refurbished. The interior will be rebuilt in order to handle TGV Sud-Est and TGV Atlantique services, partially transferred from the Gare de Lyon and Gare Montparnasse, all the work is planned to be completed by 2020, and will double the activity at the station. List of stations of the Paris RER List of stations of the Paris Métro Roland, Gérard
