1.
Strait of Magellan
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The Strait of Magellan, also called the Straits of Magellan, is a navigable sea route separating mainland South America to the north and Tierra del Fuego to the south. The strait is the most important natural passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the Strait of Magellan was called the Dragons Tail, and there were also the Cape of Good Hope and the coast of Africa. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer and navigator in the service of Charles I of Spain, the fleet would become known as the Armada de las Molucas or Fleet of the Moluccas. The expeditionary fleet of five ships set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda on September 20,1519, before the passage of the Strait, Álvaro de Mesquita became captain of the San Antonio, and Duarte Barbosa of Victoria. Later, Serrão became captain of Concepcion, San Antonio, charged to explore Magdalen Sound, failed to return to the fleet, instead sailing back to Spain under Estêvão Gomes who imprisoned the captain Mesquita. Magellans ships entered the strait on November 1,1520, All Saints Day, magellans chronicler, Antonio Pigafetta, called it the Patagonian Strait, and others Victoria Strait, commemorating the first ship entering it. Within seven years it was being called Estrecho de Magallanes in honor of Magellan, the Spanish Empire and the Captaincy General of Chile used it as the southern boundary of their territory. The first Spanish colony was established in 1584 by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa and these towns suffered severe food shortages, and when the English navigator Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement. He renamed the place Port Famine, other early explorers included Francis Drake. In February 1696 the first French expedition, under the command of M. de Gennes reached the Strait of Magellan, the expedition is described by the young French explorer, engineer and hydrographer François Froger in his A Relation of a Voyage. A report on the survey was presented at two meetings of the Geographical Society of London in 1831, Chile took possession of the Strait of Magellan on May 23,1843. President Bulnes of Chile ordered this expedition after consulting the Chilean libertador Bernardo OHiggins, the first Chilean settlement was Fuerte Bulnes, situated in a forested zone on the north side of the strait. Fuerte Bulnes was later abandoned, and in 1848 the city of Punta Arenas was founded farther north where the Magellanic forests meets the Patagonian plains. In Tierra del Fuego, across the strait from Punta Arenas, Argentina effectively recognized Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan in the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina. Argentina had previously claimed all of the strait, or at least the third of it. In 1840 the Pacific Steam Navigation Company was the first to use steamships for commercial traffic in the strait, until the Panama Canal opened in 1914, the Strait of Magellan was the main route for steamships traveling from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. Sailing ships, however, partly because of winds and currents in the strait, generally preferred the Drake Passage. The strait is approximately 570 kilometres long and about 2 kilometres wide at its narrowest point, the northwestern portion of the strait is connected with other sheltered waterways via the Smyth Channel
2.
Monte Sarmiento
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Monte Sarmiento is a pyramidal peak with a glaciated saddle-shaped summit located within Alberto de Agostini National Park, in the Chilean portion of Tierra del Fuego. It rises abruptly from the east shore of the Magdalena Channel, the mountain was called Volcán Nevado by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, who thought it was a volcano. Phillip Parker King named it Mount Sarmiento in honor of the mentioned explorer, several unsuccessful attempts were made to reach its summit, including those of Martin Conway in 1898 and of Alberto María de Agostini in 1913. The eastern summit of Monte Sarmiento was climbed on 7 March 1956 by an expedition including the Italian mountaineers Clemente Gueret and it was organized by Padre Alberto Maria De Agostini. This expedition opened a new route on the North Face, the west summit of Monte Sarmiento was climbed in 1995 by a party including the British mountaineers Stephen Venables, John Roskelley and Tim Macartney-Snape. A German team composed of Robert Jasper, Jörn Heller and Ralf Gantzhorn and this team followed the route opened in 1986. The mountain is mentioned in the novels Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea and Robur the Conqueror, an attempt to climb the mountain in 2003 is the subject of the Brazilian documentary film Extremo sul
3.
The Voyage of the Beagle
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The Voyage of the Beagle is the title most commonly given to the book written by Charles Darwin and published in 1839 as his Journal and Remarks, bringing him considerable fame and respect. This was the volume of The Narrative of the Voyages of H. M. Ships Adventure and Beagle, the volumes of which were written or edited by the commanders of the ships. Journal and Remarks covers Darwins part in the survey expedition of the ship HMS Beagle. Due to the popularity of Darwins account, the publisher reissued it later in 1839 as Darwins Journal of Researches, a republication of the book in 1905 introduced the title The Voyage of the Beagle, by which it is now best known. The Beagle sailed from Plymouth Sound on 27 December 1831 under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy, while the expedition was originally planned to last two years, it lasted almost five—the Beagle did not return until 2 October 1836. Darwin spent most of time exploring on land. Although Darwin revisited some areas during the expedition, for clarity the chapters of the book are ordered by reference to places, Darwins notes made during the voyage include comments hinting at his changing views on the fixity of species. On his return, he wrote the book based on notes, at a time when he was first developing his theories of evolution through common descent. The book includes some suggestions of his ideas, particularly in the edition of 1845. Darwin was invited by FitzRoy to contribute the natural history section to the account of the Beagles voyage. Using his field notes and the journal which he had been sending home for his family to read, FitzRoy had to edit the notes of the previous captain of the Beagle, as well as write his own account of the voyage and the previous expeditions of two ships. The account was completed and published as a four set in May 1839 as the Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majestys Ships Adventure. Volume one covers the first voyage under Commander Phillip Parker King, Darwins Journal and Remarks, 1832—1835 forms the third volume, and the fourth volume is a lengthy appendix. He had married on the return, and his wife was very religious. M. S. Beagle apparently without seeking Darwins permission or paying him a fee, the second edition of 1845 incorporated extensive revisions made in the light of interpretation of the field collections and developing ideas on evolution. This edition was commissioned by the publisher John Murray, who actually paid Darwin a fee of £150 for the copyright, the full title was modified to Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H. M. S. Later editions hint at his new ideas on evolution, Considering the small size of these islands, we feel the more astonished at the number of their aboriginal beings, within a period geologically recent the unbroken ocean was here spread out
4.
Cherokee-class brig-sloop
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The Cherokee class was a class of brig-sloops of the Royal Navy, mounting 10 guns. Brig-sloops are sloops-of-war with two rather than the three masts of ship sloops. Orders for 115 vessels were placed, including 5 which were cancelled and 6 for which the orders were replaced by ones for equivalent steam-powered paddle vessels, many of these sailing vessels served as mail packet ships, and more than eight assisted with exploration and surveys. The carronade, nicknamed the smasher or devil gun, was smaller and lighter than conventional cannon. It was also found to have a destructive broadside at close range. Sir Henry Peake designed a ship to operate in both shallow and deep waters, carrying eight 16-pounder or 18-pounder carronades plus two long 6-pounder cannon as forward-mounted chase guns. After these 34, a further 2 were ordered in 1812 which were built of teak at Bombay, the design was revived after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and another 78 were ordered in two batches between 1817 and 1827. The first batch of these later vessels consisted of 35 orders whilst the second amounted to 44 new vessels of which 4 were cancelled and 6 replaced by orders for paddle vessels. The class was much criticised, being known as coffin brigs. There seems to have no particular fault in their design. Despite these modifications to the design, Captain Pringle Stokes protested that our decks were constantly flooded, further extensive modifications were made for the second voyage of HMS Beagle. Darwin noted in his journal in April 1833 that It blew half a gale of wind, few of the Cherokee class ships took part in sea battles of any importance. Large numbers of them served as passenger and mail carrying packet ships, running from the UK to the USA, Captain Henry Foster commanded HMS Chanticleer on his survey around the South Atlantic, known as his pendulum expedition, from 1827 to 1831. Chanticleer was then intended to be used for FitzRoys next survey expedition, instead, the Beagle was repaired and modified for its famed second survey voyage from 1831 to 1836, which took along the naturalist Charles Darwin as a self-funded supernumerary. The Beagle subsequently carried out a survey of coasts of Australia from 1837 to 1843 under John Clements Wickham, from 1838 to around 1841 HMS Britomart commanded by Owen Stanley carried out survey work and other duties around Australia and New Zealand. Other survey ships of this class included HMS Fairy from about 1832 to 1840, Scorpion from 1848 to 1858, the first four vessels listed below were ordered on 30 March 1807, two more on 26 November 1807 and the next twenty vessels on 31 December 1807. Eight more orders were placed during 1808, two vessels were ordered 2 October 1812. These were built at Bombay, using teak construction, but were otherwise identical to the earlier 34, unlike the wartime batch, all the post-war batches were built in the Royal Dockyards rather than by contractors
5.
Sloop-of-war
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In the 18th century and most of the 19th, a sloop-of-war in the Royal Navy was a warship with a single gun deck that carried up to eighteen guns. The rating system covered all vessels with 20 guns and above, thus, in the first half of the 18th century, most naval sloops were two-masted vessels, usually carrying a ketch or a snow rig. A ketch had main and mizzen masts but no foremast, while a snow had a foremast, the first three-masted sloops appeared during the 1740s, and from the mid-1750s most new sloops were built with a three-masted rig. The third sail afforded the sloop greater mobility and the ability to back sail, in the 1770s, the two-masted sloop re-appeared in a new guise as the brig sloop, the successor to the former snow sloops. Brig sloops had two masts, while ship sloops continued to have three, in the Napoleonic period, Britain built huge numbers of brig sloops of the Cruizer class and the Cherokee class. The brig rig was economical of manpower and, when armed with carronades, the carronades also used much less manpower than the long guns normally used to arm frigates. Consequently, the Cruizer class were used as cheaper and more economical substitutes for frigates. A carronade-armed brig, however, would be at the mercy of an armed with long guns. The other limitation of brig sloops as opposed to post ships and frigates was their relatively restricted stowage for water and provisions, however, their shallower draught made them excellent raiders against coastal shipping and shore installations. Bermuda sloops were found with gaff rig, mixtures of gaff and square rig and they were built with up to three masts. The single masted ships, with their sails, and the tremendous wind energy they harnessed, were demanding to sail. The longer decks of the vessels also had the advantage of allowing more guns to be carried. Originally a sloop-of-war was smaller than a frigate and was outside the rating system. A ship sloop was generally the equivalent of the corvette of the French Navy. The name corvette was also applied to British vessels. American usage, while similar to British terminology into the beginning of the 19th century, the Americans also occasionally used the French term corvette. In the Royal Navy, the sloop evolved into a vessel with a single gun deck. During the War of 1812 sloops of war in the service of the United States Navy performed well against their Royal Navy equivalents, the American ships had the advantage of being ship-rigged rather that brig-rigged, a distinction that increased their maneuverability
6.
Brig
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A brig is a sailing vessel with two square-rigged masts. During the Age of Sail, brigs were seen as fast and they were especially popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Brigs fell out of use with the arrival of the ship because they required a relatively large crew for their small size and were difficult to sail into the wind. They are not to be confused with a brigantine, which has different rigging, in sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts. The main mast of a brig is the aft one, to improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small fore-and-aft sail. Behind the main sail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail, on the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars. These are called studding sails, and are used with fair, the wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened, i. e. the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc. The brig’s foremast is smaller than the main mast, the fore mast holds a fore sail, fore top sail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, all the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast. A brig is generally built on a scale than a schooner. Brigs vary in length between 75 and 165 ft with tonnages up to 480, a notable exception being the famous designer Colin Mudies Little Brigs, which are only 10m long and weigh only 8 tonnes. Historically, most brigs were made of wood, although some later brigs were built with hulls, a brig made of pine in the 19th century was designed to last for about twenty years. The word brig has been used in the past as an abbreviation of brigantine, the brig actually developed as a variant of the brigantine. Re-rigging a brigantine with two square-rigged masts instead of one gave it greater sailing power, the square-rigged brigs advantage over the fore-and-aft rigged brigantine was that the sails, being smaller and more numerous, are more easily managed, and require fewer men or hands to work them. The variant was so popular that the term came to exclusively signify a ship with this type of rigging. By the 17th century the British Royal Navy defined brig as having two square rigged masts, Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 guns
7.
Barque
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A barque, barc, or bark is a type of sailing vessel with three or more masts having the fore- and mainmasts rigged square and only the mizzen rigged fore-and-aft. The word barque entered English via French, which in came from the Latin barca by way of Occitan. The Latin barca may stem from Celtic barc or Greek baris, the Oxford English Dictionary considers the latter improbable. The word barc appears to have come from Celtic languages, the form adopted by English, perhaps from Irish, was bark, while that adopted by Latin as barca very early, which gave rise to the French barge and barque. In Latin, Spanish and Italian the term refers to a small boat. French influence in England led to the use in English of both words, although their meanings now are not the same, well before the 19th century a barge had become interpreted as a small vessel of coastal or inland waters. Somewhat later, a became a sailing vessel of a distinctive rig as detailed below. In Britain, by the century, the spelling had taken on the French form of barque. Francis Bacon used this form of the word as early as 1592, throughout the period of sail, the word was used also as a shortening of the barca-longa of the Mediterranean Sea. The usual convention is that spelling barque refers to a ship and bark to tree hide, barcarole in music shares the same etymology, being originally a folk song sung by Venetian gondolier and derived from barca - boat in Italian. In the 18th century, the British Royal Navy used the bark for a nondescript vessel that did not fit any of its usual categories. She happened to be a sailing vessel with a plain bluff bow. Our Northern Mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this distinction to a broad-sterned ship, hon. the Earl of Sussex, Lord Deputy of Ireland. By the end of the 18th century, the term came to refer to any vessel with a particular type of sail-plan. This comprises three masts, fore-and-aft sails on the aftermost mast and square sails on all other masts, barques were the workhorse of the Golden Age of Sail in the mid-19th century as they attained passages that nearly matched full rigged ships but could operate with smaller crews. Conversely, the ship rig tended to be retained for training vessels where the larger the crew, another advantage is that a barque can outperform a schooner or barkentine, and is both easier to handle and better at going to windward than a full-rigged ship. Usually the main mast was the tallest, that of Moshulu extends to 58 m off the deck, the four-masted barque can be handled with a surprisingly small crew—at minimum, ten—and while the usual crew was around thirty, almost half of them could be apprentices. Today many sailing ships are barques
8.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
9.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
10.
Ceremonial ship launching
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Ceremonial ship launching is the process of transferring a vessel to the water. It is a tradition in many cultures, dating back thousands of years. It has been observed as a celebration and a solemn blessing. The process also involves many traditions intended to invite good luck, such as christening by breaking a bottle of champagne over the bow as the ship is named aloud. There are three methods of conveying a new ship from building site to water, only two of which are called launching. The oldest, most familiar, and most widely used is the launch, in which the vessel slides down an inclined slipway. With the side launch, the ship enters the water broadside and this method came into use in the 19th-century on inland waters, rivers, and lakes, and was more widely adopted during World War II. The third method is float-out, used for ships that are built in basins or dry docks and then floated by admitting water into the dock. In all cases, heavy chains are attached to the ship, normally, ways are arranged perpendicular to the shore line and the ship is built with its stern facing the water. The barricades support the two launch ways, the vessel is built upon temporary cribbing that is arranged to give access to the hulls outer bottom and to allow the launchways to be erected under the complete hull. When it is time to prepare for launching, a pair of standing ways is erected under the hull, the surface of the ways is greased. A pair of sliding ways is placed on top, under the hull, the weight of the hull is then transferred from the build cribbing onto the launch cradle. On launching, the vessel slides backwards down the slipway on the ways until it floats by itself, some slipways are built so that the vessel is side-on to the water and is launched sideways. This is done where the limitations of the channel would not allow lengthwise launching. The Great Eastern designed by Brunel was built this way as were many landing craft during World War II and this method requires many more sets of ways to support the weight of the ship. Sometimes ships are launched using a series of inflated tubes underneath the hull and this procedure has the advantages of requiring less permanent infrastructure, risk, and cost. The airbags provide support to the hull of the ship and aid its launching motion into the water and these airbags are usually cylindrical in shape with hemispherical heads at both ends. The Xiao Qinghe shipyard launched a tank barge with marine airbags on January 20,1981, egyptians, Greeks, and Romans called on their gods to protect seamen
11.
Woolwich Dockyard
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Woolwich Dockyard was an English naval dockyard along the river Thames in Woolwich, where a large number of ships were built from the early 16th century until the late 19th century. At its largest extent it filled a 56-acre site north of Woolwich Church Street, the area is now partly residential, partly industrial, with remnants of its historic past having been restored. Woolwich Dockyard was founded by King Henry VIII in 1512 to build his flagship Henri Grâce à Dieu, the ship was built at Gun Wharf in Old Woolwich, east of the area that was later known as Woolwich Dockyard or The Kings Yard, Woolwich. Like its counterpart Deptford Dockyard, Woolwich was probably chosen for its position - on the bank of the tidal River Thames conveniently close to Henrys palace at Greenwich. Initially situated further to the east, past Bell Water Gate, the yard moved in the 1540s to what was to become its permanent site, where a pair of dry docks formed the centre of operations. The two dry docks were rebuilt in the early 17th century when the dock was expanded. As at other Royal Dockyards, the Board of Ordnance maintained a gun wharf at Woolwich for storage and provision of guns, the wharf was sited east of Bell Water Gate. It was here that Woolwich Dockyard was founded in 1512 and the Great Harry was built in 1515, in the 1540s the dockyard moved away from Gun Wharf to an area further west. Gun Wharf continued to be used for storage, later the land was shared with the nearby Ropeyard. From the 1650s the Board of Ordnance began to use of open land further to the east of Gun Wharf, formerly used as a domestic warren, as a site for proving cannons. This was the beginning of what would become the Woolwich Royal Arsenal. In the 1570s a Royal Ropeyard was established in Woolwich, one of the largest in the world at the time, too long to fit within the confines of the Dockyard, its parallel sheds lay along the line of present-day Beresford Street. It remained in service until 1750, by which time similar establishments in other Royal Dockyards had begun to come to the fore, not long afterwards the Ropeyard suffered significant fire damage and its buildings were demolished in 1835. Engineer Samuel Bentham was a shipwright at the dockyard during the 1770s. The yard was expanded westwards in the 1780s, again almost doubling in size. Shipbuilding continued in earnest during the Napoleonic Wars, but, as ships grew still bigger, from 1831, however, Woolwich found a new lease of life as a specialist yard for marine steam engineering. Integral to the creation of the factory was the conversion of two mast ponds into steam basins, where ships could moor alongside the factory while their engines. One of these basins was provided with its own dry dock which, like the basins, was filled in and built over in the 20th century
12.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
13.
Fleet review (Commonwealth realms)
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A fleet review is a traditional gathering of ships from a particular navy to be observed by the reigning monarch or his or her representative, a practice allegedly dating back to the 15th century. Such an event is not held at intervals and originally only occurred when the fleet was mobilised for war or for a show of strength to discourage potential enemies. However, since the 19th century, they have often held for the coronation or for special royal jubilees. Australia has a history of Fleet Reviews, the last Fleet Review took place in Australia in October 2013, port Phillip royal review,1921 - Reviewed by Prince Edward, Prince of Wales. Royal Australian Navy 25th birthday review,1936 50th Year Review,1961 The 75th fleet review,1986 - Led by USS Missouri, bicentennial naval salute,1988 - Led by USS New Jersey Centennial naval review 2001 - Cancelled due to terrorist attacks in the United States. In Canada, fleet reviews may take place on either the Atlantic or Pacific coasts, typically in Halifax Harbour for the former and Victoria Harbour for the latter. July 1958 - To mark the 100th anniversary of British Columbias entry into Canadian Confederation, the Royal Canadian Navy review was conducted by Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon. June 1959 - Held at Montreal to mark the opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway, attended by ships from the Royal Canadian Navy and United States Navy, July 1959 - Held at Halifax Harbour, reviewed by Queen Elizabeth II. 12 June 2010 - To mark the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Royal Canadian Navy,29 June 2010 - To mark the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Royal Canadian Navy and held at the Bedford Basin. Ships of the Royal Canadian Navy, Brazilian Navy, Royal Danish Navy, French Navy, German Navy, Royal Netherlands Navy, Royal Navy, there have been several Fleet Reviews hosted by the Royal New Zealand Navy. These include the following, International Fleet Review,5 October 1991, International Naval Review,18 November 2016, to mark the Royal New Zealand Navys 75th birthday. In a break with tradition the RNZN mistakenly described the Review as a Naval Review rather than as the customary Fleet Review, in the examples below, the venue is Spithead unless otherwise noted. A list follows of fleet reviews in England, Great Britain, on his arrival he was saluted by a triple discharge of cannon, and proceeded to the dockyard where admirals and captains were assembled, each with his barge, to escort the King to Spithead. They had dressed their crews in fancy colours, each to his own taste, may 1778, George III, before France joined American War of Independence 1781 June 1794, after Glorious First of June 25 June 1814, the last to consist solely of sailing ships. 15 ships of the line and 31 frigates were present, all of them veterans of the Napoleonic Wars and it was reviewed not by George III, but by the Prince Regent September 1820, George IV, first Coronation Review. One ship in attendance was HMS Beagle, later made famous by Charles Darwin,17 occurred during her reign, the most for any monarch. March 1842, her first, held by herself and Prince Albert as a Grand Naval Review, the Board of Admiralty attended in their steam yacht, the Black Eagle. 11 August 1853, fleet mobilisation for Crimean War, including for the first time steam screw ships of the line
14.
George IV of the United Kingdom
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George IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover following the death of his father, George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later. From 1811 until his accession, he served as Prince Regent during his fathers mental illness. George IV led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era and he was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace and he even forbade Caroline to attend his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in a desperate, unsuccessful attempt to divorce her. For most of Georges regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister and his ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible. At all times he was much under the influence of favourites, taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending at a time when Britons were fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. He did not provide leadership in time of crisis, nor act as a role model for his people. Liverpools government presided over Britains ultimate victory, negotiated the peace settlement, after Liverpools retirement, George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only child, Princess Charlotte, died before him in 1817 and so he was succeeded by his younger brother, George was born at St Jamess Palace, London, on 12 August 1762, the first child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte. As the eldest son of a British sovereign, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth, he was created Prince of Wales, on 18 September of the same year, he was baptised by Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury. His godparents were the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the Duke of Cumberland, George was a talented student, and quickly learned to speak French, German and Italian, in addition to his native English. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, the Prince of Wales turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 from his father. It was far too little for his needs – the stables alone cost £31,000 a year and he then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived a profligate life. Animosity developed between the prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent, the King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the princes adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians. Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert and she was a commoner, six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic. Despite her complete unsuitability, the prince was determined to marry her, nevertheless, the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the Kings consent was not granted, however, Fitzherbert believed that she was the princes canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it, the prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle
15.
London Bridge
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London Bridge refers to several historical bridges that have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central London. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge built from concrete and this replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old medieval structure. This was preceded by a succession of bridges, the first built by the Roman founders of London. The current bridge stands at the end of the Pool of London but is positioned 30 metres upstream from previous alignments. The traditional ends of the bridge were marked by St Magnus-the-Martyr on the northern bank. Until Putney Bridge opened in 1729, London Bridge was the only road-crossing of the Thames downstream of Kingston-upon-Thames and its importance has been the subject of popular culture throughout the ages such as in the nursery rhyme London Bridge Is Falling Down and its inclusion within art and literature. The modern bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates and it carries the A3 road, which is maintained by the Greater London Authority. The crossing also delineates an area along the bank of the River Thames. The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand, between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement nearby, two ancient fords were in use a few miles upstream, beyond the rivers upper tidal reach. They were aligned with the course of Watling Street and led into the heartlands of the Catuvellauni, some time before Claudius conquest of AD43, power shifted to the Trinovantes, who held the region northeast of the Thames estuary from a capital at Camulodunum. Claudius imposed a major colonia on Camulodunum, and made it the city of the new Roman province of Britannia. The first London Bridge was built by the Roman military as part of their road-building programme, around AD55, the temporary bridge over the Thames was replaced by a permanent timber piled bridge, maintained and guarded by a small garrison. On the relatively high, dry ground at the end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root. A smaller settlement developed at the end of the bridge. The bridge was destroyed along with the town in the Boudican revolt. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the Roman Empire, with the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Saxon period, the became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex
16.
Second voyage of HMS Beagle
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FitzRoy had already thought of the advantages of having an expert in geology on board, and sought a gentleman naturalist to accompany them as a supernumerary. The young graduate Charles Darwin had hoped to see the tropics before becoming a parson and he was greatly influenced by reading Charles Lyells Principles of Geology during the voyage. While the expedition was planned to last two years, it lasted almost five. Darwin spent most of time exploring on land, three years and three months on land,18 months at sea. Early in the voyage he decided that he could write a book about geology, at Punta Alta he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from only a very few specimens. The main purpose of the expedition was to conduct a survey of the coasts of the southern part of South America. This was a continuation and correction of the work of previous surveys, in order to produce nautical charts showing navigational and sea depth information for the navy. An Admiralty memorandum set out the detailed instructions, the first requirement was to resolve disagreements in the earlier surveys about the longitude of Rio de Janeiro, which was essential as the base point for meridian distances. The accurate marine chronometers needed to determine longitude had only become affordable since 1800 and it was important to survey the extent of the Abrolhos Archipelago reefs, shown incorrectly in Roussins survey, then proceed to Rio de Janeiro to decide the exact longitude of Villegagnon Island. The west coast was then to be surveyed as far north as time, the commander would then determine his own route west, season permitting, he could survey the Galápagos Islands. Then the Beagle was to proceed to Point Venus, Tahiti and on to Port Jackson, No time was to be wasted on elaborate drawings, charts and plans should have notes and simple views of the land as seen from the sea showing measured heights of hills. Continued records of tides and meteorological conditions were also required, an additional suggestion was for a geological survey of a circular coral atoll in the Pacific Ocean including its profile and of tidal flows, to investigate the formation of such coral reefs. The previous survey expedition to South America involved HMS Adventure and HMS Beagle under the command of the Australian Commander Phillip Parker King. During the survey Beagles captain, Pringle Stokes, committed suicide and command of the ship was given to the young aristocrat Robert FitzRoy, when a ships boat was taken by native Fuegians, FitzRoy took some of them hostage. After their return to Devonport dockyard on 14 October 1830 Captain King retired and he made an agreement with the owner of a small merchant-vessel to take himself and five others back to South America, but a kind uncle heard of this and contacted the Admiralty. Soon afterwards FitzRoy heard that he was to be appointed commander of HMS Chanticleer to go to Tierra del Fuego, on 27 June 1831 FitzRoy was commissioned as commander of the voyage, and Lieutenants John Clements Wickham and Bartholomew James Sulivan were appointed. The Beagle was commissioned on 4 July 1831 under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy, the Beagle was immediately taken into dock for extensive rebuilding and refitting. As she required a new deck, FitzRoy had the upper deck raised considerably, the Cherokee class brig-sloops had the reputation of being coffin brigs, which handled badly and were prone to sinking
17.
Charles Darwin
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
18.
Evolution
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Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all living on Earth. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction. More than 99 percent of all species that lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earths current species range from 10 to 14 million, more recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection. This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms, the four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene migration. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation, mutation and gene migration create variation, consequences of selection can include meiotic drive, nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics, the importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science. The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura, in contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach, however, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the nature of species relationships. Other naturalists of this time speculated on the change of species over time according to natural laws
19.
Natural selection
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Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of a population over time, Charles Darwin popularised the term natural selection, and compared it with artificial selection. Variation exists within all populations of organisms and this occurs partly because random mutations arise in the genome of an individual organism, and offspring can inherit such mutations. Throughout the lives of the individuals, their genomes interact with their environments to cause variations in traits, the environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment. Individuals with certain variants of the trait may survive and reproduce more than individuals with other, less successful, variants, therefore, factors that affect reproductive success are also important, including sexual selection and fecundity selection. Over time, this process can result in populations that specialise for particular ecological niches, in other words, natural selection is a key process in the evolution of a population. Natural selection can be contrasted with artificial selection, in which humans intentionally choose specific traits, Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a theory of heredity, at the time of Darwins writing. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical genetics formed the synthesis of the mid-20th century. The addition of molecular genetics has led to developmental biology. While genotypes can slowly change by random genetic drift, natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution, empedocles idea that organisms arose entirely by the incidental workings of causes such as heat and cold was criticised by Aristotle in Book II of Physics. He posited natural teleology in its place, and believed that form was achieved for a purpose, nevertheless, he accepted in his biology that new types of animals, monstrosities, can occur in very rare instances. And in like manner as to the parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Yet it is impossible that this should be the true view, for teeth and all other natural things either invariably or normally come about in a given way, but of not one of the results of chance or spontaneity is this true. We do not ascribe to chance or mere coincidence the frequency of rain in winter, but frequent rain in summer we do, nor heat in the dog-days, therefore action for an end is present in things which come to be and are by nature. The struggle for existence was later described by the Islamic writer Al-Jahiz in the 9th century, the classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwins grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. Until the early 19th century, the view in Western societies was that differences between individuals of a species were uninteresting departures from their Platonic ideals of created kinds. However, the theory of uniformitarianism in geology promoted the idea that simple and this theory, Lamarckism, was an influence on the Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenkos antagonism to mainstream genetic theory as late as the mid 20th century
20.
Keel
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On boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts, a structural element that sometimes resembles a fin and protrudes below a boat along the central line, or a hydrodynamic element. As the laying down of the keel is the step in the construction of a ship, in British. Only the ships launching is considered significant in its creation. The word can also be used as a synecdoche to refer to a complete boat, a structural keel is the bottom-most structural member around which the hull of a ship is built. The keel runs along the centerline of the ship, from the bow to the stern. The keel is often the first part of a hull to be constructed. The most common type of keel is the plate keel. A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the bar keel, which may be fitted in trawlers, tugs, and smaller ferries. Where grounding is possible, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings, if a double bottom is fitted, the keel is almost inevitably of the flat plate type, bar keels often being associated with open floors, where the plate keel may also be fitted. Duct keels are provided in the bottom of some vessels and these run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded, the keel surface on the bottom of the hull gives the ship greater directional control and stability. In non-sailing hulls, the helps the hull to move forward. In traditional boat building, this is provided by the structural keel, in modern construction, the bar keel or flat-plate keel performs the same function. There are many types of fixed keels, including full keels, long keels, fin keels, winged keels, bulb keels, the rudimentary purpose of the keel is to convert the sideways motion of the wind when it is abeam into forward motion. A secondary purpose of the keel is to provide ballast, keels are different from centreboards and other types of foils in that keels are made of heavy materials to provide ballast to stabilize the boat. Keels may be fixed, or non-movable, or they may retract to allow sailing in shallower waters, retracting keels may pivot or slide upwards to retract, and are usually retracted with a winch due to the weight of the ballast. Since the keel provides far more stability when lowered than when retracted, types of non-fixed keels include swing keels and canting keels. Canting keels can be found on racing yachts, such as competing in the Volvo Ocean Race
21.
Keel laying
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Laying the keel or laying down is the formal recognition of the start of a ships construction. It is often marked with a ceremony attended by dignitaries from the shipbuilding company, keel laying is one of the four specially-celebrated events in the life of a ship, the others are launching, commissioning, and decommissioning. In earlier times, the event recognized as the keel laying was the placement of the central timber making up the backbone of a vessel. As steel ships replaced wooden ones, the central timber gave way to a steel beam. Modern ships are now built in a series of pre-fabricated. The event recognized as the keel laying is the first joining of modular components and it is now often called keel authentication, and is the ceremonial beginning of the ships life, although modules may have been started months before that stage of construction. Keel-related traditions from the times of wooden ships are said to bring luck to the ship during construction and to the captain, the first milestone in the history of a ship is the generally simple ceremony that marks the laying of the keel. Invitations to the ceremony are issued by officials, and the ceremony is conducted by them. The builder may be the commander of a shipyard or the president of a private company. The ships prospective name, without the USS, is mentioned in the invitation, if known, otherwise her type and number are given, e. g. DD2217
22.
Pringle Stokes
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Pringle Stokes was a British naval officer who served in HMS Owen Glendower on a voyage around Cape Horn to the Pacific coast of South America, and on the West African coast fighting the slave trade. He then commanded HMS Beagle on its first voyage of exploration in the south Atlantic, after two years in command of the Beagle, depressed by the harsh winter conditions of the Strait of Magellan, he committed suicide. Pringle Stokes was born on 23 April 1793, son of Charles and he was baptized at Chertsey on 2 May 1793. At the age of twelve, on 5 June 1805 he joined the Royal Navy as a Midshipman in HMS Ariadne, Stokes served as a Lieutenant on board the frigate HMS Owen Glendower, which left England for South America in November 1819. Robert FitzRoy, who was to command of the Beagle after Stokes died. He had joined the ship as a volunteer in 1819. The young FitzRoy and Stokes, who was in his late twenties, the Owen Glendower visited Saint Helena in October 1820 to report on the conditions in which the former Emperor Napoleon was being held. Spencer commanded the ship on its journey round Cape Horn to Valparaíso in Chile, in November 1822 Captain Sir Robert Mends took command of the Owen Glendower as senior officer on the west coast of Africa, charged with suppressing the West African slave trade. In one incident Stokes was wounded in a clash between the crews of the Owen Glendower and the local people of Fernando Po. On 3 July 1823 he led a party of boats up the New Calabar River, the schooner was wrecked when the pilot ran it aground two days later. The Chief of New Calabar River sent the cargo of 184 slaves out to the Owen Glendower. Sir Robert Mends died at Cape Coast on 4 September 1823, Stokes temporarily took command of the ship. Hearing of the death of Sir Robert Mends, Commander John Filmore, the opposing view, which apparently prevailed, was that the ships boats had been dispatched under the orders of Sir Robert Mends, whose estate would be entitled to the prize money. In May 1824 Stokes was promoted to Commander, the Beagle was built in 1819 in Woolwich. She was a small ship of 235 tons, barque-rigged. Pringle Stokes commissioned her around the end of 1825, on 22 May 1826 the Beagle left Plymouth along with the larger HMS Adventure under the overall command of Captain Phillip Parker King on a voyage of exploration of the southern coast of South America. The two ships were to chart the coasts between Montevideo and Chiloé Island, with attention to the complex of channels and islands around Tierra del Fuego. Now a Lieutenant, Robert FitzRoy was the meteorologist on the Beagle, Stokes entered the Santa Cruz River and recorded the Isla Pavón, about 54 kilometres from the rivers mouth
23.
United Kingdom Hydrographic Office
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The United Kingdom Hydrographic Office is located in Taunton, Somerset on Admiralty Way and has a workforce of approximately 1,000 staff. The UKHO is the UKs agency providing hydrographic and geospatial data to mariners and they are a trading arm of the Ministry of Defence. They are responsible for support to the Royal Navy and other defence customers. Supplying defence and the shipping industry, they help ensure Safety of Lives at Sea, protect the marine environment. Together with other national hydrographic offices and the International Hydrographic Organisation, they work to set and raise standards of hydrography, cartography. Their market-leading portfolio of ADMIRALTY Maritime Products & Services is found on over 90% of the ships trading internationally. Relied upon by mariners for over 200 years, their portfolio provides the most comprehensive range of SOLAS-compliant charts, publications and digital services to crews, cargo. The Admiraltys first Hydrographer was Alexander Dalrymple, appointed in 1795 on the order of King George III, the first chart Dalrymple published as Hydrographer to the ADMIRALTY brand did not appear until 1800. He also issued sailing directions and Notices to Mariners, Dalrymple was succeeded on his death in 1808 by Captain Thomas Hurd, under whose stewardship the department was given permission to sell charts to the public in 1821. In 1819 Captain Hurd entered into an agreement with Denmark to exchange charts. This is thought to be the earliest formal arrangement for the supply of information between the British and any foreign Hydrographic Office. Hurd developed the specialism of Royal Navy hydrographic surveyors, Rear-Admiral Sir W. Edward Parry was appointed Hydrographer in 1823 after his second expedition to discover a Northwest Passage. In 1825 some 736 charts and coastal views were being offered for sale by the Hydrographic Office, in 1828 Captain Parry and the Royal Society organised a scientific voyage to the South Atlantic, in collaboration with the Hydrographers of France and Spain, using HMS Chanticleer. In 1829, at the age of 55, Rear-Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort became Hydrographer, during his time as Hydrographer, he developed the eponymous Scale, saw the introduction of official tide tables in 1833 and instigated various surveys and expeditions. Several of these were by the HMS Beagle, including one to Tierra del Fuego, in 1831 Captain Beaufort informed Captain FitzRoy that he had found a savant for the latters surveying voyage to South America, Charles Darwin. After completing extensive surveys in South America she returned to Falmouth, Cornwall via New Zealand, by the time of Beauforts retirement in 1855, the Chart Catalogue listed 1,981 charts and 64,000 copies of them had been issued to the Royal Navy. In the 1870s the Hydrographic Service supported the Challenger expedition, an exercise that made many discoveries. The cruise was named after the vessel, HMS Challenger
24.
Mast (sailing)
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The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a light, look-out position, signal yard, control position. Large ships have several masts, with the size and configuration depending on the style of ship, nearly all sailing masts are guyed. Until the mid-19th century all vessels masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the height, the masts were built from up to four sections, known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant. Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast, as opposed to sections formed from pieces of timber. Jigger-mast, typically, where it is the shortest, the aftmost mast on vessels with more than three masts. On a two-masted vessel with the main-mast forward and a smaller second mast, such as a ketch, or particularly a yawl. Although two-masted schooners may be provided with masts of identical size, the aftmost is still referred to as the main-mast, schooners have been built with up to seven masts in all, with several six-masted examples. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the sails are rigged. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC. While most of the ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels, a mosaic in Ostia depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Romes harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts, Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, although large enough to require full running rigging
25.
Plymouth
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Plymouths early history extends to the Bronze Age, when a first settlement emerged at Mount Batten. This settlement continued as a trading post for the Roman Empire, until it was surpassed by the prosperous village of Sutton founded in the ninth century. In 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers departed Plymouth for the New World, during the English Civil War the town was held by the Parliamentarians and was besieged between 1642 and 1646. The combined town took the name of Plymouth which, in 1928, the citys naval importance later led to its targeting and partial destruction during World War II, an act known as the Plymouth Blitz. After the war the city centre was rebuilt and subsequent expansion led to the incorporation of Plympton. The city is home to 262,700 people, making it the 30th most populous area in the United Kingdom. It is governed locally by Plymouth City Council and is represented nationally by three MPs, Plymouths economy remains strongly influenced by shipbuilding and seafaring including ferry links to Brittany and Spain, but has tended toward a service-based economy since the 1990s. It has the largest operational base in Western Europe – HMNB Devonport and is home to Plymouth University. An unidentified settlement named TAMARI OSTIA is listed in Ptolemys Geographia and is presumed to be located in the area of the modern city, at the time this village was called Sutton, meaning south town in Old English. The name Plym Mouth, meaning mouth of the River Plym was first mentioned in a Pipe Roll of 1211, the name Plymouth first officially replaced Sutton in a charter of King Henry VI in 1440. See Plympton for the derivation of the name Plym, during the Hundred Years War a French attack burned a manor house and took some prisoners, but failed to get into the town. In 1403 the town was burned by Breton raiders, on 12 November,1439, the English Parliament made Plymouth the first town incorporated. The castle served to protect Sutton Pool, which is where the fleet was based in Plymouth prior to the establishment of Plymouth Dockyard. In 1512 an Act of Parliament was passed for further fortifying Plymouth, defences on St Nicholas Island also date from this time, and a string of six artillery blockhouses were built, including one on Fishers Nose at the south-eastern corner of the Hoe. This location was further strengthened by the building of a fort in 1596, during the 16th century locally produced wool was the major export commodity. According to legend, Drake insisted on completing his game of bowls on the Hoe before engaging the Spanish Armada in 1588. In 1620 the Pilgrim Fathers set sail for the New World from Plymouth, during the English Civil War Plymouth sided with the Parliamentarians and was besieged for almost four years by the Royalists. The last major attack by the Royalist was by Sir Richard Grenville leading thousands of soldiers towards Plymouth, the civil war ended as a Parliamentary win, but monarchy was restored by King Charles II in 1660, who imprisoned many of the Parliamentary heroes on Drakes Island
26.
Hydrography
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The origins of hydrography lay in the making of charts to aid navigation, by individual mariners as they navigated into new waters. These were usually the property, even closely held secrets. National organizations, particularly navies, realized that the collection, systematization and distribution of this gave it great organizational. Thus were born dedicated national hydrographic organizations for the collection, organization, publication and distribution of hydrography incorporated into charts, prior to the establishment of the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, Royal Navy captains were responsible for the provision of their own charts. In practice this meant that ships often sailed with inadequate information for safe navigation, and that when new areas were surveyed, the Admiralty appointed Alexander Dalrymple as Hydrographer in 1795, with a remit to gather and distribute charts to HM Ships. Within a year existing charts from the two centuries had been collated, and the first catalogue published. The first chart produced under the direction of the Admiralty, was a chart of Quiberon Bay in Brittany, under Captain Thomas Hurd the department received its first professional guidelines and the first catalogues were published and made available to the public and to other nations as well. In 1829, Rear-Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, as Hydrographer, developed the eponymous Scale, and introduced the first official tide tables in 1833, the word hydrography comes from the Ancient Greek ὕδωρ, water and γράφω, to write. The science of oceanography is, in part, an outgrowth of classical hydrography, in many respects the data are interchangeable, but marine hydrographic data will be particularly directed toward marine navigation and safety of that navigation. Marine resource exploration and exploitation is a significant application of hydrography, hydrographical measurements include the tidal, current and wave information of physical oceanography. Bottom measurements also include collection of the nature of the bottom as it pertains to effective anchoring, unlike oceanography, hydrography will include shore features, natural and manmade, that aid in navigation. Hydrography, mostly for reasons of safety, adopted a number of conventions that have affected its portrayal of the data on nautical charts, the former are the mariners tools to avoid accident. The latter are best representations of the seabed, as in a topographic map, for scientific. Trends in hydrographic practice since c, 2003–2005 have led to a narrowing of this difference, with many more hydrographic offices maintaining best observed databases, and then making navigationally safe products as required. This has been coupled with a preference for multi-use surveys, so that the data collected for nautical charting purposes can also be used for bathymetric portrayal. For instance, if there is an area that can not be reached because it is surrounded by shallow water. The color filled areas that show different ranges of water are not the equivalent of contours on a topographic map since they are often drawn seaward of the actual shallowest depth portrayed. A bathymetric chart does show marine topology accurately, details covering the above limitations can be found in Part 1 of Bowditchs American Practical Navigator
27.
Patagonia
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Patagonia is a sparsely populated region located at the southern end of South America, shared by Argentina and Chile. The region comprises the section of the Andes mountains as well as the deserts, steppes. Patagonia has two coasts, a western one towards the Pacific Ocean and an eastern one towards the Atlantic Ocean, the Colorado and Barrancas rivers, which run from the Andes to the Atlantic, are commonly considered the northern limit of Argentine Patagonia. The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes included as part of Patagonia, most geographers and historians locate the northern limit of Chilean Patagonia at Reloncaví Estuary. The name Patagonia comes from the word used by Magellan in 1520 to describe the native people that his expedition thought to be giants. It is now believed that the people he called the Patagons were Tehuelches, the hypothesis was accepted and published in the New Review of Spanish Philology in the 2011 article. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of fresh and brackish water, towards the Andes, the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant. It is characteristic of the flora of the western coast, and consist principally of southern beech and conifers. Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the ones are the Gualichu, south of the Río Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta, the Senguerr. There, erosion which is caused principally by the sudden melting, best in evidence where in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks which are uplifted by the Cenozoic granite. It generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera, to the west of these, a similar longitudinal depression extends all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia, Lake basins along the Cordillera were also excavated by ice-streams, including Lake Argentino and Lake Fagnano, as well as coastal bays such as Bahía Inútil. There have been discrepancies among geologists on the origin of the Patagonian landmass, víctor Ramos has proposed that the Patagonian landmass originated as an allochtonous terrane that separated from Antarctica and docked in South America 250 to 270 Ma in the Permian era. A2014 study by Robert John Pankhurst and coworkers reject any idea of a far-travelled Patagonia claiming it is likely of parautochtonous origin, the Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits have revealed a most interesting vertebrate fauna. The Patagonian Myolania belongs to the Upper Chalk, having been associated with remains of Dinosauria. In the Cenozoic marine formation, a number of cetaceans has been discovered. At a state level, Patagonia lies inside two countries, Chile and Argentina, both countries have organised their Patagonian territories into non-equivalent administrative subdivisions, Provinces and departments in Argentina, and regions, provinces and communes in Chile. Being a unitary state Chiles first level administrative divisions—the regions—enjoy far less autonomy than Argentine provinces, Argentine provinces have elected governors and parliaments, while Chilean regions have government-appointed intendants
28.
Tierra del Fuego
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Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago off the southernmost tip of the South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of the island, Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, with an area of 48,100 km2. Tierra del Fuego is divided between Chile and Argentina, with the controlling the eastern half of the main island. The southernmost extent of the archipelago is at about latitude 55 S, the earliest known human settlement in Tierra del Fuego dates to around 8,000 B. C. Europeans first explored the islands during Ferdinand Magellans expedition of 1520, Tierra del Fuego, today, petroleum extraction dominates economic activity in the north of Tierra del Fuego, while tourism, manufacturing, and Antarctic logistics are important in the south. The earliest human settlement occurred around 8,000 B. C, the Yaghan were some of the earliest known humans to settle in Tierra del Fuego. Archeological sites with characteristics of their culture have found at locations such as Navarino Island. The name Tierra del Fuego derives from the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, sailing for the Spanish Crown and he believed he was seeing the many fires of the Yaghan, which were visible from the sea, and that the Indians were waiting in the forests to ambush his armada. In 1525 Francisco de Hoces was the first to speculate that Tierra del Fuego was one or more islands rather than part of what was then called Terra Australis, francis Drake in 1578 and a Dutch VOC expedition in 1616 learned more about the geography. The latter expedition named Cape Horn, on his first voyage with the HMS Beagle in 1830, Robert FitzRoy picked up four native Fuegians, including Jemmy Button and brought them to England. The surviving three were taken to London to meet the King and Queen and were, for a time and they returned to Tierra del Fuego in the Beagle with FitzRoy and Charles Darwin, who made extensive notes about his visit to the islands. During the second half of the 19th century, the archipelago began to come under Chilean, both countries sought to claim the whole archipelago based on de jure Spanish colonial titles. Salesian Catholic missions were established in Río Grande and Dawson Island, anglican missions were established by British colonists at Keppel Island in the Falklands in 1855 and in 1870 at Ushuaia on the main island, which continued to operate through the 19th century. Thomas Bridges learned the language and compiled a 30, 000-word Yaghan grammar and it was published in the 20th century and considered an important ethnological work. An 1879 Chilean expedition led by Ramón Serrano Montaner reported large amounts of gold in the streams. This prompted massive immigration to the island between 1883 and 1909. Numerous Argentines, Chileans and Croatians settled in the main island, julius Popper, a Romanian explorer, was one of the most successful entrepreneurs in the region. Granted rights by the Argentine government to exploit any gold deposits he found in Tierra del Fuego, despite the missionaries efforts, many natives died
29.
Phillip Parker King
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Admiral Phillip Parker King, FRS, RN was an early explorer of the Australian and Patagonian coasts. King was sent to England for education in 1796, and he joined the Royal Naval Academy, Portsmouth, King entered the Royal Navy in 1807, where he was commissioned lieutenant in 1814. King was assigned to survey the parts of the Australian coast not already examined by Matthew Flinders, amongst the 19-man crew were Allan Cunningham, John Septimus Roe and the aborigine Bungaree. The first three trips were in the 76 tonne cutter HMS Mermaid, but the vessel was grounded in 1820, the Admiralty instructed King to discover whether there was any river likely to lead to an interior navigation into this great continent. The Colonial Office had given instructions to collect information about topography, fauna, timber, minerals, climate, and the natives, from February to June 1818, the coast was surveyed as far as Van Diemen Gulf and there were many meetings with Aboriginals and Malay proas. In June the Mermaid visited Timor and then returned to Sydney, next December and January King surveyed the recently discovered Macquarie Harbour in Van Diemens Land and sailed in May 1819 for Torres Strait. King took John Oxley as far as the Hastings River, King returned to Sydney on 12 January 1820. Kings fourth voyage was undertaken in the 154 tonne sloop HMS Bathurst, the ship headed north, through Torres Strait and to the north-west coast of the continent. Further survey of the west coast was made after a visit to Mauritius, valuable contributions had been made to the exploration of Australia. King had been promoted to commander in July 1821, and in April 1823 returned to England and he subsequently commanded the survey vessel HMS Adventure, and in company with HMS Beagle, spent five years surveying the complex coasts around the Strait of Magellan. At the same time, King put together a collection of Patagonian objects from local tribes living in Tierra del Fuego. In addition to records, King also lent his hand to drawing and watercolour painting. The result was presented at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society in 1831, King owned a property at Dunheved in the western suburbs of Sydney where he entertained Charles Darwin on Darwins last night in Sydney in January 1836. In 1855 King was promoted to Rear admiral on the retired list, King was a Fellow of the Royal Society. King was honoured on the 2-pound postage stamp of Australia in 1963, the Australian native orchid Dendrobium kingianum has been named after him. King Sound in the Kimberley region of Western Australia was also named after King who explored the region in 1818, six species of reptiles are named in his honor, Chlamydosaurus kingii, Anops kingii, Egernia kingii, Elgaria kingii, Liolaemus kingii, and Disteira kingii. F. R. S. and L. S. to N. A. Vigors, Adventure and Beagle employed between the years 1826 and 1830 in surveying the southern coasts of South America, including the Straits of Magalhaens and the coast of Tierra del Fuego. The Zoological Journal,5, 332–349.1832 King, P. P. FitzRoy, Robert, ed. Proceedings of the first expedition, 1826-30, under the command of Captain P. Parker King, R. N
30.
Commander
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Commander is a common naval and air force officer rank. Commander is also used as a rank or title in other formal organisations, Commander is also a generic term for an officer commanding any armed forces unit, for example platoon commander, brigade commander and squadron commander. In the police, terms such as commander and incident commander are used. Commander is a used in navies but is very rarely used as a rank in armies. In practice, these were usually unrated sloops-of-war of no more than 20 guns, the Royal Navy shortened master and commander to commander in 1794, however, the term master and commander remained in common parlance for several years. The equivalent American rank master commandant remained in use changed to commander in 1838. A corresponding rank in some navies is frigate captain, in the 20th and 21st centuries, the rank has been assigned the NATO rank code of OF-4. Various functions of commanding officers were also styled Commandeur, in the navy of the Dutch Republic, anyone who commanded a ship or a fleet without having an appropriate rank to do so, could be called a Commandeur. This included ad hoc fleet Commanders and acting Captains, in the fleet of the Admiralty of Zealand however, commandeur was a formal rank, the equivalent of Schout-bij-nacht in the other Dutch admiralties. The Dutch use of the title as a rank lives on in the Royal Netherlands Navy, in the Royal Netherlands Air Force, however, this rank is known by the English spelling of Commodore which is the Dutch equivalent of the British Air Commodore. The rank of commander in the Royal Australian Navy is identical in description to that of a commander in the British Royal Navy, RAN chaplains who are in Division 1,2 and 3 have the equivalent rank standing of commanders. This means that to officers and NCOs below the rank of commander, or wing commander, the chaplain is a superior. To those officers ranked higher than commander, the chaplain is subordinate, although this equivalency exists, RAN chaplains who are in Division 1,2 and 3 do not actually wear the rank of commander, and they hold no command privilege. In France, the rank of commander exists as capitaine de frégate and it is senior to capitaine de corvette, and junior to capitaine de vaisseau. The rank of commander was used in the Imperial Japanese Navy, though the modern rank is translated as commander in English, its literal translation is captain second rank. The rank is equivalent to that of a commander in the U. S. Navy, Commander is a rank in the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem, and is denoted by the post-nominal letters CLJ. The corresponding rank in the Polish Navy is komandor porucznik, in the Russian Navy the equivalent rank to commander is captain of the second rank. The rank was introduced in Russia by Peter the Great in 1722, from the introduction of the Russian Table of Ranks to its abolition in 1917, captain of the second rank was equal to a court councillor, at the sixth level out of 14 ranks
31.
Puerto del Hambre
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Puerto Hambre lies halfway between the South Pole and Chiles northern border with Peru. Since Chile claims its Antarctic territories extending all the way to the South Pole, a monument near the site marks this midpoint. After Francis Drakes successful negotiation of the Strait of Magellan to enter the Pacific Ocean, initially two forts commanded by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa were planned for Primera Angostura, but this location was discarded because the tide there would aid ships in crossing the narrow passage. A Spanish fleet of 23 ships and almost 3,000 men and settlers sailed from San Lucar de Barrameda on 27 September 1581, two months later Sarmiento sailed again with 16 ships and 2,200 men. Diego Flores, Sarmientos second in command, was separated from the fleet by storms near the eastern entrance of the Strait of Magellan. During March 1584 Sarmiento founded the Spanish settlement of Rey Don Felipe with around 300 settlers, conditions were harsh and local vegetation sparse, and the settlers starved or froze to death. When the next English navigator, Thomas Cavendish, landed at the site during 1587 and he renamed the place Port Famine. During the 19th century, it was developed as a base used by the British Royal Navy. The name was translated into Spanish as Puerto Hambre or Puerto del Hambre. According to archeological finds during the 1970s, the established by Cavendish was located in the Bahía San Juan. The Royal Navy hydrographic survey ship HMS Beagle commanded by Captain Pringle Stokes was surveying Patagonia, at Port Famine during August 1828, he locked himself in his cabin and shot himself. He was buried in the Cementerio inglés and his grave is still marked on nautical charts. Command of HMS Beagle was temporarily given to the Beagles Executive Officer, Lieutenant W. G. Skyring, FitzRoy became the captain of the Beagle for its second survey expedition, and he took the young naturalist Charles Darwin as a companion on this voyage. They visited Port Famine a number of times between 1832 and 1834 during the expedition, Chile determined to resettle the site during the 1840s. On 2 May 1843 the first twenty immigrants, including Bernhard Eunom Philippi, during 1843 Commander John Williams Wilson, Chilean Navy, also known as Juan Guillermos, built Fuerte Bulnes approximately 2 km further south at the Peninsula known as Punta Santa Ana. The fort bolstered Chiles claim to the Strait and the Patagonian lands, during February 1968 the ruins of Puerto del Hambre were made a National Monument. Fuerte Bulnes, which had abandoned during the 19th century, was reconstructed from 1941 to 1943. During 1968 it was designated as a National Monument
32.
Montevideo
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Montevideo is the capital and largest city of Uruguay. According to the 2011 census, the city proper has a population of 1,319,108 in an area of 201 square kilometres. The southernmost capital city in the Americas, Montevideo is situated in the southern coast of the country, the city was established in 1724 by a Spanish soldier, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala, as a strategic move amidst the Spanish-Portuguese dispute over the platine region. It was also under brief British rule in 1807, Montevideo hosted all the matches during the first FIFA World Cup. Montevideo is the seat of the headquarters of Mercosur and ALADI, Latin America’s leading trade blocs. Montevideo has consistently rated as having the highest quality of life of any city in Latin America. As of 2010, Montevideo was the 19th largest city economy in the continent, in 2015, it has a GDP of $40.5 billion, and a per capita of $24,400. It is classified as a Beta World City, ranking seventh in Latin America, by 2014, is also regarded as the tenth most gay-friendly city in the world, first in Latin America. It is the hub of commerce and higher education in Uruguay as well as its chief port, the city is also the financial and cultural hub of a larger metropolitan area, with a population of around 2 million. There are several explanations about the word Montevideo, all agree that Monte refers to the Cerro de Montevideo, the hill situated across the Bay of Montevideo, but there is disagreement about the etymological origin of the video part. Monte vide eu is the most widespread belief but is rejected by the majority of experts, who consider it unlikely because it involves a mix of dialects. This is the oldest Spanish document that mentions the promontory with a similar to the one that designates the city. With the passing of time, these words were unified to Montevideo, no conclusive evidence has been found to confirm this academic hypothesis nor can it be asserted with certainty which were the other five mounts observable before the Cerro. Ovidio was the bishop of the Portuguese city of Braga, where he was always revered. Between 1680 and 1683, Portugal founded the city of Colonia do Sacramento in the region across the bay from Buenos Aires and this city met with no resistance from the Spanish until 1723, when they began to place fortifications on the elevations around Montevideo Bay. On 22 November 1723, Field Marshal Manuel de Freitas da Fonseca of Portugal built the Montevieu fort, a Spanish expedition was sent from Buenos Aires, organized by the Spanish governor of that city, Bruno Mauricio de Zabala. There was also one significant early Italian resident by the name of Jorge Burgues, a census of the citys inhabitants was performed in 1724 and then a plan was drawn delineating the city and designating it as San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo, later shortened to Montevideo. The census counted fifty families of Galician and Canary Islands origin, more than 1000 indigenous, mostly Guaraní, in 1776, Spain made Montevideo its main naval base for the South Atlantic, with authority over the Argentine coast, Fernando Po, and the Falklands
33.
Rio de Janeiro
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Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the second-most populous municipality in Brazil and the sixth-most populous in the Americas. The metropolis is anchor to the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazils third-most populous state. Part of the city has designated as a World Heritage Site, named Rio de Janeiro. Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese, the city was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, later, in 1763, it became the capital of the State of Brazil, a state of the Portuguese Empire. Rio stayed the capital of the pluricontinental Lusitanian monarchy until 1822 and this is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonising country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies. Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country, the home of many universities and institutes, it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17% of national scientific output according to 2005 data. The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the city is divided into 33 administrative regions. Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502, by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabrals fleet, allegedly the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci participated as observer at the invitation of King Manuel I in the same expedition. The region of Rio was inhabited by the Tupi, Puri, Botocudo, in 1555, one of the islands of Guanabara Bay, now called Villegagnon Island, was occupied by 500 French colonists under the French admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon. Consequently, Villegagnon built Fort Coligny on the island when attempting to establish the France Antarctique colony, Rio de Janeiro was the name of Guanabara Bay. Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several, mostly French, pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc, on 27 January 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdoms capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, as there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes. The first printed newspaper in Brazil, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, from the colonial period until the first independent decades, Rio de Janeiro was a city of slaves. There was an influx of African slaves to Rio de Janeiro, in 1819. In 1840, the number of slaves reached 220,000 people, the Port of Rio de Janeiro was the largest port of slaves in America. As a political center of the country, Rio concentrated the political-partisan life of the Empire and it was the main stage of the abolitionist and republican movements in the last half of the 19th century. Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when the monarchy was replaced by a republic, until the early years of the 20th century, the city was largely limited to the neighbourhood now known as the historic city centre, on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. Expansion of the city to the north and south was facilitated by the consolidation and electrification of Rios streetcar transit system after 1905, though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília built, at great cost, by 1960
34.
Robert Otway
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During his long service, Otway saw action across Europe and in North America and was rewarded in his retirement with a knighthood, baronetcy and position as a courtier within the Royal Household. Otway was born in the home of Castle Otway in Tipperary, Ireland, one of the very large family of Cooke. One of his brothers was Loftus Otway, later a significant army officer of the Peninsular War. Otway however, chose a career over his fathers objections. Between 1785 and 1793, Otway experienced many transfers between ships, mainly operating on frigates in the Mediterranean, West Indies and along the West African Coast. During this time he served on board HMS Phaeton, HMS Trusty and HMS Blonde, the eruption of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793 brought Otway back to Europe as lieutenant on the second-rate ship of the line HMS Impregnable with the Channel Fleet. Impregnable was flagship of Rear-Admiral Benjamin Caldwell, who was later to prove an important influence on Otways career, within a year of joining the large ship, Otway saw his first action in the massive fleet engagement of the Glorious First of June. Otway distinguished himself in the action by going aloft despite the fire of the French fleet to repair the damaged fore topsail yard. In the aftermath of the action, Caldwell publicly thanked Otway for his services and appointed him first lieutenant on Caldwells new flagship, HMS Majestic. With Majestic in the West Indies as personal favourite of the commander-in-chief, Otway was soon promoted again and he also commented that Otway insisted on inspecting every gun aboard after every action and led every coastal raid despite never mentioning this in his dispatches. In 1800, Otway returned to Europe and was flag captain to Sir Hyde Parker in HMS Royal George. Otway successfully mediated, mitigating the terms of Parkers signal and then taking a boat to Nelson on the HMS Elephant, in the aftermath of the victory and the ensuing Peace of Amiens, Otway spent a period ashore in ill-health. During this time he married Clementina Holloway, daughter of Admiral John Holloway, the following year he participated in Sir Richard Strachans operations in the Atlantic to intercept a French squadron eventually apprehended by another British squadron in the West Indies. In 1807, Otway sailed to Calabria to provide material and military aid to partisans, taking over HMS Malta in 1809, Otway sailed for England before returning to the Mediterranean in the new HMS Ajax. He later commanded HMS Cumberland in the blockade off Toulon but suffered a bout of ill-health in 1811 which necessitated a period in England recovering. He returned to service in 1813 and commanded Adamant at Leith, before returning to Ajax, the same year he used Ajaxs guns to bombard the breaches of the Spanish fortress town of San Sebastian during the British siege. In 1814, Otway convoyed merchant ships to Quebec and whilst in Canada was dispatched as a rear-admiral on a commission to prepare the small ships squadron on Lake Champlain. The commission failed and the squadron was defeated at the Battle of Lake Champlain in September although Otway was not present
35.
Pacific Station
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The Pacific Station, often referred to as the Pacific Squadron, was one of the geographical divisions into which the Royal Navy divided its worldwide responsibilities. Before 1837, it was called the South America Station and it was established in the early nineteenth century to support British interests along the eastern shores of the Pacific Ocean at Valparaíso, Chile. In 1834, the Station hosted a visit by the survey ship Beagle on her second voyage, in 1837, the South America Station was renamed the Pacific Station. In 1843, George Paulet, captain of Carysfort, took her out from Valparaíso to Honolulu to demand the islands of the Kingdom of Hawaii for Britain, King Kamehameha III capitulated and signed the islands over to Paulet. In the summer of year, Rear-Admiral Richard Darton Thomas set out from Valparaíso in Dublin to rein Paulet in. On 31 July 1843, Thomas assured the King that the occupation was over, in 1842, Pandora was sent north to survey the coast of Vancouver Island and what would become the Esquimalt Royal Navy Dockyard. During the survey trip, the crew of Pandora found that Esquimalt Harbour had a size, as tensions between Britain and America rose during the Oregon boundary dispute a base at the southern end of Vancouver Island would help strengthen the British claim to all of the island. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 ceded control over all of the island to Britain, in 1848, Constance was sent to Esquimalt and was the first vessel to be stationed there. In late August, the fleets sailed to Russia to engage in the Siege of Petropavlovsk at which Commander-in-Chief David Price died. Captain Frederick William Erskine Nicolson of Pique was brevetted and took command of the British naval forces from 31 August 1854 until the arrival of the next Commander-in-Chief. In 1855, three Crimean huts were built at Esquimalt to serve as a hospital intended to receive wounded from the Crimean War, the huts were the first shore establishment at Esquimalt. The presence of full of straight grained conifers such as the Coast Douglas fir meant that Vancouver Island could provide shipbuilding material suitable for spar making in the age of sail. The later discovery of coal on the island and at Vancouvers Coal Harbour, by 1865, Esquimalt was recognized as the base headquarters of the Pacific Station. The move from Valparaíso to Esquimalt helped the Pacific Station avoid involvement in the Chincha Islands War between Spain, Chile, and Peru, Rear-Admiral de Horsey ordered Shah commanded by Frederick Bedford, against the Nicolás de Piérola-led Huáscar in the Battle of Pacocha on 29 May 1877. In that battle, Shah fired two Whitehead torpedoes at Huáscar, but they missed their mark and Huáscar got away, a graving dock large enough to accommodate the largest ships in the Pacific fleet was commissioned at Esquimalt in 1887. After a period of relaxing tensions meant that British interests in British Columbia were secured, Esquimalt Royal Navy Dockyard was transferred to the Canadian Department of Marine and Fisheries. The Pacific Stations responsibilities were divided between the China, Australia and the North America and West Indies Stations. After passage of the Naval Service Bill in 1910, there was a Canadian Naval Service that controlled the base at Esquimalt, in the 1960s, the amalgamation of defence services in Canada led to its re-constitution as Canadian Forces Base Esquimalt that includes HMC Dockyard
36.
HMS Ganges (1821)
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HMS Ganges was an 84-gun second-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, launched on 10 November 1821 at Bombay Dockyard, constructed from teak. She is notable for being the last sailing ship of the Navy to serve as a flagship, admiralty orders of 4 June 1816 directed her to be built as a facsimile of HMS Canopus. Building began in May 1819, under the direction of master shipbuilder Jamsetjee Bomanjee Wadia and she was commissioned at Portsmouth in 1823, and served in several locations over the following decades. Notable events included a period as flagship of the South America Station for three years, during which she landed Royal Marines in Rio de Janeiro after a mutiny by Brazilian soldiers and she also saw action in the Mediterranean in 1838–40, bombarding Beirut and blockading Alexandria. She was paid off during the Crimean War, and saw no action, from 1857–61, she was the flagship of the Pacific Station, based at Valparaíso, Chile under the command of Rear admiral Robert Lambert Baynes. In 190, she became part of RNTE Shotley, which included the ships HMS Caroline. In 1906, she was renamed Tenedos III, then moved to Devonport to become part of the training establishment HMS Indus, on 13 August 1910, in October 1922, she was renamed Impregnable III and transferred to the training establishment HMS Impregnable, also at Devonport. In 1923, she was taken out of service and transferred to the dockyard. In 1930, after over a century in service, she was broken up at Plymouth. The captains cabin in the stern was used in the construction of the hotel on Burgh Island in Devon. In 1933, timbers from the ship were used to construct the cross which stands outside the eastern end of Guildford Cathedral in Surrey. The town of Ganges, British Columbia and the adjacent waters of Ganges Harbour are named for HMS Ganges, the community of Vesuvius Bay, also on Saltspring Island, was named for HMS Vesuvius, which, with Ganges, was also assigned to the Pacific Station. The ships badge has been adopted by the Saltspring Island Sailing Club, in addition the transom board of one of HMS Ganges ships boats has pride of place in Centennial Park in the town of Ganges, B. C. The HMS Ganges Association Website has a timeline of the activities of the Ganges. GANGES Museum Houses memorabilia from the old shore establishment
37.
Robert FitzRoy
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Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy RN was an English officer of the Royal Navy and a scientist. He achieved lasting fame as the captain of HMS Beagle during Charles Darwins famous voyage, FitzRoys second expedition to Tierra del Fuego, FitzRoy was a pioneering meteorologist who made accurate daily weather predictions, which he called by a new name of his own invention, forecasts. In 1854 he established what would later be called the Met Office and he was an able surveyor and hydrographer. As Governor of New Zealand, serving from 1843 to 1845, Robert FitzRoy was born at Ampton Hall, Ampton, Suffolk, England, into the upper echelons of the British aristocracy and a tradition of public service. Through his father, General Lord Charles FitzRoy, Robert was a fourth great-grandson of Charles II of England, his grandfather was Augustus Henry FitzRoy. His mother, Lady Frances Stewart, was the daughter of the first Marquess of Londonderry and the half-sister of Viscount Castlereagh, from the age of four, Robert FitzRoy lived with his family at Wakefield Lodge, their Palladian mansion in Northamptonshire. Roberts half-brother Sir Charles FitzRoy later served as Governor of New South Wales, Governor of Prince Edward Island, in February 1818 at the age of 12, FitzRoy entered the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and in the following year he entered the Royal Navy. At the age of 14, he embarked as a voluntary student aboard the frigate HMS Owen Glendower, which sailed to South America in the middle of 1820 and he was promoted to midshipman while on the vessel. FitzRoy served on HMS Hind as a midshipman and he completed his course with distinction and was promoted lieutenant on 7 September 1824, having passed the examination with full numbers, the first to achieve this result. After serving on HMS Thetis, in 1828 he was appointed lieutenant to Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Waller Otway, commander-in-chief of the South American station. At that time Beagle, under Captain Pringle Stokes, was carrying out a survey of Tierra del Fuego. Pringle Stokes became severely depressed and fatally shot himself, under Lieutenant Skyring, the ship sailed to Rio de Janeiro, where Otway appointed FitzRoy as captain of the Beagle on 15 December 1828. By the ships return to England on 14 October 1830, FitzRoy had established his reputation as a surveyor, during the survey, some of his men were camping onshore when a group of Fuegian natives made off with their boat. His ship gave chase and, after a scuffle, the families were brought on board as hostages. Eventually FitzRoy held two boys, a girl and two men As it was not possible to put them ashore conveniently, he decided to civilise the savages, and the use of common tools before returning them as missionaries. The sailors gave them names, the girl was called Fuegia Basket, the boy Jemmy Button, the second boy was called Boat Memory. FitzRoy brought the four back with the ship to England, Boat Memory died following a smallpox vaccination. In early May 1831 FitzRoy stood as Tory candidate for Ipswich in the General Election and his hopes of obtaining a new posting and organising a missionary project to Tierra del Fuego appeared to be failing
38.
Fuegians
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Fuegians are one of the three tribes of indigenous inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, at the southern tip of South America. In English, the originally referred to the Yaghan people of Tierra del Fuego. In Spanish, the term fueguino can refer to any person from the archipelago, the indigenous Fuegians belonged to several tribes including the Ona, Haush, Yaghan, and Alacaluf. All of these tribes except the Selknam lived exclusively in coastal areas, the Yaghans and the Alacaluf traveled by birchbark canoes around the islands of the archipelago, while the coast dwelling Haush did not. The Selknam lived in the interior of Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, the Ona were exclusively terrestrial hunter gathers that hunted terrestrial game such as guanacos, foxes, tuco-tucos and upland nesting birds as well as littoral fish and shellfish. In 1876 a serious smallpox epidemic decimated the Fuegians, between 1881 and 1883 the Yahgan population dropped from perhaps 3,000 to only 1,000 due to measles and smallpox. The Fuegian population was devastated by the diseases, and their numbers were reduced from several thousand in the 19th century to hundreds in the 20th century, by 1876 the British missionaries claimed to have converted the entire Yamana people. On May 11,1830 several Fuegians were transported to England by the schooner Allen Gardiner, presented to the court, the Selknam genocide was authorized and conducted by the estancieros that between 1884-1900 resulted in a severe indigenous population decline. Large companies paid sheep farmers or militia a bounty for each Selknam dead and they were given more for the death of a woman than a man. Archaeological investigations show the prevalence of maritime hunter-gatherer organization throughout the occupation of the region, although the Fuegians were all hunter-gatherers, their material culture was not homogeneous, the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, while others were land-oriented, neither was restricted to Tierra del Fuego, The coast provided fish, sea birds, otters, seals, shellfish in winter and sometimes also whales. Yaghans got their sustenance this way, most whales were stranded but some whaling occurred. Selknams lived on the plain of the big island of Tierra del Fuego. The material culture had some similarities to that of the Tehuelches living outside Tierra del Fuego in the plains of Argentina. All Fuegian tribes had a lifestyle, and lacked permanent shelters. The guanaco-hunting Selknam made their huts out of stakes, dry sticks and they broke camp and carried their things with them, and wandered following the hunting and gathering possibilities. The coastal Yamana and Alacaluf also changed their camping places, traveling by birchbark canoes, there are some correspondences or putative borrowings between the Yámana and Selknam mythologies. A Yámana myth, The egoist fox, features a hummingbird as a helper and has similarities to the Taiyin-myth of the Selknam
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Jemmy Button
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Orundellico, known as Jeremy Button or Jemmy Button, was a native Fuegian of the Yaghan people from islands around Tierra del Fuego, in modern Chile and Argentina. He was taken to England by Captain FitzRoy in HMS Beagle, in 1830, Captain Robert FitzRoy, at the command of the first expedition of the famous Beagle, took a group of hostages from the Fuegian indigenous people after one of his boats was stolen. Jemmy Button was paid for with a mother of pearl button and it is not clear whether his family willingly accepted the sale or he was simply abducted. The names given to the Fuegians by the crew were York Minster, Jemmy Button, Fuegia Basket, the original names of the first three were, respectively, elleparu, orun-dellico and yokcushly. Boat Memory died of smallpox shortly after his arrival to England, the Beagle arrived back in Plymouth from her first voyage of exploration in mid-October 1830. The newspapers soon started publishing details of the Yahgan visitors and they became celebrities, in London, they met King William IV. Fuegia Basket, a girl, was given a bonnet from Queen Adelaide herself. One year later, Captain Fitzroy returned the three surviving Fuegans home, at great expense to himself and he took with him a young naturalist, Charles Darwin, in what was the second voyage of the HMS Beagle. After initial difficulty recalling his language and customs, Jemmy soon shed his European clothes, a few months after his arrival, he was seen emaciated, naked save for a loincloth, and long-haired. Nevertheless, he declined the offer to return to England, which Darwin conjectured was due to the presence of his young and it appears that he and the others had taught their families some English. In 1855, a group of Christian missionaries from the Patagonian Missionary Society visited Wulaia Bay on Navarino Island, some time later in 1859, another group of missionaries was killed at Wulaia Bay by the Yaghan, supposedly led by Jemmy and his family. In early 1860, Jemmy visited Keppel Island and gave evidence at the enquiry into the massacre, in 1863, the missionary Waite Stirling visited Tierra del Fuego and re-established contact with Jemmy, from then relations with the Yaghan improved. In 1866, after Jemmys death, Stirling took one of Jemmys sons, known as Threeboy, creation briefly recounts the story of Jemmy and the other children. Ende, who grew up in Nazi Germany, wanted to write a story provided a contrast to Adolf Hitlers racist ideology. Endes 1960 novel became one of the most successful books in postwar Germany. Jemmy appears in Harry Thompsons debut novel This Thing of Darkness Jemmy features prominently in Notes From the Scientific Record in James Rollins tenth Sigma Force novel, a play based on Jemmys story premiered in Santiago, Chile on April 8,2010. A song entitled Jemmy Button is featured on the 2009 Darwin Song Project The Uttermost Part of the Earth by E L Bridges was republished in 2008 by Overlook Press, in Patagonia by Bruce Chatwin includes a fictionalised version of Orundellicos capture. The novel Jemmy Button by the Chilean writer Benjamin Subercaseaux was published in the 1950s and translated from Spanish by Mary, la Tierra del Fuego by Sylvia Iparraguirre is another fictionalised version of the story
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Beagle Channel
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Beagle Channel is a strait in Tierra del Fuego Archipelago on the extreme southern tip of South America partly in Chile and partly in Argentina. The channels eastern area forms part of the border between Chile and Argentina and the area is entirely within Chile. The Beagle Channel, the Straits of Magellan to the north, however, most commercial shipping uses the open-ocean Drake Passage. The Beagle Channel is about 240 kilometres long and is about 5 kilometres wide at its narrowest point and it extends from Nueva Island in the east to Darwin Sound and Cook Bay in the west. Some 50 kilometres from its end it divides into two branches, north and south of Gordon Island. The southwest branch, between Hoste Island and Gordon Island, enters Cook Bay, a bay of the Pacific Ocean, the northwest branch, between Gordon Island and Isla Grande, enters Darwin Sound, which connects to the Pacific Ocean by the OBrien Channel and the Ballenero Channel. The biggest settlement on the channel is Ushuaia in Argentina, followed by Puerto Williams in Chile, although it is navigable by large ships, there are safer waters to the south and to the north. The latter two lie at the eastern entrance to the channel while the western entrance is wholly inside Chile. The western entrance of Beagle Channel is divided by Gordon Island into two channels, some minor islands exist inside the channel among them Snipe Islet and Gable Island. Except for eastern Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego and Gable Island all islands mentioned here belong to Chile, the Yaghan peoples settled the islands along the Murray Channel approximately 10,000 years before present. There are notable archaeological sites indicating such early Yaghan settlement at locations such as Bahia Wulaia on Isla Navarino, the channel was named after the ship HMS Beagle during its first hydrographic survey of the coasts of the southern part of South America which lasted from 1826 to 1830. During that expedition, under the command of Commander Phillip Parker King. See List of incidents during the Beagle conflict, Beagle Channel is a prominent area to watch rare, endemic dolphins, and the less-studied pygmy right whales. Beagle conflict Beagle Channel cartography since 1881 C. Michael Hogan Bahia Wulaia Dome Middens, Megalithic Portal, archived from the original on 10 October 2008
41.
Sotheby's
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Sothebys /ˈsʌðəbiz/ is a British multinational corporation headquartered in New York City. One of the worlds largest brokers of fine and decorative art, jewelry, real estate, the company’s services range from corporate art services to private sales. Sothebys is the fourth oldest auction house in continuous operation. As of December 2011, the company had 1,446 employees worldwide and it is the worlds largest art business with global sales in 2011 totalling $5.8 billion. Sothebys was established on 11 March 1744 in London, the American holding company was initially incorporated in August 1983 in Michigan. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys, in July 2016, Chinese insurance giant Taikang Life became Sothebys largest shareholder. Three Swedish auction houses are older and Sothebys great rival in London and then New York. The current business dates back to 1804, when two of the partners of the business left to set up their own book dealership. After Baker’s death in 1778, his estate was divided between Leigh and John Sotheby, George Leigh died unmarried in 1816, but not before endeavouring to secure his succession by recruiting Samuel E Leigh into the business. Under the Sotheby family, the house extended its activities to auctioning prints, medals. John Wilkinson, Sothebys Senior Accountant, became the company’s new CEO, the business did not seek to auction fine arts in general until much later, their first major success in this field being the sale of a Frans Hals painting for nine thousand guineas as late as 1913. In 1917, Sothebys relocated from 13 Wellington Street to 34-35 New Bond Street and they soon came to rival Christies as leaders of the London auction market, which had become the most important for art. In 1955, Sothebys opened an office at Bowling Green, New York City, in 1964, Sothebys purchased Parke-Bernet, then the largest auctioneer of fine art in the United States. In the following year, Sothebys moved to 980 Madison Avenue, Sothebys became a U. K. public company in 1977. The auction house closed its Madison Avenue galleries at East 76th Street, the Los Angeles galleries were sold and auctions of West Coast material moved to New York. In the following year, a group of investors purchased and privatized Sothebys, Sothebys was initially incorporated as Sothebys Holdings, Inc. in Michigan in August 1983. Taubman took Sothebys public in 1988, listing the shares on the New York Stock Exchange. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys shortly after, with private transactions constituting an essential and increasingly profitable business segment, through the years Sothebys has bought art galleries and helped dealers finance purchases
42.
Argentine Navy
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The Navy of the Argentine Republic or Argentine Navy is the navy of Argentina. It is one of the three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic, together with the Army and the Air Force, each ship of the Argentine Navy is designated with the prefix ARA before its name. The Argentine Navy day is celebrated on May 17, anniversary of the victory achieved in 1814 in the Battle of Montevideo over the Spanish fleet during the war of Independence. The Argentine Navy was created in the aftermath of the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the navy was first created to support Manuel Belgrano in the Paraguay campaign, but it was sunk by ships from Montevideo, and did not take part in that conflict. Renewed conflicts with Montevideo led to the creation of a second fleet, as Buenos Aires had little maritime history, most men in the navy were from other nations, such as the Irish-born admiral William Brown, who directed the operation. As the cost of maintaining a navy was too high, most of the Argentine naval forces were composed of privateers, Brown led the Argentine navy in further naval conflicts at the War with Brazil and the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata. In the 1870s the Argentine Navy began modernizing itself, the most powerful ships at this time included the Italian-built Garibaldi and her sister ships, General Belgrano, Pueyrredón, and San Martín, each at over 6,000 tons. Three older ironclads, Almirante Brown, Independencia, and Libertad dated from the 1880s, the navys ships were built primarily in Italy, Britain, France, and Spain and were operated by over 600 officers and 7760 seamen. These were supported by a battalion of marines and an artillery battery, Argentina remained neutral in both world wars. In 1940, Argentinas navy was ranked the eighth most powerful in the world, a ten-year building programme costing $60 million had produced a force of 14,500 sailors and over a thousand officers. A naval air force was also in operation, in the postwar period, Naval Aviation and Marine Corps units were put under direct Navy command. With Brazil, Argentina is one of two South American countries to have operated two aircraft carriers, the ARA Independencia and ARA Veinticinco de Mayo, the Navy also took part in all military coups through the 20th century. During the last dictatorship, Navy personnel were involved in the Dirty War of the late 1970s in which thousands of people were kidnapped, tortured and killed by the forces of the Military Junta, the Naval Mechanics School, known as ESMA, was a notorious centre for torture. Among their more well-known victims were the Swedish teenager Dagmar Hagelin and French nuns, Alice Domon and this fleet was supported by several ELMA tankers and transports as well as two ice breakers/polar ships. New German MEKO class destroyers, corvettes and Thyssen-Nordseewerke submarines were still under construction at the time, despite leading the invasion of the Falkland Islands, in both strategic and tactical aspects the Argentine fleet played only a small part in the subsequent conflict with the Royal Navy. The ARA San Luis submarine also played a role, nearly sinking the frigate HMS Arrow on 10 May. The submarine ARA Santa Fe, after a resupply mission, was attacked and disabled off South Georgia. She was later scuttled by the British, also, the submarine force greatly reinforced their assets with the introduction of the Thyssen-Nordseewerke class
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Tigre, Buenos Aires
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Tigre is a town in the Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, situated in the north of Greater Buenos Aires,28 km north of Buenos Aires city. Tigre lies on the Paraná Delta and is an important tourist and weekend attraction, easily reached by bus and train services and it is the principal town of the Tigre Partido. The town sits on an island created by small streams and rivers and was founded in 1820, after floods had destroyed other settlements in the area. The areas name derives from the “tigres” or jaguars that were hunted there, on occasions, in its early years. The area was first settled by Europeans who came to farm the land, Tigre is still an important timber processing port. The “Puerto de Frutos” is now a crafts fair located in the old fruit market by the riverside, the Naval Museum is also nearby. Antiques shops, riverside restaurants and pubs, the casino and Parque de la Costa, Tigre is also the starting point for a visit to the Paraná Delta. For locals and tourists alike, vintage mahogany commuter launches and motorboats are the way to travel through its web of inter-connecting rivers. Tigre has, in recent years, seen an influx of people relocating to the city from other parts of Greater Buenos Aires, in recent years it has seen a rise in upmarket tourism, spawning new spa developments and clientele such as the pop star, Madonna. The town of Tigre is served by two lines, the Mitre Line and the scenic Tren de la Costa, both terminate at walking distance from all venues. Mitre Line Retiro – Tigre The Mitre Line departs from Buenos Aires Retiro Station to Tigre Station every 10 –30 minutes. The Tren de la Costa has two types of tickets, a direct Maipú – Delta service and another allows the visitor off at various stations without paying any extra. The Tren de la Costa runs every twenty minutes daily, commuter passenger boats, water taxis and ferries provide public transport within the Tigre Delta. Villa Paranacito, Entre Ríos Paraná Delta Official Municipality web site Official travel site Victorica Promenade A Jaguars Warning
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Conrad Martens
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Conrad Martens was an English-born landscape painter active on HMS Beagle from 1833, and in Australia from 1835. Conrad Martens father was a merchant who came originally to London as Austrian Consul, like his two brothers, John William and Henry, he studied landscape painting under the prominent watercolourist Copley Fielding. In 1832 he joined the ship Hyacinth as a topographical artist, in Montevideo near the end of 1833 he met Robert FitzRoy, captain of HMS Beagle, who engaged him as a draughtsman to replace the ships artist Augustus Earle who had fallen ill. Martens left the Beagle at Valparaiso in the half of 1834 and took passage to Sydney via Tahiti. Martens was introduced to the New South Wales gentry and soon achieved success in Sydney with several commissions and he went on to become the most proficient, prominent and prolific landscape artist in the colony. The Beagle arrived in 1836, and Darwin and Captain Fitzroy commissioned a number of paintings from the Beagles voyages in Tierra Del Fuego, other large commissions followed, and in 1837 some of Martens Australian watercolours were exhibited at the Royal Society in London. In 1839, however, a drought triggered a recession which was to last until the 1850s. In the 1840s he turned to lithographs, which allowed him to sell the work many times over - his View of Sydney from the North Shore was especially popular. Conrad Martens married Jane Carter, of Welsh heritage and the child of William and Jane Carter at St James Church, Sydney. Janes father, a barrister and first Master in Chancery of the Supreme Court of NSW had purchased one of Martens paintings. In late 1851 Martens sailed to Brisbane, travelling back via road, across the Great Dividing Range to the Darling Downs, en route, he lodged with squatters and pastoralists, drawing their houses and properties, and hoping for commissions. The plan succeeded, and Martens was eventually commissioned to paint over seventy watercolours and he exhibited at the Victorian Fine Arts Society in Melbourne in 1853, and at the Paris Universal Exhibition in 1855. Eventual improvement in the Australian economy in the later 1850s led to an increase in significant commissions, a famous painting is North Head, Sydney Harbour. In 1862 he received a message from Darwin, and replied congratulating him on the success of The Origin of Species and he sent Darwin a watercolour of Brisbane River and exhibited at the International Exhibition in London. In 1863 he became Assistant Librarian in the Parliamentary Library, securing his financial position, nevertheless, he exhibited at the Paris International Exhibition in 1867. From the later 1860s Martens suffered from angina, and he died from an attack on 21 August 1878. He is buried at St Thomas cemetery, North Sydney, visual arts of Australia Richard Keynes. Fossils, Finches and Fuegians, Charles Darwins Adventures and Discoveries on the Beagle and this book contains several reproductions of Martens work
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Ship commissioning
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Ship commissioning is the act or ceremony of placing a ship in active service, and may be regarded as a particular application of the general concepts and practices of project commissioning. The term is most commonly applied to the placing of a warship in active duty with its countrys military forces, the ceremonies involved are often rooted in centuries old naval tradition. Ship naming and launching endow a ship hull with her identity, the engineering plant, weapon and electronic systems, galley, and multitudinous other equipment required to transform the new hull into an operating and habitable warship are installed and tested. The prospective commanding officer, ships officers, the petty officers, prior to commissioning, the new ship undergoes sea trials to identify any deficiencies needing correction. USS Monitor, of American Civil War fame, was commissioned less than three weeks after launch, regardless of the type of ship in question, a vessels journey towards commissioning in its nations navy begins with process known as sea trials. Sea trials begin when the ship in question is floated out of its dry dock, after a ship has successfully cleared its sea trial period, it will officially be accepted into service with its nations navy. At this point, the ship in question will undergo a process of degaussing and/or deperming, once a ships sea trials are successfully completed plans for the actual commissioning ceremony will take shape. If the ships ceremony is an affair the Captain may make a speech to the audience. Religious ceremonies, such as blessing the ship or the singing of hymns or songs. Once a ship has been commissioned its final step toward becoming a unit of the navy it now serves is to report to its home port. To decommission a ship is to terminate its career in service in the forces of a nation. Decommissioning of the vessel may also occur due to treaty agreements or for safety reasons, vessels preserved in this manner typically do not relinquish their names to other, more modern ships that may be in the design, planning, or construction phase of the parent nations navy. Prior to its decommissioning, the ship in question will begin the process of decommissioning by going through a preliminary step called inactivation or deactivation. The removed material from a ship usually ends up either rotating to another ship in the class with similar weapons and/or capabilities, or in storage pending a decision on equipments fate. During this time a crew may be thinned out via transfers. When a ship finishes its inactivation, it is then formally decommissioned, often, but not always, ships that are decommissioned end up spending the next few years in a reserve fleet before their ultimate fate is decided. Commissioning in the early United States Navy under sail was attended by no ceremony, thus, the ship was placed in commission. Commissionings were not public affairs, and unlike christening-and-launching ceremonies, were not recorded by newspapers, the first specific reference to commissioning located in naval records is a letter of November 6,1863, from Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles to all navy yards and stations
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John Clements Wickham
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John Clements Wickham was a Scottish explorer, naval officer, magistrate and administrator. He was first officer on HMS Beagle during its second mission, 1831–1836. The young naturalist and geologist Charles Darwin was a supernumerary on the ship, in 1843, after his retirement from the Royal Navy, Wickham was made Police Magistrate and, later, Government Resident of the Moreton Bay District, in the Colony of New South Wales. Wickham retired in 1859, when the Moreton Bay District was separated from NSW, when the Queensland and NSW governments disagreed over which was responsible for his pension, Wickham moved to France, where he died. The origins of the Wickham family were Rowley, a Yorkshire village which later became depopulated, thomas married Sarah and their fifth son, Samuel Wickham, was born in 1664, he later settled in Rhode Island and became a Freeman of that Colony and a Deputy. Samuel Wickham married Barbara Holken in 1691 and their fifth son, Benjamin was chosen by the Rhode Island colonial Assembly in 1756 to be Lieutenant-Colonel of a Regiment raised for the second expedition against Crown Point. In 1757, a deputy for Newport he became Speaker of the House of Deputies, Benjamin married Mary, daughter of Colonel John Gardner in 1743 and Samuel Wickham, their sixth and youngest son, was born at Newport, Rhode Island in 1758. This Samuel rose to the rank of Lieutenant in the Royal Navy and he fought on the British side in the War of Independence after which he left America and settled in Scotland. On 16 June 1795 he married Ellen Susan Naylor at Gibraltar, John Clements Wickham was born to them on 21 November 1798 at Leith in Scotland. On 21 February 1812 John Clements Wickham joined the Royal Navy, by 1815 he was an Admiralty Midshipman and was posted to HMS Nightingale and in 1818 was posted to HMS Hyperion before being paid off. He passed his Lieutenants examination in 1819, in 1825 he was appointed Second-Lieutenant on the British warship Adventure under the command of Phillip Parker King, son of Philip Gidley King, third Governor of New South Wales. The Adventure and the Beagle were ordered to survey the coasts of the part of South America, including Patagonia. Wickham and King were lifelong friends and brothers-in-law as they married sisters and this would be the most famous voyage of the Beagle, with naturalist Charles Darwin, and artists Augustus Earle and Conrad Martens also on board. It then returned, via Saint Helena, Ascension Island, Bahia, from 1837 to 1841, the Beagle charting the coasts of north western Australia and Arnhem Land. In 1839, Stokes sighted a natural harbour which Wickham named Port Darwin after their former shipmate, in 1841, Wickham fell ill and resigned his command which was taken over by Stokes, who continued the survey and completed the voyage in 1843. Darwin also took a Galápagos tortoise named Harriet which he gave to Wickham, the tortoise gained fame for her longevity, living 175 years until 2006. Wickham became the magistrate at the Moreton Bay District of New South Wales. From 1853 he was Government Resident of the Moreton Bay District and resided at Newstead House, in 1859, Wickham moved to the south of France, where he lived until his death in 1864
United Kingdom
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