1.
Hone Heke Ngapua
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Hone Heke Ngapuha was a Māori and Liberal Party Member of Parliament in New Zealand. He was born in Kaikohe, and was named after his great-uncle Hōne Heke, Ngapua was born in 1869 at Kaikohe. He won the Northern Maori electorate in 1893, with the support of Kotahitanga and he was adjudged bankrupt and vacated the seat on 29 October 1900. However, he was re-elected to the seat in a by-election on 9 January 1901 and he died in Wellington of tuberculosis at only 40 while an MP in 1909. He was influential in the development of the Young Maori Party and he introduced a Native Rights Bill, some of which was incorporated into legislation passed in 1900. Biography in 1966 An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand Paul Moon Ngapua, The Political Life of Hone Heke Ngapua, MHR
2.
Rangatira
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Rangatira are the hereditary Māori leaders of hapū, and were described by ethnologists such as Elsdon Best as chieftains. Ideally, rangatira were people of great wisdom who held authority on behalf of the tribe. The word rangatira means chief, wellborn, noble and derives from Proto-Central Eastern Polynesian *langatila, cognate words are found in Moriori, Tahitian, Cook Islands Māori, Tuamotuan, Marquesan and Hawaiian. Three interpretations of rangatira consider it as a compound of the Māori words ranga, in the first case, ranga is devised as a sandbar and the tira a shark fin. The allegoric sandbar helps reduce erosion of the dune, the fin reflects both the appearance of the sandbar, and, more importantly, its physical and intentional dominance as guardian. Rangatira reinforce communities, cease to exist without them, and have a protective capacity, ethnographer John White gave a different viewpoint in one of his lectures on Māori customs. He said Māori had traditionally formed two kahui who came together to discuss history or whakapapa. Each chief in the kahui had his place assigned to him, according to the amount of knowledge he possessed, and this act of the leader was called ranga, or putting in order. This interpretation fits well with a second translation where ranga is an abbreviation of rāranga, a third interpretation fits equally well with this translation, interlinking concepts related to the identity of the ‘tira’. In the first instance, the conditional hospitality presented in the form of weaving created for the ‘tira’ of guests, in the second instance, the collective intentionality enacted in the weaving of the ‘tira’ of hosts. Together, these concepts highlight the value attached to the relationship between the leader and their group
3.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
4.
Hongi Hika
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Hongi Hika was a New Zealand Māori rangatira and war leader of the Ngāpuhi iwi. Hongi Hika used European weapons to overrun much of northern New Zealand in the first of the Musket Wars and he also encouraged Pākehā settlement, patronised New Zealands first missionaries, introduced Māori to Western agriculture and helped put the Māori language into writing. He travelled to England and met King George IV and he was a pivotal figure in the period when Māori history emerged from myth and oral tradition and Pākehā began to settle rather than just visit. Hongi Hika was born at Kaikohe into one of the families of the Ngāpuhi. Hongi Hika once said he was born in the year explorer Marion du Fresne was killed by Māori—in 1772—though other sources place his birth around 1780. Hongi Hika rose to prominence as a leader in the Ngāpuhi campaign, led by Pokaia. In over 150 years since the Maori first begun sporadic contact with Europeans, Ngāpuhi fought with small numbers of them in 1808, and Hongi Hika was present later that same year on the first occasion that muskets were used in action by Māori. This was at the battle of Moremonui at which the Ngāpuhi were defeated and those killed included two of Hongi Hikas brothers and Pokaia, and Hongi Hika and other survivors only escaped by hiding in a swamp until Ngāti Whātua called off the pursuit to avoid provoking utu. Hongi Hika became the war leader of the Ngāpuhi, his warriors included Te Ruki Kawiti, Mataroria, Moka Te Kainga-mataa, Rewa, Ruatara, Paraoa, Motiti, Hewa, in 1812 he led a large taua to the Hokianga against Ngāti Pou. Despite his earlier experiences he seems to have become convinced of the value of muskets which were used during this campaign, in 1825 Hongi avenged the earlier defeat of Moremonui in the battle of Te Ika-a-Ranganui, although both sides suffered heavy losses. Ngāpuhi controlled the Bay of Islands, the first point of contact for most Europeans visiting New Zealand in the early 19th century, Hongi Hika protected early missionaries and European seamen and settlers, arguing the benefits of trade. He befriended Thomas Kendall—one of three lay preachers sent by the Church Missionary Society to establish a Christian toehold in New Zealand. In 1814 Hongi Hika and his nephew Ruatara, the then-leader of the Ngāpuhi, visited Sydney, Australia, with Kendall, Ruatara and Hongi Hika invited Marsden to establish the first Anglican mission to New Zealand in Ngāpuhi territory. Ruatara died the year, leaving Hongi Hika as protector of the mission. In 1817 Hongi led a war party to Thames where he attacked the Ngati Maru stronghold of Te Totara, killing 60 and taking 2000 prisoners. On 4 July 1819 he granted 13,000 acres of land at Kerikeri to the Church Missionary Society in return for 48 felling axes and he personally assisted the missionaries in developing a written form of the Māori language. Hongi Hika never converted to Christianity, in later life, in exasperation with teachings of humility and non-violence, he described Christianity as “a religion fit only for slaves”. He protected the Pākehā Māori Thomas Kendall when he effectively “went native”, taking a Māori wife, though Hongi Hika encouraged the first missions to New Zealand, virtually no Māori converted to Christianity for a decade, large scale conversion of northern Māori only occurred after his death
5.
Flagstaff War
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The Flagstaff War – also known as Hōne Hekes Rebellion, the Northern War and the First Māori War – was fought between 11 March 1845 and 11 January 1846 in and around the Bay of Islands, New Zealand. The conflict is best remembered for the actions of Hōne Heke who challenged the authority of the British by cutting down the flagstaff on Flagstaff Hill at Kororāreka, the flagstaff had been a gift from Hōne Heke to James Busby, the first British Resident. The signing of the Treaty of Waitangi started on 6 February 1840, ostensibly, the treaty established the legal basis for the British presence in New Zealand. On 21 May 1840, New Zealand was formally annexed to the British Crown, in the Bay of Islands, Hōne Heke, one of the original signatories to the treaty, started to become increasingly unhappy with the outcome of the treaty. Heke and his cousin Titore also collected and divided a levy of £5 on each ship entering the Bay, Pōmare II complained that he no longer collected payment from American ships that called at Otuihu across from Opua. Heke and the Ngāpuhi chief Pōmare II had listened to Captain William Mayhew, Heke obtained an American ensign from Henry Green Smith, a storekeeper at Wahapu who had succeeded Mayhew as Acting-Consul. After the flagstaff was cut down for a time, the Stars. Hōne Heke and Te Ruki Kawiti worked out the plan to draw the colonial forces into battle, in July 1844, Kotiro, a former slave of Heke, openly insulted the Ngāpuhi chief. Kotiro had been captured from a southern tribe 15 years earlier, and was now living with her English husband, there are differing stories as to the specific insult or the circumstances in which it was delivered. Carleton used the presence of Kotiro, and her status, as pretext for a taua — a raid upon Kororāreka. The Auckland Chronicle reported the incident as such, On 8 July 1844 the flagstaff on Maiki Hill at the end of Kororāreka was cut down for the first time. Heke had set out to cut down the flagstaff, but was persuaded by Archdeacon William Williams not to do so, on 24 August 1844 Governor FitzRoy arrived in the bay from Auckland upon HMS Hazard. The Government brig Victoria arrived in company with HMS Hazard, with a detachment of the 96th Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel William Hulme, Governor FitzRoy summoned the Ngāpuhi chiefs to a conference at Te Waimate mission on 2 September and apparently defused the situation. Tāmati Wāka Nene and the other Ngāpuhi chiefs undertook to keep Heke in check, Hōne Heke did not attend, but sent a conciliatory letter and offered to replace the flagstaff. The soldiers were returned to Sydney, but the accord did not last, the Ngāpuhi warriors led by Te Ruki Kawiti and Hōne Heke decided to challenge the Europeans at Kororāreka. On 10 January 1845, the flagstaff was cut down a second time, on 17 January, a small detachment of a subaltern and 30 men of the 96th Regiment were landed. A new and stronger flagstaff sheathed in iron was erected on 18 January 1845, Nene and his men provided guards for the flagstaff, but the next morning the flagstaff was felled for the third time. Governor FitzRoy sent over to New South Wales for reinforcements, early in February 1845 Kawitis warriors begun to plunder the settlers a mile or two from Kororāreka
6.
Pakaraka
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Pakaraka is a settlement in Northland, New Zealand that is located at the junction of State Highway 1 and 10 in the district the Ngāpuhi called Tai-a-mai. A pā, was located at the base of, and on the slopes of, Pouerua, the pā was studied during a major archeological project in the 1980s. Parts of the Flagstaff War were fought around Pakaraka in 1845, after the Battle of Ohaeawai on 23 June 1845 the British troops destroyed Te Haratuas pā at Pakaraka on 16 July 1845. Hone Heke, Ngāpuhi chief, was born at Pakaraka in about 1807 or 1808 and he was buried here in secret in August 1850, however in 2011 his remains were removed due to possible development of the land around the burial site. The missionary Henry Williams retired to Pakaraka and built a church in 1850-51, the church that now stands on the site was opened on 27 November 1873, the church was constructed by Williams wife and family as a memorial to his life. They lived by the church in a known as The Retreat. The first and third sons of the missionary Henry Williams, Edward & Henry farmed here, mount Pouerua is registered with the Historic Places Trust as a traditional site. Also listed by the Historic Places Trust are, Holy Trinity Church, The Retreat, Pakaraka School is a coeducational full primary school with a decile rating of 2 and a roll of 57. 92% of the students are Māori
7.
Kerikeri
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Kerikeri, the largest town in Northland New Zealand, is a popular tourist destination about three hours drive north of Auckland, and 80 km north of the northern regions largest city, Whangarei. It is often called the Cradle of the Nation, being the site of the first permanent mission station in the country, the village was established by New Zealands pioneering missionaries, who called it Gloucestertown, or Gloucester Town, but neither name endured. The Māori word Kerikeri was spelled and pronounced as Keddi Keddi or even Kiddee Kiddee, in 1814 Samuel Marsden acquired land at Kerikeri from Hongi Hika for the use of the Church Missionary Society for a payment of forty-eight axes. The protector of the Kerikeri mission station was the chief, Ruatara, Kerikeri was the first place in New Zealand where grape vines were planted. Samuel Marsden planted 100 vines on 25 September 1819 and noted in his journal that New Zealand promised to be favourable to the vine. The plough was first used in New Zealand at Kerikeri, by Rev. J. G. Butler, the origin of the name Kerikeri is not exactly known, and there have been many conflicting definitions given over the years. The definition of the word Kerikeri most widely known by pākehā is dig dig and it is known that Māori had extensive gardens in the area when Europeans arrived. Another definition derives from Kerikeri te ana wai — the churning or boiling over of the waters and that would have aptly described the freshwater river tumbling into the salt water over the falls which were then higher. However, some Māori say it derives from hukerikeri which means bubbling up, Hongi Hika, a famous or infamous chief depending on whether one fought with or against him, is reputed to have fathered the child of a captured slave at Kororipo Pā. As this was unacceptable to the tribe, the baby was placed in the water to drown, a French doctor, Messier Lesson, visited Kerikeri in 1824 and wrote that among stomach ailments suffered by Māori was gravelle which they called Kiddee Kiddee. He said it was also the word for a cascade of water, there are also persistent claims that the falls referred to by the missionaries as The Kiddikiddi were what we now call the Rainbow Falls. That is impossible because although Nicholas visited and referred to Tecaddiecaddie in 1815 it was not until 1822 that missionaries Francis Hall, the local Kerikeri slogan is Its So Nice They Named It Twice. In the early 1980s, an anonymous backpacker wrote those words in the Visitors Book at the Kerikeri Youth Hostel. It was brought to the attention of the editor of the local newspaper, the Kerikeri Chronicle, who gave it publicity. Kerikeri is a winner of the New Zealands Top Small Town title bestowed annually by North and South magazine. Originally called the Mission House, and then for more than 100 years Kemp House, but now again called Mission House, a much visited and photographed building, it is administered along with the Stone Store by Heritage New Zealand. It was built by the Church Missionary Society for the Rev John Butler who became the first occupant in 1822, there was a succession of occupants until 1832 when the mission blacksmith James Kemp and his wife Charlotte moved in with their family. The Kemps acquired ownership of the house and surrounding land in 1859 by trading land they owned at nearby Kororipo Point
8.
Bay of Islands
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The Bay of Islands is an area on the east coast of the Far North District of the North Island of New Zealand. It is 60 km north-west of the city of Whangarei, Cape Reinga, at the northern tip of the country, is about 210 km by road further to the north-west. The bay itself is an irregularly-shaped 16 km-wide,260 km2 drowned valley system and it contains 144 islands, of which the largest is Urupukapuka, and numerous peninsulas and inlets. The three largest inlets are Waikare Inlet in the south, and Kerikeri and Te Puna inlets in the north-west. The Purerua Peninsula, north of Te Puna Inlet, separates the north-western part of the bay from the Pacific Ocean, the biggest town is Kerikeri, followed by Paihia. The small town of Russell is located at the end of a peninsula that extends into the bay from the southeast. Māori settled and multiplied throughout the bay and on several of its islands to establish various tribes such as the Ngāti Miru at Kerikeri. Many notable Māori were born in the Bay of Islands, including Hone Heke who several times cut down the flagpole at Kororāreka to start the Flagstaff War. Many of the Māori settlements later played important roles in the development of New Zealand, such as Okiato, Waitangi, the first European to visit the area was Captain Cook, who named the region in 1769. The Bay of Islands was the first area in New Zealand to be settled by Europeans, whalers arrived towards the end of the 18th century, while the first missionaries settled in 1814. The first full-blooded European child recorded as being born in the country, the bay has many interesting historic towns including Paihia, Russell, Waitangi and Kerikeri. Russell, formerly known as Kororāreka, was the first permanent European settlement in New Zealand, Kerikeri contains many historic sites from the earliest European colonial settlement in the country. These include the Mission House, also called Kemp House, which is the oldest wooden structure standing in New Zealand. The Stone Store, a storehouse, is the oldest stone building in New Zealand. In a 2006 study, the Bay of Islands was found to have the second bluest sky in the world, in 1886, Albert Ernest Fuller launched the sailing ship Undine in the Bay of Islands to deliver coal supplies to the islands within the Bay. With the fitting of a motor in the early 20th century, in 1927 Fuller acquired the Cream Trip from Eddie Lane – with the facilities on board to transport cream from the islands, and by the 1960s, the newly commissioned Bay Belle started this run. Although a modern catamaran now takes this route of the original Cream Trip. Bay of Islands Travel Guide Bay of Islands maps Bay of Islands information Bay of Islands Area Guide Local & Tourist Information on the Bay of Islands
9.
Kaikohe
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Kaikohe is a town in the Far North District of New Zealand, situated on State Highway 12 about 260 km from Auckland. It is the largest inland town and highest community above sea level in the Northland Region, to the north of the Putahi volcanic ridge is Lake Omapere, five km in length, but only two to three metres deep. There are several volcanic cones in the area, which are part of the Kaikohe-Bay of Islands volcanic field. Originally a Māori village called Opango, Kaikohe is recognised as being the heart of the culture of the great Ngāpuhi iwi. In the early 19th century a rival Māori tribe raided the village, after the incident, the village became known as Kaikohekohe but was later shortened to Kaikohe. St. Michaels Anglican Church in nearby Ngawha Springs was built on the site of the pā at which the battle took place, the warrior chief Hone Heke settled in Kaikohe after fighting ceased, and died there in 1850. His grand-nephew Hone Heke Ngapua, MP for Northern Maori, also lived in Kaikohe, in April 1911, a monument to him was unveiled on Kaikohe Hill by Sir Tui Carroll, acting Prime Minister. A park in the town is dedicated to Rawiri Taiwhanga who has a strong claim to being New Zealands first commercial dairy farmer. He milked a herd of cows and sold butter in 1834, to the west of the town is the Aperahama Anglican Church, named after Aperahama Te Awa. It was opened in 1885, a year after his death and it is on the site of an earlier church, built in 1837, and the existing memorial gates were erected and dedicated for that earlier church. The building is registered as a place, of special or outstanding historical or cultural heritage significance or value. Also in the town is a Pioneer Village, a 19th-century Northland community recreated with all its colourful atmosphere, history and detail. Kaikohe was linked to the rail network with the arrival of a branch line railway being built from Otiria on the North Auckland Line to Kaitaia. The line between Okaihau and Rangiahua was operated for a time by the Public Works Department before being closed and dismantled during World War II. The railway through Kaikohe thus became known as the Okaihau Branch, although Kaikohe became the service centre of the Far North, it failed to generate much rail traffic in the early years of the line. Minimal services were offered, and although losses increased up to 1930, fortunes had improved by 1940. Two carried only freight, while four were mixed goods/passenger trains, at that time, a full complement of staff was again employed at Kaikohe. When railcars were introduced on services north of Auckland in November 1956 and this proved to be short-lived, in July 1967 the very popular railcar service was withdrawn due to mechanical problems plaguing the railcars
10.
Henry Williams (missionary)
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Henry Williams was the leader of the Church Missionary Society mission in New Zealand in the first half of the 19th century. Williams entered the Royal Navy at the age of fourteen and served in the Napoleonic Wars and he went to New Zealand in 1823 as a missionary. The Bay of Islands Māori gave Williams the nickname Karu-whā and he was known more widely as Te Wiremu. His younger brother, William Williams, was also a missionary in New Zealand and their grandfather, the Reverend Thomas Williams, was a Congregational minister at the Independent Chapel of Gosport. In 1840 Williams translated the Treaty of Waitangi into the Māori language, on 21 September 1844 Williams was installed as Archdeacon of Te Waimate in the diocese centred on Te Waimate mission. Williams was the son of Thomas Williams and Mary Marsh who had married in Gosport on 17 April 1783, Thomas Williams was a supplier of uniforms to the Royal Navy in Gosport. In 1794 Thomas and Mary Williams and their six children moved to Nottingham, Thomas Williams was listed in the Nottingham trade directories as a hosier. The industry was based on William Lees stocking frame knitting machine, Thomas Williams received recognition as a Burgess of Nottingham in 1796 and as a Sheriff of Nottingham in 1803. However the prosperity which had such a feature of the hosiery industry in the second half of the 18th century ended. In 1804, when Thomas Williams died of typhus at the age of 50, his wife was left with a heavily mortgaged business with five sons, in 1806, aged 14, Williams entered the Royal Navy, serving on HMS Barfleur. He became a midshipman in 1807 and he then served on HMS Maida under Captain Samuel Hood Linzee during the Battle of Copenhagen when the Danish fleet was seized in 1807. He landed with the party of seamen who manned the battery before the city. Williams was wounded and never entirely recovered, for this service he qualified for the Naval General Service Medal, which was awarded in 1847 with clasp Off Tamatave 20 May 1811. After the outbreak of the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States he served on HMS Saturn as part of the blockading-squadron off New York City. He was transferred to HMS Endymion and served under Captain Henry Hope in the action on 14 January 1815 against the American warship USS President, in 1847 the Admiralty authorized the issue of the Naval General Service Medal, with clasp Endymion wh. President, to any surviving crew from Endymion. When peace came in 1815, he retired on half pay, after service at Madras and Calcutta, it was on into the cold American winter and that epic last naval engagement in which he took part, on the Endymion. After leaving the Royal Navy, Williams gained employment at Cheltenham and his artistic skills are apparent in the drawings he made in New Zealand
11.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
12.
Anglican ministry
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The Anglican ministry is both the leadership and agency of Christian service in the Anglican Communion. Ministry commonly refers to the office of ordained clergy, the order of bishops, priests. More accurately, Anglican ministry includes many laypeople who devote themselves to the ministry of the church, each of the provinces of the Anglican Communion has a high degree of independence from the other provinces, and each of them have slightly different structures for ministry, mission and governance. However, personal leadership is vested in a member of the clergy. At different levels of the structure, laity, clergy. These gatherings are variously called conferences, synods, convocations, councils, chapters, queen Elizabeth I, while declining the title of Supreme Head, was declared to be Supreme Governor of this realm. as well in all spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes as temporal. Thus, Anglican ordained ministry resembles that found in churches of the Catholic tradition, in Anglican sacramental theology, certain ministerial functions can only be performed by individuals ordained into one or more of the three holy orders. There are two kinds of ministers in this sense, the ordinary minister of a sacrament has both the spiritual power to perform the sacrament and the legal authority to perform the sacrament. An extraordinary minister has the power but may only perform the sacrament in certain special instances under canon law. If a person who is neither an ordinary nor an extraordinary minister attempts to perform a sacrament, in the Anglican Communion, the following are ministers of the sacraments, Baptism, clergy. Eucharist, bishop or priest, clergy or laity licensed by the diocesan bishop, reconciliation of a penitent, bishop or priest. Matrimony, the individuals to be married Holy Orders, at least one bishop ordains deacons and priests, the churches of the Anglican Communion maintain the historical episcopate, which ordains clergy into the three orders of deacon, priest and bishop. Bishops provide the leadership for the Anglican Communion, in accordance with episcopal polity, All bishops, constituting a worldwide College of Bishops, are considered to be equal in orders. However, bishops have a variety of different responsibilities, and in these some bishops are more senior than others, All bishops, of diocesan rank and below, are styled the Right Reverend, more senior bishops and archbishops are styled as the Most Reverend. Most bishops oversee a diocese, some are consecrated to assist diocesan bishops in large or busy dioceses, and some are relieved of diocesan responsibilities so they can minister more widely. A few member churches of the Anglican Communion ordain women as bishops, Anglican bishops are often identified by the purple clergy shirt and cassock they are entitled to wear. However, bishops are permitted to wear colours, and a former Archbishop of Canterbury. Bishops also usually wear a cross and episcopal ring
13.
Russell, New Zealand
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Russell, formerly known as Kororāreka, was the first permanent European settlement and sea port in New Zealand, and was briefly its first capital. It is situated in the Bay of Islands, in the far north of the North Island, as at the 2006 Census it had a resident population of 816, an increase of 12 from 2001. Much of the accommodation in the consists of holiday homes or tourist accommodation. The Bay of Islands offered a safe anchorage and had a high Māori population, to attract ships, Māori began to supply food and timber. What Māori wanted was respect, plus firearms, alcohol, European law had no influence and Māori law was seldom enforced within the towns area. Fighting on the beach at Kororāreka in March 1830, between northern and southern hapū within the Ngāpuhi iwi, became known as the Girls’ War. On 30 January 1840 at the Christ Church, Governor Hobson read his Proclamations in the presence of a number of settlers, a document confirming what had happened was signed at this time by around forty witnesses, including Moka, the only Maori signatory. The following week, the Treaty proceedings would then move across to the Western side of the bay to Waitangi, by this time, Kororāreka was an important mercantile centre and served as a vital resupply port for whaling and sealing operations. When the Colony of New Zealand was founded in year, Hobson was reluctant to choose Kororāreka as his capital. Instead he purchased land at Okiato, situated five kilometres to the south, captain Hobson soon decided that the move to the Okiato site was a mistake, and Auckland was selected as the new capital not long after. Kororāreka was part of the Port of Russell and after Russell became virtually deserted, in January 1844, Governor Robert FitzRoy officially designated Kororāreka as part of the township of Russell. Today the name Russell applies only to Kororāreka while the capital is known either by its original name of Okiato or as Old Russell. At the beginning of the Flagstaff War in 1845, the town of Kororāreka/Russell was sacked by Hōne Heke, after diversionary raids drew away the British defenders. The flagstaff was felled for the time at the commencement of the Battle of Kororāreka, and the inhabitants fled aboard British ships. Hōne Heke directed his warriors not to interfere with Christ Church, in 1841–42, Jean Baptiste Pompallier established a Roman Catholic mission in Russell, which contained a printing press for the production of Māori-language religious texts. His building, known as Pompallier Mission, remains in the care of Heritage New Zealand, Russell is now mostly a bastion of cafés, gift shops and B&Bs. The surrounding area contains many expensive holiday homes, as well as New Zealands most expensive rental accommodation. The internationally acclaimed photographer Laurence Aberhart lives here, a car ferry across the Bay of Islands runs between Okiato and Opua, and is the main tourist access to Russell
14.
Treaty of Waitangi
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The Treaty of Waitangi is a treaty first signed on 6 February 1840 by representatives of the British Crown and various Māori chiefs from the North Island of New Zealand. It resulted in the declaration of British sovereignty over New Zealand by Lieutenant Governor William Hobson in May 1840, the Treaty established a British Governor of New Zealand, recognised Māori ownership of their lands, forests and other properties, and gave the Māori the rights of British subjects. In return the Māori people ceded New Zealand to Queen Victoria, the English and Māori versions of the Treaty differed significantly, so there is no consensus as to exactly what was agreed. From the British point of view, the Treaty gave Britain sovereignty over New Zealand, Māori believed they ceded to the Crown a right of governance in return for protection, without giving up their authority to manage their own affairs. After the initial signing at Waitangi, copies of the Treaty were taken around New Zealand, in total there are nine copies of the Treaty of Waitangi including the original signed on 6 February 1840. Around 530 to 540 Māori, at least 13 of them women, in the 1970s the treaty gained prominence amid greater awareness of Maori issues and grievances, particularly with regard to land claims. Māori have looked to the Treaty for rights and remedies for land loss and unequal treatment by the state, from the late 1960s Māori began drawing attention to breaches of the Treaty, and subsequent histories have emphasised problems with its translation. In 1975, the Waitangi Tribunal was established as a permanent commission of inquiry tasked with researching breaches of the Treaty by the British Crown or its agents, the move showed that the original document was not a firm foundation for the construction of a State. Today the Treaty is generally considered the document of New Zealand as a nation. Despite this, it is often the subject of heated debate, many Māori feel that the Crown did not fulfil its obligations under the Treaty, and have presented evidence of this before sittings of the Waitangi Tribunal. Some non-Māori New Zealanders have suggested that Māori may be abusing the Treaty in order to claim special privileges. The Crown, in most cases, is not obliged to act on the recommendations of the Tribunal but nonetheless in many instances has accepted that it breached the Treaty and its principles. Settlements for Treaty breaches to date have consisted of hundreds of millions of dollars of reparations in cash and assets, the date of the signing has been a national holiday, now called Waitangi Day, since 1974. Between 1795 and 1830 a steady flow of sealing and then whaling ships visited New Zealand, mainly stopping at the Bay of Islands for food supplies, many of the ships came from Sydney. Trade between Sydney and New Zealand increased as traders sought kauri timber and flax and missionaries purchased large areas of land in the Bay of Islands. The purchase of muskets by Ngāpuhi in Sydney began a devastation of the Māori population in a series of as many as 3000 tribal battles known as the Musket Wars between 1807 and 1845. In 1831, thirteen chiefly rangatira from the far north of the country met at Kerikeri to compose a letter to King William IV asking for help to guard their lands. Specifically, the chiefs sought protection from the French, the tribe of Marion, in response, the British government sent James Busby in 1832 to be the British Resident in New Zealand
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Ensign of the United States
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The ensign of the United States refers to the flag of the United States when worn as an ensign. S. Ensign to show their national character, vessels that are numbered by the states and small, non-registered craft owned by American citizens and not registered in other countries may also hoist a U. S. ensign to show their national character. Additionally, a few pleasure craft operated by members of the US Power Squadrons will fly the US Power Squadrons flag as an ensign in inland waters in lieu of the national flag. All vessels of U. S. national character should display the ensign when operating in international. The Grand Union Flag was the de facto first U. S. naval ensign, subsequent flag acts have revised the design as new states joined the union. France was the first country to salute the Stars and Stripes, in the 19th century the ensigns were quite large, the biggest ensign in 1870 measured 19 by 36 feet.5 feet. During the 19th century, for its smaller-sized ensigns, the U. S. Navy used a 13-star flag which became known as boat flag due to its predominant use on boats. The Navy appears to have started this practice in the 1850s and is documented in the Navy Regulations of 1864. The reason for the number of stars was so that the stars in a smaller size flag would have greater visibility at a distance. Because they flew smaller-sized ensigns, the US Navys first submarines, in 1912, President President Taft formally recognized the Navys longstanding use of the 13-star ensign in Executive Order 1637, which defined the flags precise dimensions. However, some of the flags remained in the system until the 1950s. The United States Coast Guard flies a unique ensign to show that it has the authority to stop, board, examine, the U. S. Customs Service flies a very similar flag, but it lacks the badge in the fly. These flags have their origins in a flag that was created in 1799 that was, at that time, intended to be used as an ensign and was in fact so used. Today, however, these two flags are called ensigns but they are flown in conjunction with, and subordinate to, most small craft operated by the US Coast Guard will routinely display both the national ensign and Coast Guard Ensign. These two present-day flags had their origins in a flag designed by Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott for use by the Revenue Cutter Service in August 1799. From 1799 onwards, this flag was used as the ensign in Revenue Cutters. In June 1910, however, President William H, the order said, By virtue of the authority vested in me under the provisions of Sec. This change to be made as soon as practicable, from 1910 onwards, the U. S. Customs Service has continued to use the plain version of the ensign, while the Revenue Cutter Service used the defaced version
17.
William Williams (bishop)
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To be distinguished from William Williams in Khasi Hills India William Williams was the first Anglican Bishop of Waiapu and the father and grandfather of two others. Williams was consecrated as the Bishop of Waiapu on 3 April 1859 at the meeting of the General Synod at Wellington, Williams led the Church Missionary Society missionaries in translating the Bible into Māori and he also published an early dictionary and grammar of the Māori language. Williams was born in Nottingham to Thomas and Mary Williams on 18 July 1800 and his paternal grandfather was the Reverend Thomas Williams, a Congregational minister at the Independent Chapel of Gosport. After the death of Williams father in 1804, his mother moved with her children to Southwell. William Williams was educated at Moravian school, Fairfield, Manchester then at Southwell Grammar School under the Revd E. Footit, Williams completed an apprenticeship to a Mr Forster, a Southwell surgeon. Williams was influenced by the Rev. Edward Garrard Marsh to become an Anglican in February 1818, William entered Magdalen Hall, in 1822, as a prospective CMS trainee. He left Oxford in 1824 with a BA in classics, on 26 September 1824 he was ordained as a deacon of the Church of England. In 1825 he entered the Church Missionary Society College, Islington with the intention of following his brother, Henry, on 11 July 1825, Williams married Jane Nelson of Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire, a teacher at his mothers school. On 12 August they embarked on the Sir George Osborne to sail to Sydney, Australia, then on to Paihia, Bay of Islands, where they arrived on 25 March 1826. Williams and his wife had nine children, Mary, born 12 April 1826, married Samuel Williams Jane Elizabeth, born 23 October 1827, married Henry Williams, in 1862 Leonard Williams was appointed to be Archdeacon of Waiapu. In 1895 Leonard Williams became the third Bishop of Waiapu, on his arrival in Paihia, Williams became a teacher of the boys at the school for children of CMS families. Williams had a talent for the study of the Māori language, after 1826 he took over responsibility for leading the CMS missionaries in further translation of the Bible and other Christian literature. In 1833 further parts of the Maori Bible were published, the Church Missionary Press was established in Paihia. After 1844 the Rev. Robert Maunsell also worked with Williams on the translation of the Bible, Williams concentrated on the New Testament and Maunsell worked on the Old Testament, portions of which were published in 1840 with the full translation completed in 1857. William Gilbert Puckey also collaborated with Williams on the translation of the New Testament, Williams published the Dictionary of the New Zealand Language and a Concise Grammar in 1844. In April 1833, seven Ngāti Porou men and five women arrived in the Bay of Island on the whaler Elizabeth and they had been made prisoner when the captain of the whaler left Waiapu, after a confrontation with the Ngāti Porou. In the Bay of Islands they were delivered to Ngāpuhi chiefs to become slaves, Williams, his brother Henry and Alfred Nesbit Brown persuaded the Ngāpuhi to give up the slaves. An attempt was made to them on the schooner Active although a gale defeated that attempt
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Jean Baptiste Pompallier
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Jean-Baptiste François Pompallier was the first Roman Catholic bishop in New Zealand and, with priests and brothers of the Marist order, he organised the Roman Catholic Church throughout the country. He was born in Lyon, France and he arrived in New Zealand in 1838 as Vicar Apostolic of Western Oceania, but made New Zealand the centre of his operations. In 1848 he became the first Roman Catholic Bishop of Auckland and he returned to France in 1868 and died in Puteaux, near Paris, on 21 December 1871, aged 69. His exhumed remains were returned to New Zealand in 2001 and they were re-interred under the altar at St Marys, Motuti, educational institutions named in his honour include Pompallier Catholic College, Whangarei. Sancta Maria College, Auckland commemorates Pompallier and his work through the name of his schooner, on Trinity Sunday 1835, the pope created the Vicariate Apostolic of Western Oceania. The priests chosen for Western Oceania came from the newly founded French order the Society of Mary formed by Father Jean-Claude Colin in Lyon, on 29 April 1836 Pope Gregory XVI endorsed the Marist order, he assigned to it the mission of Western Oceania. Pompallier, who had closely associated with the nascent Marists, was appointed on 13 May 1836 Vicar Apostolic. The expedition made its first landing at Valparaiso in Chile, Fr Claude Bret died on this leg of the journey. On 10 August 1837, Pompallier and the priests and brothers embarked on the Europa for Tahiti. Europa stopped at Gambier Island and Pompallier met Bishop Rouchouze, Vicar Apostolic for Eastern Oceania, on 5 October 1837 he sailed for Tonga on the schooner Raiatea. Father Pierre Bataillon and Brother Joseph-Xavier began the mission at Uvea Wallis Island on 1 November, Father Pierre Chanel and Brother Marie-Nizier started the mission at Futuna. Pompallier travelled to Rotuma but was unable to leave anyone there, on arrival in Sydney in New South Wales he learned much about the New Zealand mission from Bishop John Polding. On 30 December Pompallier, Fr Louis Catherin Servant SM and Brother Michel Colombon sailed for the Hokianga and arrived at the home of Thomas, Pompallier celebrated his first Mass at Totara Point on 13 January 1838. He immediately set about establishing Catholic mission stations, by 1843, he had established stations in Hokianga, Kororareka, Mangakahia, Kaipara, Tauranga, Akaroa, Matamata, Opotiki, Maketu, Auckland, Otago, Wellington, Otaki, Rotorua, Rangiaowhia and Whakatane. The mission station in Kororareka encompassed the area surrounding what is now known as Pompallier House, a printing press was imported, and, with other Catholic missionaries, Pompallier sponsored the printing of prayer booklets in Māori, some of the earliest Māori publications. A tannery was set up to produce leather with which the pamphlets, Marist reinforcements arrived on the Reine de Paix on 18 June 1839. On 8 December, four more Marists arrived and they were Fathers Viard, Petit-Jean, Comte and Chevron and Brother Attale. Pompallier was present at Waitangi on the day before and the morning of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, Pompallier pushed for a guaranteed freedom of religion
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William Colenso
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William Colenso was a Cornish Christian missionary to New Zealand, and also a printer, botanist, explorer and politician. He attended the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi and later wrote an account of the events at Waitangi, born in Penzance, Cornwall, he was the cousin of John William Colenso, bishop of Natal. He trained as a printers apprentice then travelled to New Zealand in 1834 to work for the Church Missionary Society as a printer/missionary and he was responsible for the printing of the Māori language translation of the New Testament. He was ordained a Deacon on 22 September 1844 following his studies at St John’s College. He was an avid botanist, detailing and transmitting to Kew Gardens in England previously unrecorded New Zealand flora, in 1866 he was the first New Zealander to be elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote several books, and contributed over a hundred papers to scientific journals and his travels took him through trackless forest, over the high Ruahine Range and across the Rangipo Desert and past the mountains of Ruapehu and Tongariro to the shores of Lake Taupo. In doing so he contributed greatly to the European exploration of the central North Island, one of his journeys, between December 1841 and February 1842, was across the North Island and up to the Kaipara Harbour. From 1845 Colenso undertook lengthy journeys every spring and autumn, in 1847 he travelled to Taupo then south to pass by the Tongariro and Ruapehu mountains. He regularly visited the Wairapara and Hutt districts, where he was frequently at odds with the European lessees of sheep and cattle stations such as Kelly, McMaster, Grindell and Gillies. In 1845 about 12 sheep and cattle farmers had leased large areas of land from local Maori by mutual agreement, Maori owners regularly raised the annual lease fee to the annoyance of the farmers. The farmers regularly pressed Maori to sell land, many younger chiefs were keen sellers but were thwarted by conservative older chiefs. The farmers also paid Maori to assist in building roads to help economic development, Colenso regularly counselled Maori against selling any land or helping build roads which he claimed would be disastrous for them. Colenso was especially vociferous about the living with Maori women as their wives. Colenso also had strong views about drinking and horse racing which were a part of colonial life that Maori as well as settlers enjoyed. This put him in opposition to a range of New Zealanders. In 1847 judge Chapman, doctor Featherston, bank manager McDonald, there was criticism of what was called the malicious interference of Colenso. In November 1851 he was suspended as a deacon and dismissed from the mission in 1852, in 1853 he was convicted of a technical assault over an argument about Ripeka and their son. Following a long period during which he continued his botany work
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Church Mission Society
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Founded in 1799, CMS has attracted over nine thousand men and women to serve as mission partners during its 200-year history. The society has given its name CMS to a number of daughter organisations around the world. The Baptist Missionary Society was formed in 1792 and the London Missionary Society was formed in 1795 to represent various evangelical denominations and their number included Charles Simeon, Basil Woodd, Henry Thornton, Thomas Babington and William Wilberforce. Wilberforce was asked to be the first president of the society, the treasurer was Henry Thornton and the founding secretary was Thomas Scott, a biblical commentator. Many of the founders were involved in creating the Sierra Leone Company. In 1802 Josiah Pratt was appointed secretary, a position he held for until 1824, the first missionaries went out in 1804. They came from the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg and had trained at the Berlin Seminary, the name Church Missionary Society began to be used and in 1812 the society was renamed The Church Missionary Society. The West Africa mission was extended to Sierra Leone, Samuel Ajayi Crowther, a Yoruba by birth, was selected to accompany the missionary James Schön on the Niger expedition of 1841. Crowther was the missionary to Yorubaland in 1844 and the Niger in 1857. West Indies, The CMS started work in Antigua and expanded to other islands, by 1838 the CMS had congregations of 8,000, with 13 ordained missionaries,23 lay teachers and 70 schools. In about 1848 a shortage of funds resulted in the CMS withdrawing from the West Indies, New Zealand, The Revd Samuel Marsden became the chaplain of the penal colony at Paramatta, Australia in 1874. India, William Carey, the founder of the Baptist Missionary Society was the pioneer of the Evangelical, the CMS Mission in India began in 1814 when 7 missionaries arrived, two were placed at Chennai, two at Bengal and three at Travancore. The Indian missions were extended in the years to a number of locations including Agra, Meerut district, Varanasi, Mumbai, Tirunelveli, Kolkata, Telugu Country. While the Revolt of 1857 resulted in damage to the missions in the North West Provinces, after the revolt the CMS expanded its missions to Oudh, Allahbad, the Santhal people, and to Kashmir. Sri Lanka, Four CMS missionaries were sent to Ceylon in 1817, in 1850 a mission station was established at Colombo. In 1822 the CMS appointed West to head the mission in what was known as the Red River Colony in what is now the province of Manitoba. He was succeeded in 1823 by the Revd David Jones who was joined by the Revd W. Cockram, the mission worked among the Cree, Ojibwe, Chippewa, and Gwichin of the upper west Great Plains. Egypt and Ethiopia, Five missionaries were sent to Egypt in 1825, the missionaries were expelled from Abyssinia in 1844 following the Siege of Khartoum and the death of General Gordon
21.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
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The Crown
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The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their sub-divisions, although the term is not only a metonym for the State. The Crown is a sole that represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative. These monarchies are united by the union of their monarch. The concept of the Crown developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the crown and property of the nation state from the person. The concept spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the lexicon of the other 15 independent realms. In this context it should not be confused with any physical crown, the concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights, land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage—owners of land held as socage held it only to the Crown. The Crown as ultimate owner of all property also owns any property which has become bona vacantia, the monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. He office cannot exist without the office-holder, the Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crowns legal personality is usually regarded as a sole, it can, at least for some purposes. Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible, two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta and Ex parte Quark —challenged that view. The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. The Succession to the Crown Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey. Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government, often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The title of the case follows the pattern of R v Y. Thus R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where Miller is Gina Miller, in Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate in the name of the Crown
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Okiato
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Okiato or Old Russell is a small holiday spot in the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, seven km south of present-day Russell. It was New Zealands first national capital, for a time from 1840 to 1841. The car ferry across the Bay of Islands, the main tourist access to Russell, clendon became the first United States Consul for New Zealand in 1838 or 1839. When the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840, Lieutenant-Governor William Hobson instructed the Surveyor-General, Felton Mathew, clendons property met the requirements for a good anchorage and immediate availability of land suitable for subdivision and on-sale to settlers. Kororāreka was discounted as it had insufficient available land and locations such as Paihia, clendon wanted 23,000 pounds for the 1.24 km² of land, the house, two small cottages, a large store and other buildings. Hobson eventually secured it for 15,000 pounds and he changed its name from Okiato to Russell, in honour of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord John Russell. Hobson and his family moved there in May 1840 and officials, troops, workmen and immigrants took up residence in permanent or temporary buildings and tents. Mathew drew up plans for a town, but only one of the intended roads was ever built - leading directly from the town hall to the town jail. A year later in 1841 New Zealand was established as a colony from New South Wales and Hobson moved the capital to Auckland. A few officials lived on in the Government House at Russell but when it, Kororāreka was part of the Port of Russell and gradually became known as Russell also. In January 1844 Governor Robert FitzRoy officially designated Kororāreka as part of the township of Russell, now the name Russell applies only to the erstwhile Kororāreka while Okiato has resumed its original name. Old Russell, New Zealands First Capital
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Auckland
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Auckland is a city in the North Island of New Zealand. It is the most populous area in the country. Auckland has a population of 1,495,000, which constitutes 32 percent of New Zealands population, a diverse and multicultural city, Auckland is home to the largest Polynesian population in the world. It has also been called Ākarana, the Māori pronunciation of Auckland, the Auckland urban area ranges to Waiwera in the north, Kumeu in the northwest, and Runciman in the south. It is not contiguous, the section from Waiwera to Whangaparāoa Peninsula is separate from its nearest neighbouring suburb of Long Bay, the surrounding hills are covered in rainforest and the landscape is dotted with dozens of dormant volcanic cones. The central part of the area occupies a narrow isthmus between the Manukau Harbour on the Tasman Sea and the Waitemata Harbour on the Pacific Ocean. It is one of the few cities in the world to have harbours on two major bodies of water. The isthmus on which Auckland resides was first settled around 1350 and was valued for its rich, Māori population in the area is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 before the arrival of Europeans. After a British colony was established in 1840, the new Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson and he named the area Auckland for George Eden, Earl of Auckland, British First Lord of the Admiralty. It was replaced as the capital in 1865, but immigration to the new city stayed strong, today, Aucklands Central Business District is the major financial centre of New Zealand. Auckland is classified as a Beta World City because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, education and tourism. Aucklands landmarks such as the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, the Harbour Bridge, the Sky Tower, the isthmus was settled by Māori around 1350, and was valued for its rich and fertile land. Many pā were created, mainly on the volcanic peaks, Māori population in the area is estimated to have been about 20,000 people before the arrival of Europeans. As a result, the region had relatively low numbers of Māori when European settlement of New Zealand began, there is, however, nothing to suggest that this was the result of a deliberate European policy. Auckland was officially declared New Zealands capital in 1841 and the transfer of the administration from Russell in the Bay of Islands was completed in 1842. However, even in 1840 Port Nicholson was seen as a choice for an administrative capital because of its proximity to the South Island. After losing its status as capital, Auckland remained the city of the Auckland Province until the provincial system was abolished in 1876. Each of the four settlements had about 800 settlers, the men being fully armed in case of emergency but spent nearly all their time breaking in the land and establishing roads
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Agathis
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Agathis, commonly known as kauri or dammar, is a relatively small genus of 22 species of evergreen tree. Mature kauri trees have large trunks, forming a bole with little or no branching below the crown. In contrast, young trees are conical in shape, forming a more rounded or irregularly shaped crown as they achieve maturity. The bark is smooth and light grey to grey-brown, usually peeling into irregular flakes that become thicker on more mature trees, the branch structure is often horizontal or, when larger, ascending. The lowest branches often leave circular scars when they detach from the lower trunk. The juvenile leaves in all species are larger than the adult, more or less acute, adult leaves are opposite, elliptical to linear, very leathery and quite thick. Young leaves are often a coppery-red, contrasting markedly with the green or glaucous-green foliage of the previous season. The male pollen cones appear usually only on larger trees after seed cones have appeared, the female seed cones usually develop on short lateral branchlets, maturing after two years. They are normally oval or globe shaped, seeds of some species are attacked by the caterpillars of Agathiphaga, some of the most primitive of all living moths. Various species of kauri give diverse resins such as kauri copal, Manilla copal, the timber is generally straight-grained and of fine quality with an exceptional strength-to-weight ratio and rot resistance, making it ideal for yacht hull construction. The wood is used in the manufacture of guitars and ukuleles due to its light weight. It is also used for some Go boards, the uses of the New Zealand species included shipbuilding, house construction, wood panelling, furniture making, mine braces, and railway sleepers
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New Zealand Government
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The Government of New Zealand, formally Her Majestys Government in New Zealand, is the administrative complex through which authority is exercised in New Zealand. As in most parliamentary democracies, the term Government refers chiefly to the executive branch, based on the principle of responsible government, it operates within the framework that the Queen reigns, but the government rules, so long as it has the support of the House of Representatives. The position of Prime Minister, New Zealands head of government, in practice, the Prime Minister is determined by size of each political party, support agreements between parties and leadership votes in the party that leads the Government. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are formally appointed by the Governor-General, however, the Prime Minister chooses the Cabinet, and by convention, the Governor-General respects the Prime Ministers choices. Cabinet ministers are drawn from elected members of the Prime Ministers party in the House of Representatives, a few more ministers are part of the Executive Council but are outside Cabinet. Most ministers have a portfolio of specific responsibilities such as departments or policy areas, the Prime Minister exercises vast political power, especially in the appointment of government officials and civil servants. The Queen of New Zealand is head of state but plays little part in governing the country, however, the legal authority of the state that is vested in the monarch, known as the Crown, remains the source of the executive power exercised by the Government. The Governor-General presides over the Executive Council, but is not a member, New Zealand had been granted responsible government in 1853 following the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Governments were set up at state and at level, with initially six provinces. The provinces were abolished by the Abolition of Provinces Act 1876, for the purposes of the Act, the provinces formally ceased to exist on 1 January 1877. The first government that formed along political lines did not appear until 1891, when John Ballance formed the Liberal Party and the Liberal Government. The current Government of New Zealand is the Fifth National Government, led by Prime Minister John Key from 2008 until 12 December 2016, the National Party has parliamentary support from the Māori Party, United Future and ACT. Politics of New Zealand, for a description of jurisdictions, politics. Judiciary of New Zealand Westminster system
27.
Archdeacon
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In the High Middle Ages it was the most senior diocesan position below a bishop in the Roman Catholic Church. An archdeacon is often responsible for administration within an archdeaconry, which is the subdivision of the diocese. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church has defined an archdeacon as A cleric having a defined administrative authority delegated to him by the bishop in the whole or part of the diocese, the office has often been described metaphorically as that of oculus episcopi, the bishops eye. In the Latin Catholic Church, the post of archdeacon, generally a priest, was one of great importance as a senior official of a diocese. The duties are now performed by such as auxiliary and/or coadjutor bishops, the vicar general. The term archdeacon appears for the first time in Optatus of Mileves history of Donatism of about 370 and these functions included not only financial administration but also the discipline of the clergy, and examination of candidates for priesthood. From the 8th century, there was in the West a further development of the authority of the archdeacon, large dioceses had several archdeaconries, in each of which the archdeacon, had an authority comparable to that of the bishop. Frequently they were appointed not by the bishop but by the chapter or the king. However, from the 13th century, efforts were made to limit their authority and this was effected in part by the institution of the new office of vicar general, who would be a priest rather than a deacon. In 1553, the Council of Trent removed entirely the independent powers of archdeacons and those who had been in charge of different parts of the diocese gradually ceased to be appointed. Only the archdeacon associated with the chapter continued to exist as an empty title. However, Eastern Catholic Churches still utilize archdeacons, recently, this type of dual role has only existed in the Bishop suffragan of Ludlow. An archdeacon is usually styled The Venerable instead of the clerical style of The Reverend. In the Church of England the position of an archdeacon can only be held by a priest who has been ordained for at least six years, in the Church of England, the legal act by which a priest becomes an archdeacon is called a collation. If that archdeaconry is annexed to a canonry of the cathedral, the Anglican ordinal presupposes that the functions of archdeacons include those of examining candidates for ordination and then presenting them to the ordaining bishop. In the Eastern Christian churches, an archdeacon is the senior deacon within a diocese and has responsibility for serving at hierarchical services and he has responsibility for ensuring the smooth running of the service by directing the clergy and servers as appropriate. The archdeacon wears the orarion, which is twice the length of the usual orarion. An archdeacon may come from either the monastic or married clergy, an archdeacon was the prince and head of the Christians of Saint Thomas and had such titles as Archdeacon and Gate of All India, Governor of India
28.
Te Ruki Kawiti
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Te Ruki Kawiti was a prominent Māori rangatira. He and Hōne Heke successfully fought the British in the Flagstaff War in 1845–46 and he traced descent from Rāhiri and Nukutawhiti of the Ngātokimatawhaorua canoe, the ancestors of the Ngāpuhi. He was born in the north of New Zealand into the Ngāti Hine hapu, from his youth he was trained in leadership and warfare by Hongi Hika. He was present at the Battle of Moremonui in 1807 or 1808 when many Ngāpuhi were slaughtered by Ngāti Whātua. Almost twenty years later, in 1825, he was at the Battle of Te Ika-a-ranga-nui when it was Ngāpuhis turn to slaughter Ngāti Whātua in an act of utu or revenge. He took a number of Ngāti Whātua captive and refused to hand them over to Hongi Hika, Kawiti initially refused to sign the Treaty of Waitangi on 6 February 1840, believing that it would inevitably lead to further European encroachment and the loss of Māori land. However he eventually yielded to pressure from his own people and signed the Treaty in May 1840, right at the top, however he soon grew disenchanted with British law and supported Hōne Heke in his protests against British rule. Hōne Heke sought support from Kawiti and other leaders of the Ngāpuhi iwi by the conveying of ‘te ngākau’, the custom observed by those who sought help to settle a tribal grievance. Hōne Heke and Te Ruki Kawiti worked out the plan to draw the Colonial forces into battle, with the opening provocations focusing on the flagstaff on Maiki Hill at the north end Kororāreka. When in March 1845 Heke cut down the pole at Kororāreka for the fourth time, thereby initiating the Flagstaff War, Kawiti, now in his seventies. The Māori warriors followed their chief and would fight in groups, however Kawiti. After the Battle of Kororāreka, Heke and Kawiti and the warriors travelled inland to Lake Omapere near to Kaikohe some 20 miles, tamati Waka Nene built a pā close to Lake Omapere. Hekes pā named Puketutu, was 2 miles away, while it is named as “Te Mawhe” however the hill of that name is some distance to the north-east. Hekes force numbered about three hundred men, Kawiti joined Heke towards the end of April with another hundred and fifty warriors, among Kawitis supporters was his nephew Reweti Maika. The first major engagement of the Flagstaff War was the attack on Hekes Pā at Puketutu in May 1845 by the forces led by Lt Col William Hulme. While Heke occupied the pā itself, Kawiti and his warriors arrived at the battle and engaged with the Colonial forces in the scrub and they successfully prevented the Colonial forces from launching a coordinated attack on the pā but at quite a heavy cost in casualties. The Colonial forces were unable to overcome the defences of the pā, the next major engagement was the Battle of Te Ahuahu. However, there are no detailed accounts of the action, Hugh Carleton mentions Thomas Walker was a name adopted by Tāmati Wāka Nene, in this battle Nenes warriors carried the day
29.
Flagstaff Hill (New Zealand)
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Flagstaff Hill overlooks the Bay of Islands, New Zealand. After the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in February 1840 at Waitangi, across the bay, the flagstaff was cut down for the first time on 8 July 1844, by Te Haratua, an ally of Hone Heke. Heke had set out to cut down the flagstaff but had been persuaded by Archdeacon William Williams not to do so, the flagstaff was replaced and troops sent to guard the flagstaff. On 10 January 1845 the flagstaff was cut down a second time, on 18 January 1845, a flagstaff sheathed in iron was erected. The next morning the flagstaff was cut again by Hone Heke. At the same time, possibly as a diversion, Te Ruki Kawiti and this was the beginning of what would be called the Flagstaff War or the Northern War. In 1846 Hone Heke and Te Ruki Kawiti agreed peace terms with the government, the British colonial government did not re-erect the flagstaff again, fearing to provoke further conflict. The flagstaff that now stands at Kororareka was erected in January 1858 at the direction of Kawitis son Maihi Paraone Kawiti, with the flag being named Whakakotahitanga, the continuing symbolism of the fifth flagstaff at Kororareka is that it exists because of the goodwill of the Ngāpuhi. The hill is a destination for many of the tourists coming to Russell, with walking tracks leading up the hill. The bush around the hill is also kiwi territory, though the birds are too shy to be seen by passing wanderers
30.
HMS Hazard (1837)
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HMS Hazard was an 18-gun Favorite-class sloop of the Royal Navy. She was one of four Favorite-class ship sloops, which were a ship-rigged and lengthened version of the 1796 Cruizer-class brig-sloop, All four ships of the class were ordered on 10 June 1823. She was launched in 1837 from Portsmouth Dockyard, in July 1837 Hazard sailed for the coast of Senegal to protect British shipping and to patrol the coast of West Africa. In October 1837 she was in the Mediterranean, during the Oriental Crisis of 1840 Hazard was involved in the bombardment of St. Jean d’Acre on 3 November 1840. In September 1841, she returned to Portsmouth then sailed to Hong Kong to serve in the East Indies, during the period 1841–42 she served with Sir William Parkers ships in the First Anglo-Chinese War, known popularly as the First Opium War. Hazard, under Acting-Commander Robertson, operated in the Bay of Islands in New Zealand during the Flagstaff War in 1845, Hazard was in the Bay of Islands on 11 March 1845 when a force of about 600 Māori armed with muskets, double-barrelled guns and tomahawks attacked Kororareka. Royal Marines and sailors from Hazard took part in the fighting ashore aiding a detachment of the 96th Regt. during the Battle of Kororāreka, the Hazard lost 6 men killed and 8 wounded. Lieutenant George Philpotts ordered the bombardment of Kororāreka, on 30 June 1845 a small naval brigade from both HMS Hazard and HMS North Star supported the 58th Regt. and other colonial forces at the Battle of Ohaeawai. The colonial forces were repulsed by Māori warriors with serious losses including Lieutenant George Phillpotts, in November 1845 HMS Hazard sails from the Bay of Islands, for Hong Kong. In April 1846 she was part of a squadron supporting Sir James Brooke in suppressing insurgency in the Sultanate of Brunei and she was reduced to 14 guns in 1848, and was eventually broken up at the yards of J. Samuel White, Cowes by 12 February 1866. Ships of the Royal Navy, The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy, the Sail and Steam Navy List, All the Ships of the Royal Navy 1815–1889
31.
Okaihau
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Okaihau is a small town in the Northland Region of New Zealands North Island, just north of Kaikohe. State Highway 1 passes through the town, the 2006 New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings recorded Okaihaus population as 717, an increase of 30 people since the 2001 census. On 29 October 1923, a branch railway was opened to Okaihau from the junction with the North Auckland Line at Otiria. Work on an extension of the line beyond Okaihau to the Hokianga Harbour and Kaitaia proceeded slowly, and in 1936, however, it was decided that construction beyond Rangiahua would be excessively expensive and the steep section from Okaihau to Rangiahua was seen as unnecessary and accordingly removed. The railway line became known as the Okaihau Branch and Okaihau became New Zealands northernmost railway terminus. With Okaihau being on the main State Highway north it became the point for goods from rail onto road. For the Okaihau Branchs first few decades of operation, passengers were catered for by mixed trains that carried freight as well, the northern terminus was changed from Opua to Okaihau, and the railway line rose in prominence and importance. The railcars provided an improvement in service and were very popular throughout their service duration. However, mechanical faults plagued the railcars and they were cancelled in July 1967, mixed trains continued to operate to Whangarei until 21 June 1976, when the line became freight-only. However, declining freight volumes due to deregulation of the industry in 1983 meant that the line did not last much longer. There have been calls and proposals to reopen the Okaihau Branch to carry forestry traffic, the earliest official record of a school in Okaihau was in 1874, prior to this, school had been taught by Mr. Joseph Harrison from 1870 or 1871. The earliest date is not known, the settlers, through Mr. McCloud the M. P for the Bay of Islands at the time arranged to provide the timber for a school and the government would erect it and pay the teacher in full. The school was built in 1874, opening with a roll of 21 pupils, by 1889 the school building was too small and was shifted down to serve as the Upper Waihou School. A larger one was built in its place and this bigger school was known continuously as the Main School until consolidation over forty years later. Other schools opened in the area at later dates were, Upper Waihou, Rangi Point, Cooks Road, Utakura, Okaihau East, due to the large influx of workers on the proposed railway line to Kaitaia the Public Works School became necessary. It grew to have three teachers, prior to 1938 there was no secondary education available to those in the Okaihau area. Students would either have to board in Auckland or Whangarei, or travel to Kaikohe by train, the trip to Kaikohe was an endurance test for students as they would often not get home until 6pm or later. On 4 April 1938 a consolidated school was opened with a roll of 180, the first headmaster was Mr. A. Burnett
