1.
Bognor Regis
–
Bognor Regis /ˌbɒɡnər ˈriːdʒᵻs/ is a seaside resort in West Sussex on the south coast of England,55.5 miles south-west of London,24 miles west of Brighton, and 5.81 miles south-east of Chichester. Other nearby towns include Littlehampton east-north-east and Selsey to the south-west, the nearby villages of Felpham, and Aldwick are now suburbs of Bognor Regis, along with those of North and South Bersted. A factor underpinning the growth of the resort was its station opened in 1864 on what was a sandy, consequently, small numbers of wealthy Victorian figures established large homes in the area and a seaside resort was developed by Sir Richard Hotham. It has been claimed that Hotham and his new resort are portrayed in Jane Austens unfinished novel Sanditon, in 1929 the area was chosen by advisors to King George V which led to its regal suffix, by royal consent. Butlins has been present in the town since the early 1930s when an amusement park, a holiday camp followed in 1960 and this has more recently moved towards hotel accommodation with modern amenities. The population as of the 2011 census was 63,855, Bognor is one of the oldest recorded Anglo-Saxon place names in Sussex. In a document of 680 AD it is referred to as Bucgan ora meaning Bucges shore and it has been postulated that Hotham and his new resort are portrayed in Jane Austens unfinished novel Sanditon. Bognor was originally part of the ancient parish of Pagham in the county of Sussex, from around 1465 it was included in the parish of Bersted before attaining ecclesiastical parish status separate from South Bersted in 1873. Until 1894 it formed part of the Hundred of Aldwick, an ancient division of Chichester Rape, from 1894 to 1974 it was part of Bognor Urban District, and since 1974 it has been a part of Arun District. It was a part of the Mulberry harbour which broke free in a storm on 4 June and this particular section of Mulberry was abandoned and did not make it across the Channel. It was washed up on the beach shortly after D-Day and it is clearly visible at low tide throughout the year. Sadly the unit still off the Pagham coast had sunk lower than anticipated and it swung around, settled again over a deep depression, twisted and was cracked beyond repair. Ultimately it was used by the RAF in 1945 for bombing practice and this harbour is still there today and used by scuba divers as a location to study the seabed and fish, which gather around the artificial reef. There is a memorial to the men who were involved in the Mulberry Harbour project. The memorial was placed there in June,1999, and states, “To mark the 55th Anniversary of D-Day in 1944. This plaque is erected as a memorial to mark the historical association that Pagham Beach had with the Mulberry Harbour Project in support of the liberation of Europe. ”The plaque continues ‘some 50 had been assembled between Pagham beach and Selsey. To hide them from enemy view they were sunk to await refloating when the invasion got under way’, finally the plaque records ‘The Mulberry Harbour project was without doubt, a great feat of British and allied engineering skills, many still remain at Arromanches in Normandy. Bognor Regis town centre was damaged in 1994 by an IRA device left in a bicycle outside Woolworths, fifteen shops were damaged but no injuries occurred
Bognor Regis
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Bognor Regis seafront
Bognor Regis
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The shopping precinct
Bognor Regis
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Butlin's Bognor Regis Resort
Bognor Regis
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Bognor Regis Pier at low tide
2.
Light-emitting diode
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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
Light-emitting diode
–
Blue, pure green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused cases
Light-emitting diode
–
A bulb-shaped modern retrofit
LED lamp with aluminium
heat sink, a light
diffusing dome and
E27 screw base, using a built-in power supply working on
mains voltage
Light-emitting diode
–
Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of
SiC recreates
H. J. Round 's original experiment from 1907.
Light-emitting diode
–
LED display of a
TI-30 scientific calculator (ca. 1978), which uses plastic lenses to increase the visible digit size
3.
Electroluminescence
–
Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon and electrical phenomenon in which a material emits light in response to the passage of an electric current or to a strong electric field. This is distinct from black body light emission resulting from heat, from a reaction, sound. Electroluminescence is the result of recombination of electrons and holes in a material. The excited electrons release their energy as photons - light, the active materials are generally semiconductors of wide enough bandwidth to allow exit of the light. The most typical inorganic thin-film EL is ZnS, Mn with yellow-orange emission, general Electric has patents dating to 1938 on flat electroluminescent panels that are still made as night lights and backlights for instrument panel displays. The drawbacks of conventional electroluminescent lights are low efficiency and lifetimes limited to hundreds of hours, electroluminescent panels are a capacitor where the dielectric between the outside plates is a phosphor that gives off photons when the capacitor is charged. By making one of the transparent, the large area exposed emits light. These lamps have proven incredibly reliable, with some known to be still functional after nearly 50 years of continuous operation. Raytheon, Sudbury, MA, manufactured the Apollo guidance computer, powder phosphor-based electroluminescent panels are frequently used as backlights to liquid crystal displays. They readily provide a gentle, even illumination to the display while consuming relatively little electric power. They do, however, require high voltage. For battery-operated devices, this voltage must be generated by a circuit within the device. For line-voltage-operated devices, it may be supplied directly from the power line, electroluminescent nightlights operate in this fashion. Brightness per unit area increases with increased voltage and frequency, thin film phosphor electroluminescence was first commercialized during the 1980s by Sharp Corporation in Japan, Finlux in Finland, and Planar Systems in the USA. Here, bright, long-life light emission is achieved in thin film yellow-emitting manganese-doped zinc sulfide material, displays using this technology were manufactured for medical and vehicle applications where ruggedness and wide viewing angles were crucial, and liquid crystal displays were not well developed. In 1992, Timex introduced its Indiglo EL display on some watches, recently, blue-, red-, and green-emitting thin film electroluminescent materials that offer the potential for long life and full color electroluminescent displays have been developed. In either case, the EL material must be enclosed between two electrodes and at least one electrode must be transparent to allow the escape of the produced light. Glass coated with tin oxide is commonly used as the front electrode while the back electrode is coated with reflective metal
Electroluminescence
–
An electroluminescent
nightlight in operation (uses 0.08 W at 230 V, and dates from 1960; lit diameter 59 mm)
Electroluminescence
–
Spectrum of a blue/green electroluminescent light source for a clock radio (similar to the one seen in the above image). Peak wavelength is at 492 nm and the
FWHM spectral bandwidth is quite wide at about 85 nm.
Electroluminescence
–
The world's first electroluminescent
billboard campaign, Canada, Winter 2005
Electroluminescence
–
1966
Dodge Charger instrument panel with electroluminescent lighting.
Chrysler first introduced cars with EL panel lighting in its 1960 model year.
4.
Guglielmo Marconi
–
He is often credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy. Marconi was an entrepreneur, businessman, and founder of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in the United Kingdom in 1897 and he succeeded in making a commercial success of radio by innovating and building on the work of previous experimenters and physicists. In 1929, the King of Italy ennobled Marconi as a Marchese, Marconi was born into the Italian nobility as Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi in Bologna on 25 April 1874, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi and his Irish/Scots wife Annie Jameson. Between the ages of two and six, Marconi and his elder brother Alfonso were brought up by his mother in the English town of Bedford, Marconi received further education in Florence at the Istituto Cavallero and, later, in Livorno. Marconi did not do well in school, according to Robert McHenry and he was baptized as a Catholic but had been brought up as a member of the Anglican Church, being married into it. Marconi was confirmed in the Catholic faith and became a member of the Church before his marriage to Maria Christina in 1927. During his early years, Marconi had an interest in science and electricity, the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. There was a deal of interest in radio waves in the physics community. Righis article renewed Marconis interest in developing a wireless telegraphy based on radio waves. In the summer of 1894, he built a storm alarm made up of a battery, a coherer, and an electric bell, soon after he was able to make a bell ring on the other side of the room by pushing a telegraphic button on a bench. One night in December 1894, Guglielmo woke his mother and invited her into his secret workshop and showed her the experiment that he had created. The next day, he showed his work to his father. In the summer of 1895, Marconi moved his experimentation outdoors, with these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles and over hills. The monopole antenna reduced the frequency of the waves compared to the dipole antennas used by Hertz, by this point, he concluded that a device could become capable of spanning greater distances, with additional funding and research, and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily. Marconis experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful radio transmission system, Marconi wrote to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs, then under the direction of the honorable Pietro Lacava, explaining his wireless telegraph machine and asking for funding. He never received a response to his letter which was dismissed by the Minister who wrote to the Longara on the document. In 1896, Marconi spoke with his family friend Carlo Gardini, Honorary Consul at the United States Consulate in Bologna, Gardini wrote a letter of introduction to the Ambassador of Italy in London, Annibale Ferrero, explaining who Marconi was and about these extraordinary discoveries. In his response, Ambassador Ferrero advised them not to reveal the results until after they had obtained the copyrights
Guglielmo Marconi
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Guglielmo Marconi
Guglielmo Marconi
–
Marconi Rock, Salvan, Switzerland, site of 1895 experiments
Guglielmo Marconi
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Plaque on the outside of BT Centre commemorates Marconi's first public transmission of wireless signals.
Guglielmo Marconi
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Marconi watching associates raising the kite (a "Levitor" by B.F.S. Baden-Powell) used to lift the antenna at
St. John's, Newfoundland, December 1901
5.
Staffordshire
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Staffordshire is a landlocked county in the West Midlands of England. It adjoins Cheshire to the north west, Derbyshire and Leicestershire to the east, Warwickshire to the south east, West Midlands and Worcestershire to the south, and Shropshire to the west. The largest city in Staffordshire is Stoke-on-Trent, which is administered separately from the rest of the county as an independent unitary authority, Lichfield also has city status, although this is a considerably smaller cathedral city. Major towns include Stafford, Burton upon Trent, Cannock, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Leek, smaller towns include Stone, Uttoxeter, and Rugeley, and large villages Eccleshall, Wombourne, Kinver, Penkridge, Tutbury and Stretton. Cannock Chase AONB is within the county as well as parts of the National Forest, Wolverhampton, Walsall, West Bromwich, and Smethwick were historic Staffordshire towns until local government reorganisation created the West Midlands county in 1974. Historically, Staffordshire was divided into the five hundreds of Cuttlestone, Offlow, Pirehill, Seisdon, the historic boundaries of Staffordshire cover much of what is now the metropolitan county of West Midlands. The Act also saw the towns of Tamworth and Burton upon Trent united entirely in Staffordshire, in 1553 Queen Mary made Lichfield a county separate from the rest of Staffordshire. Handsworth and Perry Barr became part of the county borough of Birmingham in the early 20th century, Burton, in the east of the county, became a county borough in 1901, and was followed by Smethwick, another town in the Black Country in 1907. In 1910 the six towns of the Staffordshire Potteries, including Hanley, a major reorganisation in the Black Country in 1966, under the recommendation of the Local Government Commission for England led to the creation of an area of contiguous county boroughs. Meanwhile, the county borough of Dudley, historically a part of Worcestershire, expanded. County boroughs were abolished, with Stoke becoming a district in Staffordshire. On 1 April 1997, under a recommendation of the Banham Commission, in July 2009 the largest hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold ever found in Britain was discovered in a field near Lichfield. The artefacts, known as The Staffordshire Hoard have tentatively dated to the 7th or 8th centuries. Some nationally and internationally known companies have their base in Staffordshire. They include the Britannia Building Society which is based in Leek, JCB is based in Rocester near Uttoxeter and bet365 based in Stoke-on-Trent. The theme park Alton Towers is in the Staffordshire Moorlands and several of the worlds largest pottery manufacturers are based in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire has a completely comprehensive system with eight independent schools. Most secondary schools are from 11–16 or 18, but two in Staffordshire Moorlands and South Staffordshire are from 13–18, there are two universities in the county, Keele University in Newcastle-under-Lyme and Staffordshire University, which has campuses in Stoke-on-Trent, Stafford, Lichfield and Shrewsbury. The modern county of Staffordshire currently has three football clubs – Stoke City and Port Vale, both from Stoke-on-Trent, and Burton Albion, who play in Burton upon Trent. They were among the 12 founder members of the Football League in 1888, in 1972, the club finally won a major trophy when they lifted the Football League Cup, but after relegation from the First Division in 1985 they would not experience top flight football for 23 years
Staffordshire
Staffordshire
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Staffordshire shown within England
Staffordshire
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Lichfield Cathedral
Staffordshire
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The
Staffordshire Hoard, discovered in a field near
Lichfield in July 2009, is perhaps the most important collection of
Anglo-Saxon objects found in England
6.
Cheltenham Grammar School
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Pates Grammar School is a grammar school with academy status located in the Hesters Way area of Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, England. It caters for pupils aged 11 to 18 and is a Beacon school, the school was founded with a fund bestowed to Corpus Christi College, Oxford by Richard Pate in 1574. The school became co-educational in 1986, when Pates Grammar School for Girls merged with Cheltenham Grammar School, in fact, the first female pupils came to the Grammar School in 1971/72 to take their A-levels in the 6th form, and vice versa. In November 2012 Pates was awarded with State ‘Secondary School of the Year’ by The Sunday Times in their Good Schools Guide, most recently, the school was given a Beyond Outstanding recognition from Ofsted inspectors. At GCSE level in 2004, 100% of pupils entered earned five A* to C grades, and the school came twelfth in the BBC table of performance in A-/AS-Level. Again in 2005, 100% of pupils earned five A* to C grades at GCSE, in 2008, more A* grades were achieved collectively than any other grade put together at GCSE level. The physics department was recognised as the best in the country in a survey published by The Observer in May 2006, in 2012, The Sunday Times ranked Pates as the fourth best state secondary school in the UK. It was also awarded with State ‘Secondary School of the Year’, the senior rugby team was coached by ex-England scrum-half Peter Kingston until his retirement in 2009. In 2007 Pates senior rugby teams completed a season unbeaten for the first time in 21 years, the school competes in the Young Enterprise competition held amongst schools nationwide. In 2007, it reached the finals for the Make Your Mark Enterprise Challenge held in London. The school was named as one of the four winners of the annual BBC Schools Question Time competition in 2009. Pates is also involved with charity work and has a Charity Committee appointed each year, in 2007–08, the school is situated in a deprived area of Cheltenham and under the headmaster Richard Kemp deprived students were encouraged to apply. The current headmaster is Russel Ellicott, who took over from Shaun Fenton in September 2012, the school raised funds in order to complete new fitness facilities. The £50,000 fitness suite was opened by Geoff Hurst in April 2010. In summer 2012, Pates Grammar completed the construction of a new refectory and this also involved upgrading the school canteen to a cashless catering system operated by sQuid. It was opened by HRH The Duke of Gloucester on 5 October 2012, in 2013, a new school block was opened named The George and Eve Tatam Block
Cheltenham Grammar School
–
Pate's Grammar School
7.
Imperial College London
–
Imperial College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area comprised of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall, the Imperial Institute was opened by his wife, Queen Victoria, who laid the foundation stone in 1888. Imperial College London was granted a charter in 1907. In the same year, the joined the University of London. The curriculum was expanded to include medicine after merging with several medical schools. In 2004, Queen Elizabeth II opened the Imperial College Business School, Imperial is organized through faculties for Science, Engineering, Medicine, and Business. The main campus is located in the part of South Kensington in the City of Westminster, the universitys emphasis is on emerging technology and its practical application. Imperials contributions to society include the discovery of penicillin, the development of fibre optics, Imperial is consistently ranked among the top universities in the world. In 2015, Imperial was also ranked the most innovative university in Europe, staff and alumni include 15 Nobel laureates,2 Fields Medalists,70 Fellows of the Royal Society,82 Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering, and 78 Fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences. The Great Exhibition in 1851 was organised by Prince Albert, Henry Cole, Francis Fuller and other members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. The Great Exhibition made a surplus of £186,000 used in creating an area in the South of Kensington encouraging culture and education for everyone. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area composed of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall. Several royal colleges and the Imperial Institute merged to form what is now Imperial College London, as a result of a movement earlier in the decade, many politicians donated funds to establish the college, including Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone and Robert Peel. It was also supported by Prince Albert, who persuaded August Wilhelm von Hofmann to be the first professor, William Henry Perkin studied and worked at the college under von Hofmann, but resigned his position after discovering the first synthetic dye, mauveine, in 1856. It is considered the highest honour given in the chemical industry. The Royal School of Mines was established by Sir Henry de la Beche in 1851, developing from the Museum of Economic Geology and he created a school which laid the foundations for the teaching of science in the country, and which has its legacy today at Imperial. The Royal College of Science was established in 1881, the main objective was to support the training of science teachers and to develop teaching in other science subjects alongside the Royal School of Mines earth sciences specialities. Imperials Royal Charter, granted by Edward VII, was signed on 8 July 1907
Imperial College London
–
The
Imperial Institute
Imperial College London
–
Imperial College London
Imperial College London
–
The Natural History Museum
Imperial College London
–
The Royal School of Mines building
8.
Marconi Company
–
The Marconi Company was a British telecommunications and engineering company that did business under that name from 1963 to 1987. The company was founded by the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi and began as the Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company, the company was a pioneer of wireless long distance communication and mass media broadcasting, eventually becoming one of the UKs most successful manufacturing companies. In 1999, its manufacturing division, Marconi Electronic Systems. In 2006, extreme financial difficulties led to the collapse of the company, with the bulk of the business acquired by the Swedish telecommunications company. The company opened the worlds first radio factory on Hall Street in Chelmsford in 1898 and was responsible for some of the most important advances in radio and television. These include, In 1900 the companys name was changed to Marconis Wireless Telegraph Company, the company and factory was moved to New Street Works in 1912, to allow for production expansion in light of the RMS Titanic disaster. Along with private entrepreneurs, Marconi company formed in 1924 the Unione Radiofonica Italiana, after the war, URI became the RAI, which lives on to this day. In 1939, the Marconi Research Laboratories at Great Baddow were founded, English Electric acquired the Marconi Company in 1946 which complemented its other operations, heavy electrical engineering, aircraft and its railway traction business. In 1948 the company was reorganised into four divisions, These had expanded to 13 manufacturing divisions by 1965 when a reorganisation took place. It also owned Marconi Instruments, Sanders Electronics, Eddystone Radio, in 1967 Marconi took over Stratton and Company to form Eddystone Radio. In 1903 Marconi founded the Marconis Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada which was renamed as the Canadian Marconi Company in 1925, the radio business of the Canadian Marconi Company is known as Ultra Electronics TCS since 2002 and its avionic activities as CMC Electronics, owned by Esterline since 2007. In 1967 or 1968 English Electric was subject to a bid by the Plessey Company. Under UK government pressure, the section of GEC, English Electric Leo Marconi. In 1968 Marconi Space and Defence Systems and Marconi Underwater Systems were formed, the Marconi Company continued as the primary defence subsidiary of GEC, GEC-Marconi. Marconi was renamed GEC-Marconi in 1987, during the period 1968–1999 GEC-Marconi/MES underwent significant expansion. Acquisitions which were folded into the company and partnerships established include, Other acquisitions include, in 1999 GEC underwent a major transformation. Marconi Electronic Systems which included its wireless assets was demerged and sold to British Aerospace which then formed BAE Systems, GEC, realigning itself as a primarily telecommunications company following the MES sale, retained the Marconi brand and renamed itself Marconi plc. BAE were granted limited rights to continue its use in existing partnerships, major spending and the dot-com collapse led to a major restructuring of that group, in a debt-for-equity swap shareholders were given 0. 5% of the new company, Marconi Corporation plc
Marconi Company
–
An employee of the Marconi Company, England, 1906
Marconi Company
–
Marconi Wireless Station in
Somerset, New Jersey, in 1921.
9.
Inductor
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An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in a magnetic field when electric current is flowing through it. An inductor typically consists of a conductor, such as a wire. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor. According to Lenzs law, the direction of induced electromotive force opposes the change in current that created it, as a result, inductors oppose any changes in current through them. An inductor is characterized by its inductance, which is the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current, in the International System of Units, the unit of inductance is the henry. Inductors have values that range from 1 µH to 1 H. Many inductors have a core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit elements that make up electronic circuits, Inductors are widely used in alternating current electronic equipment, particularly in radio equipment. They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass and they are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers. An electric current flowing through a conductor generates a magnetic field surrounding it, any changes of current and therefore in the magnetic flux through the cross-section of the inductor creates an opposing electromotive force in the conductor. An inductor is a component consisting of a wire or other conductor shaped to increase the flux through the circuit. Winding the wire into a coil increases the number of times the magnetic flux lines link the circuit, increasing the field, the more turns, the higher the inductance. The inductance also depends on the shape of the coil, separation of the turns, by adding a magnetic core made of a ferromagnetic material like iron inside the coil, the magnetizing field from the coil will induce magnetization in the material, increasing the magnetic flux. The high permeability of a core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor of several thousand over what it would be without it. Any change in the current through an inductor creates a changing flux, for example, an inductor with an inductance of 1 henry produces an EMF of 1 volt when the current through the inductor changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second. This is usually taken to be the relation of the inductor. The dual of the inductor is the capacitor, which stores energy in a field rather than a magnetic field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the inductor equations, the polarity of the induced voltage is given by Lenzs law, which states that it will be such as to oppose the change in current
Inductor
–
A selection of low-value inductors
Inductor
–
Large 50
MVAR three-phase iron-core loading inductor at an Austrian utility substation
Inductor
–
A ferrite "bead" choke, consisting of an encircling ferrite cylinder, removes electronic noise from a computer power cord.
Inductor
–
A ferrite core inductor with two 47 mH windings.
10.
Triode
–
A triode is an electronic amplifying vacuum tube consisting of three electrodes inside an evacuated glass envelope, a heated filament or cathode, a grid, and a plate. Its invention founded the electronics age, making possible amplified radio technology, triodes were widely used in consumer electronics devices such as radios and televisions until the 1970s, when transistors replaced them. Today, their main remaining use is in high-power RF amplifiers in radio transmitters, in recent years there has been a resurgence in demand for low power triodes due to renewed interest in tube-type audio systems by audiophiles who prefer its sound. The name triode was coined by British physicist William Eccles sometime around 1920, derived from the Greek τρίοδος, tríodos, from tri- and hodós, originally meaning the place where three roads meet. The first vacuum tube used in radio was the thermionic diode or Fleming valve and it was an evacuated glass bulb containing two electrodes, a heated filament and a plate. Von Liebens partially-evacuated three-element tube, patented in March 1906, contained a trace of mercury vapor and was intended to amplify weak telephone signals. Starting in October 1906 De Forest patented a number of three-element tube designs by adding an electrode to the diode, the one which became the design of the triode, in which the grid was located between the filament and plate, was patented January 29,1907. Like the von Lieben vacuum tube, De Forests Audions were incompletely evacuated and contained some gas at low pressure, von Liebens vacuum tube did not see much development due to his death 7 years after he invented it at the outbreak of World War I. The many uses for amplification motivated its rapid development, the name triode appeared later, when it became necessary to distinguish it from other kinds of vacuum tubes with more or fewer elements. There were lengthy lawsuits between De Forest and von Lieben, and De Forest and the Marconi Company, representing John Ambrose Fleming the inventor of the diode. The discovery of the amplifying ability in 1912 revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of electronics. The triode was immediately applied to areas of communication. Triode continuous wave radio transmitters replaced the cumbersome inefficient damped wave spark gap transmitters, amplifying triode radio receivers, which had the power to drive loudspeakers, replaced weak crystal radios, which had to be listened to with earphones, allowing families to listen together. This resulted in the evolution of radio from a commercial service to the first mass communication medium. Triodes made transcontinental telephone service possible, vacuum tube triode repeaters, invented at Bell Telephone after its purchase of the Audion rights, allowed telephone calls to travel beyond the unamplified limit of about 800 miles. The opening by Bell of the first transcontinental telephone line was celebrated 3 years later, other inventions made possible by the triode were television, public address systems, electric phonographs, and talking motion pictures. The triode served as the base from which later vacuum tubes developed, such as the tetrode and pentode. Today triodes are used in high-power applications for which solid state semiconductor devices are unsuitable, such as radio transmitters
Triode
–
ECC83, a dual triode used in 1960-era audio equipment
Triode
–
The 3CX1500A7, a modern 1.5 kW power triode used in radio transmitters. The cylindrical structure is a heat sink attached to the plate, through which air is blown during operation.
Triode
–
Examples of low power triodes from 1918 (left) to miniature tubes of the 1960s (right)
Triode
–
Lee De Forest Audion tube from 1908, the first triode. The flat plate is visible at top, with the zigzag wire grid under it. The filament was originally under the grid but has burned out. The Audion was incompletely evacuated and ionization of residual gas in it caused it to function somewhat differently from the later thermionic "hard vacuum" triodes.
11.
Lee De Forest
–
Lee de Forest was an American inventor, self-described Father of Radio, and a pioneer in the development of sound-on-film recording used for motion pictures. He had over 180 patents, but also a tumultuous career—he boasted that he made, then lost and he was also involved in several major patent lawsuits, spent a substantial part of his income on legal bills, and was even tried for mail fraud. His most famous invention, in 1906, was the three-element Audion vacuum tube, Lee de Forest was born in 1873 in Council Bluffs, Iowa, the son of Anna Margaret and Henry Swift DeForest. He was a descendant of Jessé de Forest, the leader of a group of Walloon Huguenots who fled Europe in the 17th Century due to religious persecution. De Forests father was a Congregational Church minister who hoped his son would become a pastor. De Forest prepared for college by attending Mount Hermon Boys School in Mount Hermon, after completing his undergraduate studies, in September,1896 de Forest began three years of postgraduate work. However, his experiments had a tendency to blow fuses. Even after being warned to be careful, he managed to douse the lights during an important lecture by Professor Charles Hastings. One drawback to Marconis approach was his use of a coherer as a receiver, which, while providing for permanent records, was slow, insensitive. After making unsuccessful inquiries about employment with Nikola Tesla and Marconi and his first job after leaving Yale was with the Western Electric Companys telephone lab in Chicago, Illinois. While there he developed his first receiver, which was based on findings by two German scientists, Drs. A. Neugschwender and Emil Aschkinass and their original design consisted of a mirror in which a narrow, moistened slit had been cut through the silvered back. Attaching a battery and telephone receiver, they could hear sound changes in response to radio signal impulses, De Forest, along with Ed Smythe, a co-worker who provided financial and technical help, developed variations they called responders. With radio research his main priority, de Forest next took a teaching position at the Lewis Institute. By 1900, using a transmitter and his responder receiver. Professor Clarence Freeman of the Armour Institute became interested in de Forests work, Marconi had already made arrangements to provide reports for the Associated Press, which he had successfully done for the 1899 contest. De Forest contracted to do the same for the smaller Publishers Press Association, the race effort turned out to be an almost total failure. The Freeman transmitter broke down — in a fit of rage, none of these companies had effective tuning for their transmitters, so only one could transmit at a time without causing mutual interference. De Forest ruefully noted that under conditions the only successful wireless communication was done by visual semaphore wig-wag flags
Lee De Forest
–
Lee de Forest.
Lee De Forest
–
De Forest, some time between 1914 and 1922, with two of his Audions, a small 1 watt receiving tube (left), and a later 250-watt transmitting power tube (right), which he called an "oscillion".
Lee De Forest
–
American DeForest Wireless Telegraph Company's observation tower, 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition at Saint Louis, Missouri
Lee De Forest
–
February 24, 1910 radio broadcast by Mme. Mariette Mazarin of the Manhattan Opera Company. From page 333 of the August 1922 issue of Radio Broadcast.
12.
Audion
–
The Audion was an electronic amplifying vacuum tube invented by American electrical engineer Lee De Forest in 1906. It was the first triode, consisting of an evacuated glass tube containing three electrodes, a heated filament, a grid, and a plate. These were the first modern hard vacuum triodes, when wireless signals were applied to the wire wrapped around the outside of the glass, they caused disturbances in the current which produced sounds in the headphones. This was a significant development as existing commercial systems were heavily protected by patents. De Forest and everybody else at the time greatly underestimated the potential of his original device, De Forest was granted a patent for his early two-electrode version of the Audion on November 13,1906, but the triode version was patented in 1908. De Forest was famous for saying that he didnt know why it worked and he always referred to the vacuum triodes developed by other researchers as Oscillaudions, although there is no evidence that he had any significant input to their development. It is true that after the invention of the vacuum triode in 1913. However, although he described these devices as using Audions, they actually used high-vacuum triodes. In 1914, Columbia University student Edwin Howard Armstrong worked with professor John Harold Morecroft to document the electrical principles of the Audion, Armstrong published his explanation of the Audion in Electrical World in December 1914, complete with circuit diagrams and oscilloscope graphs. A combination of the two papers was reprinted in other such as the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. When Armstrong and De Forest later faced each other in a dispute over the regeneration patent, the Audions sometimes worked extremely well, at other times they would barely work at all. As well as De Forest himself, numerous researchers had tried to find ways to improve the reliability of the device by stabilizing the partial vacuum. Much of the research led to the development of true vacuum tubes was carried out by Irving Langmuir in the General Electric research laboratories. However, this only worked if the gas used was meticulously scrubbed of all traces of oxygen and he then applied the same approach to producing a rectifier for the newly developed Coolidge X-ray tubes. His rectifiers were called Kenotrons from the Greek keno and tron and he then turned his attention to the Audion tube, again suspecting that its notoriously unpredictable behaviour might be tamed with more care in the manufacturing process. However he took an unorthodox approach. Instead of trying to stabilize the partial vacuum, he wondered if it was possible to make the Audion function with the vacuum of a Kenotron. To distinguish his device from the Audion he named it the Pliotron, essentially, he referred to all his vacuum tube designs as Kenotrons, the Pliotron basically being a specialized type of Kenotron
Audion
–
"Triode" Audion from 1908. (The 1906 Audion was a 2-element device with the signal applied to a wire wrapped around the glass envelope.)
Audion
–
One of the earliest Audion radio receivers, constructed by De Forest in 1914. Audion tubes were mounted upside down, with the delicate filament hanging down, to prevent it from sagging and touching the grid. This was a detector (rectifier) and two stage
audio amplifier unit; the radio signal came from a separate "tuner" unit.
Audion
–
(left) The first prototype Audion with the grid (zigzag wires) between the filament and plate. (right) Later design of an audion tube. The grid and plate are in two parts on either side of the central filament. In both these tubes the filament is burned out.
Audion
13.
Feedback
–
Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to feed back into itself and this makes reasoning based upon cause and effect tricky, and it is necessary to analyze the system as a whole. This action of feeding back of the signal output to input gave rise to the use of the term feedback as a distinct word by 1920. Over the years there has been dispute as to the best definition of feedback. According to Ashby, mathematicians and theorists interested in the principles of feedback mechanisms prefer the definition of circularity of action, for those with more practical aims, feedback should be a deliberate effect via some more tangible connection. Object to the definition, pointing out that this would force them to say that feedback was present in the ordinary pendulum. Between its position and its momentum—a feedback that, from the point of view, is somewhat mystical. He emphasizes that the information by itself is not feedback unless translated into action, there are two types of feedback, positive feedback and negative feedback. As an example of feedback, the diagram might represent a cruise control system in a car, for example. The controlled system is the car, its input includes the combined torque from the engine, the cars speed is measured by a speedometer. The error signal is the departure of the speed as measured by the speedometer from the target speed and this measured error is interpreted by the controller to adjust the accelerator, commanding the fuel flow to the engine. The resulting change in torque, the feedback, combines with the torque exerted by the changing road grade to reduce the error in speed. The terms positive and negative were first applied to prior to WWII. The idea of positive feedback was already current in the 1920s with the introduction of the regenerative circuit, harold Stephen Blacks classic 1934 paper first details the use of negative feedback in electronic amplifiers. According to Black, Positive feed-back increases the gain of the amplifier, according to Mindell confusion in the terms arose shortly after this. In contrast, Nyquist and Bode, when built on Black’s work. Black had trouble convincing others of the utility of his invention in part because confusion existed over basic matters of definition, the terms positive and negative feedback are defined in different ways within different disciplines. The altering of the gap between reference and actual values of a parameter, based on whether the gap is widening or narrowing
Feedback
–
Feedback exists between two parts when each affects the other.
14.
Alexander Meissner
–
Alexander Meissner was Austrian engineer and physicist. He was born in Vienna and died in Berlin and his field of interest was, antenna design, amplification and detection advanced the development of radio telegraphy. The inductively-coupled oscillator circuit he invented is today known as the Meissner oscillator
Alexander Meissner
–
Memorial plaque devoted to Alexander Meissner at the
Vienna University of Technology in
Vienna, Austria.
15.
Edwin Armstrong
–
Edwin Howard Armstrong was an American electrical engineer and inventor, best known for developing FM radio. He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame and included in the International Telecommunication Unions roster of great inventors, Armstrong was born in the Chelsea district of New York City, the oldest of John and Emily Armstrongs three children. His parents first met at the North Presbyterian Church, located at 31st Street and his mothers family had strong ties to Chelsea, and an active role in church functions. The family was middle class. At the age of eight, Armstrong contracted Sydenhams chorea, an infrequent, for the rest of his life, Armstrong was afflicted with a physical tic exacerbated by excitement or stress. Due to this illness, he withdrew from school and was home-tutored for two years. To improve his health, the Armstrong family moved to a house overlooking the Hudson River, the Smith family subsequently moved next door. Armstrongs tic and the time missed from school led him to become socially withdrawn, from an early age, Armstrong showed an interest in electrical and mechanical devices, particularly trains. He loved heights and constructed a makeshift backyard antenna tower that included a chair for hoisting himself up and down its length. Much of his research was conducted in the attic of his parents house. Another of his instructors, Professor John H. Morecroft, later remembered Armstrong as being focused on the topics that interested him. He was known for challenging conventional wisdom and being quick to question the opinions of professors and peers. In one case, he recounted how he tricked an instructor he disliked into receiving an electrical shock. Armstrong graduated from Columbia in 1913, earning an engineering degree. During World War I, Armstrong served in the Signal Corps as a captain, in 1934, he filled the vacancy left by John H. Morecrofts death, receiving an appointment as a Professor of Electrical Engineering at Columbia, a position he held the remainder of his life. Unlike most engineers, Armstrong never became a corporate employee and he set up a self-financed independent research and development laboratory at Columbia, and owned his patents outright. Armstrong began working on his first major invention while still an undergraduate at Columbia, in late 1906, Lee de Forest had invented the three-element grid Audion vacuum-tube. How vacuum tubes worked was not understood at the time, De Forests initial Audions did not have a high vacuum and developed a blue glow at modest plate voltages, De Forest improved the vacuum for Federal Telegraph
Edwin Armstrong
–
Developed and advanced the utility of FM technology.
Edwin Armstrong
–
Armstrong and his new wife
Esther Marion MacInnis in Palm Beach in 1923. The radio is a portable superheterodyne that Armstrong built as a present for her.
Edwin Armstrong
–
Armstrong explaining the superregenerative receiver, New York, 1922
Edwin Armstrong
–
The
Philosophy Hall at
Columbia University, which housed the basement laboratory where Armstrong developed FM radio.
16.
First World War
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
First World War
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
First World War
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
First World War
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
First World War
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
17.
Western Front (World War I)
–
The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
Western Front (World War I)
–
A German trench occupied by
British troops near the Albert-Bapaume road at
Ovillers-La Boisselle, July 1916 during the
Battle of the Somme. The men are from A Company, 11th (Service) Battalion,
Cheshire Regiment. Photo by
Ernest Brooks.
Western Front (World War I)
–
French
bayonet charge
Western Front (World War I)
–
German infantry on the battlefield, 7 August 1914
Western Front (World War I)
–
Map of the Western Front, 1915–16
18.
Admiralty
–
The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
Admiralty
–
Board of admiralty about 1810.
Admiralty
Admiralty
–
The Admiralty complex in 1794. The colours indicate departments or residences for the several Lords of the Admiralty. The pale coloured extension behind the small courtyard on the left is Admiralty House.
Admiralty
–
Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) in 1760 before addition of the Adam screen
19.
Battle of Jutland
–
The battle unfolded in extensive maneuvering and three main engagements, from 31 May to 1 June 1916, off the North Sea coast of Denmarks Jutland Peninsula. It was the largest naval battle in that war and the only full-scale clash of battleships, Jutland was the third fleet action between steel battleships, following the smaller but more decisive battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War. Jutland was the last major battle fought primarily by battleships in world history, germanys High Seas Fleet intended to lure out, trap, and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, as the German naval force was insufficient to openly engage the entire British fleet. This formed part of a strategy to break the British blockade of Germany. Meanwhile, Great Britains Royal Navy pursued a strategy of engaging and destroying the High Seas Fleet, thereby keeping German naval forces contained and away from Britain and they stationed submarines in advance across the likely routes of the British ships. The German plan had been delayed, causing problems for their submarines. On the afternoon of 31 May, Beatty encountered Hippers battlecruiser force long before the Germans had expected, in a running battle, Hipper successfully drew the British vanguard into the path of the High Seas Fleet. Fourteen British and eleven German ships sank, with loss of life. The British lost more ships and twice as many sailors but succeeded in containing the German fleet, however, the British press criticised the Grand Fleets failure to force a decisive outcome, while Scheers plan of destroying a substantial portion of the British fleet also failed. Finally, the British strategy of denying Germany access to both the United Kingdom and the Atlantic did succeed, which was the British long-term goal, subsequent reviews commissioned by the Royal Navy generated strong disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty concerning the two admirals performance in the battle. Debate over their performance and the significance of the battle continues to this day, with 16 dreadnought-type battleships, compared with the Royal Navys 28, the German High Seas Fleet stood little chance of winning a head-to-head clash. The Germans therefore adopted a divide-and-conquer strategy, in January 1916, Admiral von Pohl, commander of the German fleet, fell ill. He was replaced by Scheer, who believed that the fleet had used too defensively, had better ships and men than the British. On 25 April 1916, a decision was made by the German admiralty to halt indiscriminate attacks by submarine on merchant shipping and this followed protests from neutral countries, notably the United States, that their nationals had been the victims of attacks. Instead, he set about deploying the submarine fleet against military vessels and it was hoped that, following a successful German submarine attack, fast British escorts, such as destroyers, would be tied down by anti-submarine operations. If the Germans could catch the British in the expected locations, the hope was that Scheer would thus be able to ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it. A plan was devised to station submarines offshore from British naval bases, the battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz had been damaged in a previous engagement, but was due to be repaired by mid May, so an operation was scheduled for 17 May 1916. At the start of May, difficulties with condensers were discovered on ships of the battleship squadron
Battle of Jutland
–
Reinhard Scheer, German fleet commander
Battle of Jutland
–
The Battle of Jutland, 1916
Battle of Jutland
–
John Jellicoe, British fleet commander
Battle of Jutland
–
HMS Warspite and Malaya, seen from HMS Valiant at around 14:00 hrs
20.
Military Cross
–
The Military Cross is the third-level military decoration awarded to officers and other ranks of the British Armed Forces, and used to be awarded to officers of other Commonwealth countries. The MC is granted in recognition of an act or acts of gallantry during active operations against the enemy on land to all members. In 1979, the Queen approved a proposal that a number of awards, including the Military Cross, the award was created on 28 December 1914 for commissioned officers of the substantive rank of Captain or below and for Warrant Officers. In August 1916, Bars were awarded to the MC in recognition of the performance of acts of gallantry meriting the award. In 1931 the award was extended to Majors and also to members of the Royal Air Force for actions on the ground, the MC now serves as the third-level award for gallantry on land for all ranks of the British Armed Forces. 46 mm max height,44 mm max width, ornamental silver cross with straight arms terminating in broad finials, suspended from plain suspension bar. Obverse decorated with crowns, with the Royal Cypher in centre. Reverse is plain, but from 1938 the name of the recipient, the ribbon width is 32 mm and consists of three equal vertical moire stripes of white, purple, and white. During World War I, Acting Captain Francis Wallington of the Royal Field Artillery was the first person to be awarded the MC, during World War II Captain Sam Manekshaw, Indian Army, was leading a counter-offensive operation against the invading Japanese Army in Burma. During the course of the offensive, he was hit by a burst of machine-gun fire, Major General D. T. Cowan spotted Manekshaw holding on to life and was aware of his valour in face of stiff resistance from the Japanese. Fearing the worst, Major General Cowan quickly pinned his own Military Cross ribbon on to Manekshaw saying, the first posthumous Military Cross was that awarded to Captain Herbert Westmacott, Grenadier Guards for gallantry in Northern Ireland during the period 1 February 1980 to 30 April 1980. The first woman to be awarded the Military Cross was Private Michelle Norris of the Royal Army Medical Corps, Norris was awarded her medal personally by Queen Elizabeth II on 21 March 2007 as the result of her actions in Iraq on 11 June 2006. Able Seaman Kate Nesbitt, second woman, first in the Royal Navy, sergeant Michael Lockett MC was the first holder of the MC to be killed in action since World War II. Database of Australian Awardees at the Australian Government Honours website Search recommendations for the Military Cross on The UK National Archives website, the Kings Own Royal Regiment Museum, Military Cross
Military Cross
–
Military Cross
Military Cross
–
Albert Jacka 's Military Cross and bar. Gazetted in 1916, the Cross displays the royal cypher of George V.
Military Cross
–
Military Cross awarded 1915 (?) to 2nd Lt. E. W. Fane de Salis (1894-1980), with his 1914-1915 star showing behind.
21.
Second World War
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
Second World War
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
Second World War
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
Second World War
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
Second World War
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
22.
ASDIC
–
Sonar is a technique that uses sound propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels. Two types of technology share the name sonar, passive sonar is essentially listening for the sound made by vessels, active sonar is emitting pulses of sounds, Sonar may be used as a means of acoustic location and of measurement of the echo characteristics of targets in the water. Acoustic location in air was used before the introduction of radar, Sonar may also be used in air for robot navigation, and SODAR is used for atmospheric investigations. The term sonar is used for the equipment used to generate. The acoustic frequencies used in sonar systems vary from low to extremely high. The study of sound is known as underwater acoustics or hydroacoustics. In the 19th century a bell was used as an ancillary to lighthouses to provide warning of hazards. The use of sound to locate underwater in the same way as bats use sound for aerial navigation seems to have been prompted by the Titanic disaster of 1912. S. Revenue Cutter Miami on the Grand Banks off Newfoundland Canada, in that test, Fessenden demonstrated depth sounding, underwater communications and echo ranging. The so-called Fessenden oscillator, at ca.500 Hz frequency, was unable to determine the bearing of the due to the 3 metre wavelength. The ten Montreal-built British H class submarines launched in 1915 were equipped with a Fessenden oscillator, during World War I the need to detect submarines prompted more research into the use of sound. Although piezoelectric and magnetostrictive transducers later superseded the electrostatic transducers they used, lightweight sound-sensitive plastic film and fibre optics have been used for hydrophones, while Terfenol-D and PMN have been developed for projectors. By 1918, both France and Britain had built prototype active systems, the British tested their ASDIC on HMS Antrim in 1920, and started production in 1922. The 6th Destroyer Flotilla had ASDIC-equipped vessels in 1923, an anti-submarine school, HMS Osprey, and a training flotilla of four vessels were established on Portland in 1924. The US Sonar QB set arrived in 1931, by the outbreak of World War II, the Royal Navy had five sets for different surface ship classes, and others for submarines, incorporated into a complete anti-submarine attack system. The effectiveness of early ASDIC was hamstrung by the use of the charge as an anti-submarine weapon. This required a vessel to pass over a submerged contact before dropping charges over the stern. The hunter was effectively firing blind, during which time a commander could take evasive action
ASDIC
–
French
F70 type frigates (here,
La Motte-Picquet) are fitted with VDS (Variable Depth Sonar) type DUBV43 or DUBV43C towed sonars
ASDIC
–
Sonar image of
shipwreck of the
Latvian Naval Forces ship Virsaitis in
Estonian waters.
ASDIC
–
Variable Depth Sonar and its winch
ASDIC
–
AN/AQS-13 Dipping sonar deployed from an
H-3 Sea King.
23.
Sonar
–
Sonar is a technique that uses sound propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels. Two types of technology share the name sonar, passive sonar is essentially listening for the sound made by vessels, active sonar is emitting pulses of sounds, Sonar may be used as a means of acoustic location and of measurement of the echo characteristics of targets in the water. Acoustic location in air was used before the introduction of radar, Sonar may also be used in air for robot navigation, and SODAR is used for atmospheric investigations. The term sonar is used for the equipment used to generate. The acoustic frequencies used in sonar systems vary from low to extremely high. The study of sound is known as underwater acoustics or hydroacoustics. In the 19th century a bell was used as an ancillary to lighthouses to provide warning of hazards. The use of sound to locate underwater in the same way as bats use sound for aerial navigation seems to have been prompted by the Titanic disaster of 1912. S. Revenue Cutter Miami on the Grand Banks off Newfoundland Canada, in that test, Fessenden demonstrated depth sounding, underwater communications and echo ranging. The so-called Fessenden oscillator, at ca.500 Hz frequency, was unable to determine the bearing of the due to the 3 metre wavelength. The ten Montreal-built British H class submarines launched in 1915 were equipped with a Fessenden oscillator, during World War I the need to detect submarines prompted more research into the use of sound. Although piezoelectric and magnetostrictive transducers later superseded the electrostatic transducers they used, lightweight sound-sensitive plastic film and fibre optics have been used for hydrophones, while Terfenol-D and PMN have been developed for projectors. By 1918, both France and Britain had built prototype active systems, the British tested their ASDIC on HMS Antrim in 1920, and started production in 1922. The 6th Destroyer Flotilla had ASDIC-equipped vessels in 1923, an anti-submarine school, HMS Osprey, and a training flotilla of four vessels were established on Portland in 1924. The US Sonar QB set arrived in 1931, by the outbreak of World War II, the Royal Navy had five sets for different surface ship classes, and others for submarines, incorporated into a complete anti-submarine attack system. The effectiveness of early ASDIC was hamstrung by the use of the charge as an anti-submarine weapon. This required a vessel to pass over a submerged contact before dropping charges over the stern. The hunter was effectively firing blind, during which time a commander could take evasive action
Sonar
–
French
F70 type frigates (here,
La Motte-Picquet) are fitted with VDS (Variable Depth Sonar) type DUBV43 or DUBV43C towed sonars
Sonar
–
Sonar image of
shipwreck of the
Latvian Naval Forces ship Virsaitis in
Estonian waters.
Sonar
–
Variable Depth Sonar and its winch
Sonar
–
AN/AQS-13 Dipping sonar deployed from an
H-3 Sea King.
24.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
25.
Wireless World
–
Electronics World is a technical magazine in electronics and RF engineering aimed at professional design engineers. It is produced monthly in print and digital formats and it encompasses a range of issues in the electronics and RF industry, from design through to product implementation. The features are contributed by engineers and academics in the electronics industry, the Marconi Company published the first issue of the journal The Marconigraph in April 1911. This monthly magazine was the first significant journal dedicated to wireless communication, in April 1913, after two years and 24 issues, The Marconigraph was superseded by The Wireless World. An Illustrated Monthly Magazine for all interested in Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony as its first issue was sold on news-stands, with the same issue, publication frequency of Wireless World became weekly. A similar series was published after 1945 utilising the then ubiquitous EF50 RF pentode amplifier valve, with the outbreak of World War II and the expected shortages of paper and other resources, the publication reverted to being monthly, a frequency that it still retains to this day. The title was changed in September 1984 to Electronics and Wireless World, a sister publication was Wireless Engineer which was more of a learned journal than a popular magazine, featuring high quality, technical articles. In October 1945 Wireless World published what became a famous article by Arthur C. Clarke which foresaw the coming of communications satellites in synchronous orbit around the Earth. In his Wireless World article Clarke suggested that three satellites placed in the equatorial orbit at an altitude of 36,000 km, spaced 120 degrees apart. In 1962 NASA launched Telstar 1, the first communications satellite, Telstar 1 lasted only six months, but this paved the way for modern-day communications-there are nearly 900 active satellites in orbit today of which some two-thirds are communications satellites. Clarkes article, Extra-Terrestrial Relays, was Electronic World readers most asked for article to re-print in the centenary edition. The article was featured in the BBCs The Genius of Invention programme broadcast on 7 February 2013. For decades, Wireless World was a place where pioneers in audio, in 1952 it made the first public announcement of the Baxandall tone control circuit, a design now employed in millions of hi-fi systems including amplifiers and effects for musical instruments. In 1955 it published the design of the popular Mullard 5-10 audio amplifier using two EL84 power pentodes in ultra-linear push-pull configuration, in 1975/6 Wireless World published the design of a decoder of broadcast TV Teletext information before the first commercial decoder became available. Later it published regular columns of brief Circuit Ideas, in the August to December 1967 editions a series, Wireless World Digital Computer by Brian Crank, was published. It described how to build a simple binary computer at home. It was constructed entirely from reject transistors, and was intended for teaching the principles of computer operation. In 1977 a series of articles was published based on the design of the NASCOM1 computer, in 1979 they published a design by John Adams for a dual-processor desktop computer which included a novel high-level programming language
Wireless World
–
A 1949 Williamson amplifier built to the design in Wireless World.
