High Angle Control System (HACS) was a British anti-aircraft fire-control system employed by the Royal Navy from 1931 and used widely during World War II. HACS calculated the necessary deflection required to place an explosive shell in the location of a target flying at a known height, bearing and speed.
Anti-aircraft cruiser HMS Scylla. Her four twin 4.5-inch gun mountings are controlled by the two High Angle Director Towers, one sited behind the bridge and the other abaft the after funnel.
HACS deflection screen and table with the deflection screen operator in the foreground. The solid line through the centre of the ellipse shows the wire aligned with the aircraft's course (moving right to left) of approximately 295 degrees; the Deflection Screen operator has his right hand on the Lateral Deflection Control which is aligning the vertical line with the ellipse, and the aircraft track wire, and he is also using his left hand to align the Vertical Deflection Control and a horizontal wire, (which cannot be seen) so that it also intersects the aircraft track wire at the edge of the ellipse.
HADT on HMS King George V. The control officer is shown looking through his binoculars, while the rangetaker's face is hidden.
High Angle Control System fire control computer (table) Mk IV, aboard HMS Duke of York. The Deflection operator is seated in front of the deflection screen. The range plot operator stands directly opposite.
Anti-aircraft warfare is the counter to aerial warfare and it includes "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action". It includes surface based, subsurface, and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements, and passive measures. It may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries, the main effort has tended to be homeland defence. Missile defence is an extension of air defence, as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight.
Artist's rendition of short and long range AA systems used by the Dutch Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command in 2017.
Ballonabwehrkanone by Krupp
Ballonabwehrkanone by Krupp
Ballonabwehrkanone on the Prussian corvette Nymphe 1872