1.
Hewlett-Packard
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The Hewlett-Packard Company or shortened to Hewlett-Packard was an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Palo Alto, California. The company was founded in a garage in Palo Alto by William Bill Redington Hewlett and David Dave Packard. HP was the worlds leading PC manufacturer from 2007 to Q22013 and it specialized in developing and manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. HP also had services and consulting business around its products and partner products.4 billion in 2008, in November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of 3Com, with the deal closing on April 12,2010. On April 28,2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, on September 2,2010, HP won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share offer, which Dell declined to match. On October 6,2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise products, the split closed on November 1,2015, and resulted in two publicly traded companies, HP Inc. and Hewlett Packard Enterprise. William Redington Hewlett and David Packard graduated with degrees in engineering from Stanford University in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Terman was considered a mentor to them in forming Hewlett-Packard. In 1939, Packard and Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard in Packards garage with a capital investment of US$538. Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett, HP incorporated on August 18,1947, and went public on November 6,1957. Of the many projects they worked on, their very first financially successful product was an audio oscillator. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200, the Model 200 series of generators continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube-based but improved in design through the years. They worked on technology and artillery shell fuses during World War II. Hewlett-Packards HP Associates division, established around 1960, developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use, instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices. HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa Electric companies in Japan to develop several high-quality products, the products were not a huge success, as there were high costs in building HP-looking products in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venture in 1963 to market HP products in Japan, HP bought Yokogawa Electrics share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999. HP spun off a company, Dynac, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo hp could be turned upside down to be a reverse image of the logo dy of the new company
2.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
3.
MS-DOS 5.0
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MS-DOS is a discontinued operating system for x86-based personal computers mostly developed by Microsoft. MS-DOS resulted from a request in 1981 by IBM for a system to use in its IBM PC range of personal computers. Microsoft quickly bought the rights to 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, IBM licensed and released it in August 1981 as PC DOS1.0 for use in their PCs. During its life, several competing products were released for the x86 platform and it was also the underlying basic operating system on which early versions of Windows ran as a GUI. It is a operating system, and consumes negligible installation space. MS-DOS was a form of 86-DOS – owned by Seattle Computer Products. This first version was shipped in August 1980, Microsoft, which needed an operating system for the IBM Personal Computer hired Tim Paterson in May 1981 and bought 86-DOS1.10 for $75,000 in July of the same year. Microsoft kept the number, but renamed it MS-DOS. They also licensed MS-DOS1. 10/1.14 to IBM, within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies. It was designed to be an OS that could run on any 8086-family computer, thus, there were many different versions of MS-DOS for different hardware, and there is a major distinction between an IBM-compatible machine and an MS-DOS machine. This design would have worked well for compatibility, if application programs had only used MS-DOS services to perform device I/O, Microsoft omitted multi-user support from MS-DOS because Microsofts Unix-based operating system, Xenix, was fully multi-user. After the breakup of the Bell System, however, AT&T Computer Systems started selling UNIX System V, believing that it could not compete with AT&T in the Unix market, Microsoft abandoned Xenix, and in 1987 transferred ownership of Xenix to the Santa Cruz Operation. On 25 March 2014, Microsoft made the code to SCP MS-DOS1.25, as an April Fools joke in 2015, Microsoft Mobile launched a Windows Phone application called MS-DOS Mobile which was presented as a new mobile operating system and worked similar to MS-DOS. Version 3.1 – Support for Microsoft Networks Version 3.2 – First version to support 3.5 inch,720 kB floppy drives and diskettes. Version 3.21 Version 3.22 – Version 3.25 Version 3.3 – First version to support 3.5 inch,1.44 MB floppy drives and diskettes, Version 3. 3a Version 3.31 – supports FAT16B and larger drives. MS-DOS4.0 and MS-DOS4.1 – A separate branch of development with additional multitasking features and it is unrelated to any later versions, including versions 4.00 and 4.01 listed below MS-DOS4. x – includes a graphical/mouse interface. It had many bugs and compatibility issues. Version 4.00 – First version to support a hard disk partition that is greater than 32 MiB. Version 4.01 – Microsoft rewritten Version 4.00 released under MS-DOS label, First version to introduce volume serial number when formatting hard disks and floppy disks
4.
Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
5.
Intel 80186
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The Intel 80186, also known as the iAPX186, or just 186, is a microprocessor and microcontroller introduced in 1982. It was based on the Intel 8086 and, like it, had a 16-bit external data bus multiplexed with a 20-bit address bus and it was also available as the 80188, with an 8-bit external data bus. The 80186 series was intended for embedded systems, as microcontrollers with external memory. For instance, the common register+immediate addressing mode was significantly faster than on the 8086, multiply and divide also showed great improvement being several times as fast as on the original 8086 and multi-bit shifts were done almost four times as quickly as in the 8086. A few new instructions were introduced with the 80186, enter/leave, pusha/popa, bound, a useful immediate mode was added for the push, imul, and multi-bit shift instructions. These instructions were included in the contemporary 80286 and in successor chips. The CMOS version, 80C186, introduced DRAM refresh, a mode. The 80186 would have been a successor to the 8086 in personal computers. However, because its hardware was incompatible with the hardware used in the original IBM PC. Acorn created a plug-in for the BBC Master range of computers containing an 80186-10 with 512 KB of RAM and it was intended for use with the original 8088-based IBM PC. The Intel 80186 is intended to be embedded in devices that are not primarily computers. For example, its offshoot, Intel 80188 was embedded inside the Intel 14. 4EX modem released in 1991, the 16 MHz processor was used to perform complex algorithms needed for forward error correction, Trellis coded modulation, and echo cancellation in the modem. In May 2006, Intel announced that production of the 186 would cease at the end of September 2007, pin- and instruction-compatible replacements might still be manufactured by various third party sources.3 or later. Intel Datasheet Scan of the Intel 80186 data book at datasheetarchive. com Intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection. de Chipdb. org
6.
HP 200LX
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The HP 200LX Palmtop PC, also known as project Felix, is a personal digital assistant introduced by Hewlett-Packard in August 1994. Input is accomplished via a small QWERTY-keyboard with a keypad, enclosed in a clamshell-style case. The palmtop runs for about 30–40 hours on two size AA alkaline or Ni-Cd rechargeable cells and can charge batteries via a 12V DC wall adapter, after-market updates can bring the memory chips to up to 64 MB, which frees the PCMCIA slot for modem or ethernet card use. The Silicom, Accton 2212/2216, Netgear FA411, and Sohoware ND5120 network cards were compatible, being IBM PC/XT compatible and running MS-DOS5. It can also run programs written for the 80286 CPU, provided they do not require the use of protected mode and it has a 16-bit PCMCIA Type II expansion slot that supports 5 V at 150 mA maximum, a SIR compatible infrared port and a full serial port. The built-in software suite runs from ROM and includes the Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.4 spreadsheet, a calendar, a book, a terminal, Lotus cc, Mail. With a large compactflash storage card and a mouse, even Microsoft Windows 3.0 can be run on the palmtop. Running Windows was limited by the hardware, and the version that could be run was Windows 3.0. However, Word 1. x and Excel 2. x for Windows would run, the 640×200 resolution CGA compatible 4-shade gray-scale LCD screen has no back light. While true CGA displays do not allow for redefinable fonts in text mode and supports a hardware code page 437, starting with the HP 100LX the LX series even supports user-switchable text mode ROM fonts for both code page 437 and 850 as well as software-definable RAM fonts. Lotus 1-2-3 internally uses the Lotus International Character Set, but characters are translated to code page 850 for display, the HP 100LX Palmtop PC, also known as project Cougar, is the direct predecessor of the 200LX. It was released in 1993 and available in International English, U. S. English, French, German and Spanish variants with localized keyboard and it is almost the same, including the Hornet CPU and MS-DOS5.0, but with earlier built-in application versions. The HP Palmtop FX is a variant of the HP 100LX with up to 2 MB flashable memory in 1993, FAT flash disk images could be created and written to drive F, by a special FLASHDSK. EXE utility. According to one source, it was developed for a Korean insurance company, the HP 200LX AIA was a 2 MB double-speed variant of the HP 200LX manufactured for the insurance company American International Assurance. The HP 1000CX Palmtop PC, also known as project Puma, is a version of the 200LX with its Hornet CPU. It was in use among, for example, Coca-Cola warehouse managers. It has a clamshell, while the 200LX has a dark green casing. The HP OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus, codenamed Columbia, was a project of the HP calculator branch in Singapore, the HP OmniGo 700LX is essentially a 2 MB HP 200LX including its Hornet CPU redesigned to piggyback a Nokia 2110 GSM mobile telephone for wireless mobility
7.
Button cell
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A watch battery or button cell is a small single cell battery shaped as a squat cylinder typically 5 to 25 mm in diameter and 1 to 6 mm high—like a button on a garment, hence the name. A metal can forms the body and positive terminal of the cell. The insulated top cap is the negative terminal, wider variants are usually called coin cells. Devices using button cells are designed to use a cell giving a long service life. Most button cells have low self-discharge and hold their charge for a time if not used. Button cells are cells, usually disposable primary cells. Common anode materials are zinc or lithium, common cathode materials are manganese dioxide, silver oxide, carbon monofluoride, cupric oxide or oxygen from the air. Mercuric oxide button cells were formerly common, but are no longer due to the toxicity. Cells of different chemical composition made in the size are mechanically interchangeable. However, the composition can affect life and voltage stability. Using the wrong cell may lead to life or improper operation. Button cells are very dangerous for small children, Button cells that are swallowed can cause severe internal burns and significant injury or death. Alkaline batteries are made in the same sizes as the other types. They are often sold as cheap watch batteries, and by people who do not know the difference, silver cells may have very stable output voltage until it suddenly drops very rapidly at end of life. Mercury batteries also supply a stable voltage, but are now banned in countries due to their toxicity. Zinc-air batteries use air as the depolarizer and have higher capacity than other types. Cell have seals against air which must be removed before use, cells will then self-discharge in a few weeks, regardless of use. If some device seems to eat up batteries after the original supplied by the manufacturer is replaced, it may be useful to check the devices requirements, discussions on web forums suggest that they can be very poor
8.
Personal digital assistant
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A personal digital assistant, also known as a handheld PC, or personal data assistant, is a mobile device that functions as a personal information manager. PDAs were largely discontinued in the early 2010s after the adoption of highly capable smartphones, in particular those based on iOS. Nearly all PDAs have the ability to connect to the Internet, a PDA has an electronic visual display, letting it include a web browser. All models also have audio capabilities, allowing usage as a media player. Most PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi or Wireless Wide Area Networks, the first PDA was released in 1984 by Psion, the Organizer, followed by Psions Series 3, in 1991. The latter began to resemble the more familiar PDA style, including a full keyboard, the term PDA was first used on January 7,1992 by Apple Computer CEO John Sculley at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada, referring to the Apple Newton. In 1994, IBM introduced the first PDA with full mobile phone functionality, the IBM Simon, then in 1996, Nokia introduced a PDA with full mobile phone functionality, the 9000 Communicator, which became the worlds best-selling PDA. The Communicator spawned a new category of PDAs, the PDA phone, another early entrant in this market was Palm, with a line of PDA products which began in March 1996. A typical PDA has a touchscreen for entering data, a card slot for data storage. PDAs with wireless data connections also typically include an email client, many of the original PDAs, such as the Apple Newton and Palm Pilot, featured a touchscreen for user interaction, having only a few buttons—usually reserved for shortcuts to often-used programs. Some touchscreen PDAs, including Windows Mobile devices, had a stylus to facilitate making selections. The user interacts with the device by tapping the screen to select buttons or issue commands, typical methods of entering text on touchscreen PDAs include, A virtual keyboard, where a keyboard is shown on the touchscreen. Text is entered by tapping the on-screen keyboard with a finger or stylus, an external keyboard connected via USB, Infrared port, or Bluetooth. Some users may choose a chorded keyboard for one-handed use, handwriting recognition, where letters or words are written on the touchscreen, often with a stylus, and the PDA converts the input to text. Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas, such as 1 +2 =, stroke recognition allows the user to make a predefined set of strokes on the touchscreen, sometimes in a special input area, representing the various characters to be input. The strokes are often simplified character shapes, making them easier for the device to recognize, one widely known stroke recognition system is Palms Graffiti. Despite research and development projects, end-users experience mixed results with handwriting recognition systems, some find it frustrating and inaccurate, while others are satisfied with the quality of the recognition. Touchscreen PDAs intended for use, such as the BlackBerry and Palm Treo, usually also offer full keyboards and scroll wheels or thumbwheels to facilitate data entry
9.
MS-DOS
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MS-DOS is a discontinued operating system for x86-based personal computers mostly developed by Microsoft. MS-DOS resulted from a request in 1981 by IBM for a system to use in its IBM PC range of personal computers. Microsoft quickly bought the rights to 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, IBM licensed and released it in August 1981 as PC DOS1.0 for use in their PCs. During its life, several competing products were released for the x86 platform and it was also the underlying basic operating system on which early versions of Windows ran as a GUI. It is a operating system, and consumes negligible installation space. MS-DOS was a form of 86-DOS – owned by Seattle Computer Products. This first version was shipped in August 1980, Microsoft, which needed an operating system for the IBM Personal Computer hired Tim Paterson in May 1981 and bought 86-DOS1.10 for $75,000 in July of the same year. Microsoft kept the number, but renamed it MS-DOS. They also licensed MS-DOS1. 10/1.14 to IBM, within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other companies. It was designed to be an OS that could run on any 8086-family computer, thus, there were many different versions of MS-DOS for different hardware, and there is a major distinction between an IBM-compatible machine and an MS-DOS machine. This design would have worked well for compatibility, if application programs had only used MS-DOS services to perform device I/O, Microsoft omitted multi-user support from MS-DOS because Microsofts Unix-based operating system, Xenix, was fully multi-user. After the breakup of the Bell System, however, AT&T Computer Systems started selling UNIX System V, believing that it could not compete with AT&T in the Unix market, Microsoft abandoned Xenix, and in 1987 transferred ownership of Xenix to the Santa Cruz Operation. On 25 March 2014, Microsoft made the code to SCP MS-DOS1.25, as an April Fools joke in 2015, Microsoft Mobile launched a Windows Phone application called MS-DOS Mobile which was presented as a new mobile operating system and worked similar to MS-DOS. Version 3.1 – Support for Microsoft Networks Version 3.2 – First version to support 3.5 inch,720 kB floppy drives and diskettes. Version 3.21 Version 3.22 – Version 3.25 Version 3.3 – First version to support 3.5 inch,1.44 MB floppy drives and diskettes, Version 3. 3a Version 3.31 – supports FAT16B and larger drives. MS-DOS4.0 and MS-DOS4.1 – A separate branch of development with additional multitasking features and it is unrelated to any later versions, including versions 4.00 and 4.01 listed below MS-DOS4. x – includes a graphical/mouse interface. It had many bugs and compatibility issues. Version 4.00 – First version to support a hard disk partition that is greater than 32 MiB. Version 4.01 – Microsoft rewritten Version 4.00 released under MS-DOS label, First version to introduce volume serial number when formatting hard disks and floppy disks
10.
QWERTY
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QWERTY is a keyboard layout for Latin script. The name comes from the order of the first six keys on the top left letter row of the keyboard, the QWERTY design is based on a layout created for the Sholes and Glidden typewriter and sold to Remington in 1873. It became popular with the success of the Remington No, the QWERTY layout was devised and created in the early 1870s by Christopher Latham Sholes, a newspaper editor and printer who lived in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In October 1867, Sholes filed a patent application for his writing machine he developed with the assistance of his friends Carlos Glidden. Firstly, characters were mounted on arms or typebars, which would clash. Secondly, its point was located beneath the paper carriage, invisible to the operator. Consequently, jams were especially serious, because the typist could only discover the mishap by raising the carriage to inspect what had been typed, the solution was to place commonly used letter-pairs so that their typebars were not neighboring, avoiding jams. Sholes struggled for the five years to perfect his invention. The study of bigram frequency by educator Amos Densmore, brother of the financial backer James Densmore, is believed to have influenced the arrangement of letters, others suggest instead that the letter arrangement evolved from telegraph operators feedback. In November 1868 he changed the arrangement of the half of the alphabet, O to Z. These adjustments included placing the R key in the previously allotted to the period key. Apocryphal claims that change was made to let salesmen impress customers by pecking out the brand name TYPE WRITER QUOTE from one keyboard row are not formally substantiated. Vestiges of the original layout remained in the home row sequence DFGHJKL. The modern layout is, The QWERTY layout became popular with the success of the Remington No.2 of 1878, the first typewriter to include both upper and lower case letters, using a shift key. 0 and 1 were omitted to simplify the design and reduce the manufacturing and maintenance costs, they were chosen specifically because they were redundant and could be recreated using other keys. Typists who learned on these machines learned the habit of using the uppercase letter I for the one. In early designs, some characters were produced by printing two symbols with the carriage in the same position. For instance, the point, which shares a key with the numeral 1 on modern keyboards, could be reproduced by using a three-stroke combination of an apostrophe, a backspace
11.
Flip (form)
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The flip or clamshell is a mobile phone form factor feature phone which is in two or more sections that fold via a hinge. If the hinge is on an edge the device is more likely to be called clamshell than flip phone. When the clamshell is open, the device is up and ready to be used, the interface components are kept inside the clamshell, which offers more surface area than when the device is closed. Interface components such as keys and display are protected when the clamshell is closed, a disadvantage of the clamshell design is the connecting hinge, which is prone to fatigue or failure. The design is used on some landline phones, particularly cordless phones. The form factor was first used by the laptop manufacturer GRiD for their Compass model in 1982, in 1983, the Ampere WS-1 laptop used a modern clamshell design. The first Motorola model to support the design was the MicroTAC, created in 1989, although General Telephone & Electronics held the trademark from the 1970s for its Flip-Phone. The design has since copied by virtually all mobile phone manufacturers many times. Motorola is best known for its clamshell models such as the RAZR, the clamshell design has also been used in the Nokia Communicator series, with the first model released in 1996. Early models were very expensive and Nokia did not adopt the traditional clamshell phone design until 2004, late 2014 saw a return of flip phones thanks to celebrities like Rihanna, Kate Beckinsale and Anna Wintour. Reasons for their return was for their nature, being lightweight. Cellular phones are the most popular use of the form factor. The design is used on some landline phones, particularly cordless phones. Bookbinders build archival clamshell boxes called Solander cases, in which valuable books or loose papers can be protected from light, Communicator, the fictional forerunner of the flip form cellphone Mobile phone form factors
12.
Laptop
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Laptops are folded shut for transportation, and thus are suitable for mobile use. Although originally there was a distinction between laptops and notebooks, the former being bigger and heavier than the latter, as of 2014, there is often no longer any difference. Laptops are commonly used in a variety of settings, such as at work, in education, Internet surfing using sites such as YouTube and for personal multimedia, most 2016-era laptops also have integrated webcams and built-in microphones. Laptops can be powered either from a battery or by an external power supply from an AC adapter. Hardware specifications, such as the speed and memory capacity. Design elements, form factor, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on intended use, as portable computers evolved into the modern laptop, they became widely used for a variety of purposes. The terms laptop and notebook are used interchangeably to describe a computer in English. Regardless of the etymology, by the late 1990s, the terms were interchangeable, as the personal computer became feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable personal computer soon followed. A personal, portable information manipulator was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968, the IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor, the IBM5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype. As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly, the Osborne 1, released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.6 pounds. It had no battery, a 5 in CRT screen, in the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20, was announced. The Epson had an LCD screen, a battery. Both Tandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period, the first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85, the US$8,150 GRiD Compass 1101, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among others. The Sharp PC-5000, Ampere and Gavilan SC released in 1983, the Gavilan SC was the first computer described as a laptop by its manufacturer, while the Ampere had a modern clamshell design. The Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only among PC experts but the market as a way to have PC portability. From 1983 onward, several new techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad, the pointing stick
13.
AA battery
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The AA battery—also called a double A or Mignon battery—is a standard size single cell cylindrical dry battery. The IEC60086 system calls it size R6, and ANSIC18 calls it size 15, historically, it is known as HP7 in official documentation the United Kingdom, though it is colloquially known as a double A battery. AA batteries are common in electronic devices. An AA battery is composed of an electrochemical cell that may be either a primary battery or a rechargeable battery. The exact terminal voltage and capacity of an AA size battery depends on cell chemistry, however, ANSI and IEC Battery nomenclature gives several designations for cells in this size, depending on cell features and chemistry. An AA cell measures 49. 2–50.5 mm in length, alkaline AA cells have a weight of roughly 23 g, lithium AA cells have a mass around 15 g, and rechargeable Ni-MH cells around 31 g. Primary zinc–carbon AA batteries have around 400–900 milliamp-hours capacity, with measured capacity highly dependent on test conditions, duty cycle, zinc–carbon batteries are usually marketed as general purpose batteries. Zinc-chloride batteries store around 1000 to 1500 mAh are often sold as heavy duty or super heavy duty, alkaline batteries from 1700 mAh to 3000 mAh cost more than zinc-chloride batteries, but last proportionally longer. Lithium iron disulfide batteries are intended for use in equipment compatible with alkaline zinc batteries, a fresh alkaline zinc battery can have an open-circuit voltage of 1.6 volts, but an iron-disulfide battery with an open-circuit voltage below 1.7 volts is entirely discharged. Lithium ion chemistry has a voltage of 3. 6-3.7 volts. Nickel-zinc cell AAs are also available, but not widely used, in 2011, AA cells accounted for approximately 60% of alkaline battery sales in the United States. In Japan, 58% of alkaline batteries sold were AA, known in country as tansan. In Switzerland, AA batteries totaled 55% in both primary and secondary battery sales, list of battery sizes Battery nomenclature Datasheet for Energizer alkaline AA battery Datasheet for Energizer lithium AA battery Datasheet for Duracell alkaline AA battery
14.
Hertz
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The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion. Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i. e. 1/second or s −1. In English, hertz is also used as the plural form, as an SI unit, Hz can be prefixed, commonly used multiples are kHz, MHz, GHz and THz. One hertz simply means one cycle per second,100 Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels. Whereas 1 Hz is 1 cycle per second,1 Bq is 1 aperiodic radionuclide event per second, the conversion between a frequency f measured in hertz and an angular velocity ω measured in radians per second is ω =2 π f and f = ω2 π. This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, the hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the 1970s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc. Mc. etc. units, sound is a traveling longitudinal wave which is an oscillation of pressure. Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond. Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz
15.
Overclocking
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Commonly operating voltage is also increased to maintain a components operational stability at accelerated speeds. However semiconductor devices operated at a higher frequencies and voltages generate additional heat, so most overclocking attempts increase power consumption, an overclocked device may be unreliable or fail completely if the additional heat load is not removed or power delivery components cannot meet increased power demands. Many device warranties state that overclocking and/or over-specification voids any warranty, the purpose of overclocking is to gain additional performance from a given component by increasing its operating speed. The trade-offs are an increase in consumption and fan noise for the targeted components. Most components are designed with a margin of safety to deal with operating conditions outside of a control, examples are ambient temperature. Past this speed the device starts giving incorrect results, which can cause malfunctions, at this point an increase in operating voltage of a part may allow more headroom for further increases in clock speed, but increased voltage can also significantly increase heat output. Overzealous use of voltage and/or inadequate cooling can rapidly degrade a devices performance to the point of failure, conversely, the primary goal of underclocking is to reduce power consumption and the resultant heat generation of a device, with the trade-offs being lower clock speeds and reductions in performance. Underclocking is almost always involved in the stages of Undervolting which seeks to find the highest clock speed that a processor will stably operate at a given voltage. A given device may operate correctly at its stock speed even when undervolted, a lower bound is where the device itself fails to function and/or the supporting circuity cannot reliably communicate with the part. Underclocking and undervolting are usually attempted if a system needs to operate silently, overclocking has become more accessible with motherboard makers offering overclocking as a marketing feature on their mainstream product lines. However, the practice is embraced more by enthusiasts than professional users, as overclocking carries a risk of reduced reliability, accuracy and damage to data and equipment. Additionally it is important to note that most manufacturer warranties and service agreements do not cover overclocked components nor any incidental damage caused by their use, overclocking offers several draws for overclocking enthusiasts. Overclocking allows testing of components at speeds not currently offered by the manufacturer, a general trend in the computing industry is that new technologies tend to debut in the high-end market first, then later trickle down to the performance and mainstream market. If the high-end part only differs by a clock speed. Others will purchase a lower-cost model of a component in a product line. Technically any component that uses a timer to synchronize its internal operations can be overclocked, most efforts for computer components however focus on specific components such as processors, video cards, motherboard chipsets, and RAM. Most modern processors derive their effective operating speeds by multiplying a base clock by an internal multiplier within the processor to attain their final speed. Some systems allow additional tuning of other clocks that influence the bus clock speed that, a practical consideration if a component can be overclocked is if the necessary adjustments to change clock speeds are actually accessible to the user
16.
Megabyte
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The megabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. Its recommended unit symbol is MB, but sometimes MByte is used, the unit prefix mega is a multiplier of 1000000 in the International System of Units. Therefore, one megabyte is one million bytes of information and this definition has been incorporated into the International System of Quantities. However, in the computer and information fields, several other definitions are used that arose for historical reasons of convenience. A common usage has been to one megabyte as 1048576bytes. However, most standards bodies have deprecated this usage in favor of a set of binary prefixes, less common is a convention that used the megabyte to mean 1000×1024 bytes. The megabyte is commonly used to measure either 10002 bytes or 10242 bytes, the interpretation of using base 1024 originated as a compromise technical jargon for the byte multiples that needed to be expressed by the powers of 2 but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 approximates 1000, roughly corresponding to the SI prefix kilo-, in 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission proposed standards for binary prefixes requiring the use of megabyte to strictly denote 10002 bytes and mebibyte to denote 10242 bytes. By the end of 2009, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, ISO, the Mac OS X10.6 file manager is a notable example of this usage in software. Since Snow Leopard, file sizes are reported in decimal units, base 21 MB =1048576 bytes is the definition used by Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory, such as RAM. This definition is synonymous with the binary prefix mebibyte. Mixed 1 MB =1024000 bytes is the used to describe the formatted capacity of the 1.44 MB3. 5inch HD floppy disk. Semiconductor memory doubles in size for each address lane added to an integrated circuit package, the capacity of a disk drive is the product of the sector size, number of sectors per track, number of tracks per side, and the number of disk platters in the drive. Changes in any of these factors would not usually double the size, sector sizes were set as powers of two for convenience in processing. It was an extension to give the capacity of a disk drive in multiples of the sector size, giving a mix of decimal. Depending on compression methods and file format, a megabyte of data can roughly be, a 4 megapixel JPEG image with normal compression. Approximately 1 minute of 128 kbit/s MP3 compressed music,6 seconds of uncompressed CD audio. A typical English book volume in plain text format, the human genome consists of DNA representing 800 MB of data
17.
Random-access memory
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Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage which stores frequently used program instructions to increase the general speed of a system. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the location of data inside the memory. RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the lines to the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of storage is accessed by the same address, in todays technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. RAM is normally associated with types of memory, where stored information is lost if power is removed. Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow access for read operations. These include most types of ROM and a type of memory called NOR-Flash. Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the early 1970s, with the first commercially available DRAM chip, early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions. Ultrasonic delay lines could only reproduce data in the order it was written, drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data, the first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in 1947. It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube, since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access. The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was smaller, faster. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the SSEM, magnetic-core memory was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It became a form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each rings magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring, since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible. Magnetic core memory was the form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits. Data was stored in the capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away
18.
Expanded memory
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In DOS memory management, expanded memory is a system of bank switching that provided additional memory to DOS programs beyond the limit of conventional memory. Expanded memory is a term for several incompatible technology variants. EEMS, a memory management standard competing with LIM EMS3. x, was developed by AST Research, Quadram and Ashton-Tate. EEMS ultimately was incorporated in LIM EMS4.0, which supported up to 32 MB of expanded memory, IBM however created its own expanded memory standard called XMA. The 8088 processor of the IBM PC and IBM PC/XT could address one Megabyte of memory and it inherited this limit from the 20-bit external address bus of the Intel 8086. Even though the IBM PC AT, introduced in 1984, used the 80286 chip that could address up to 16 MB of RAM as extended memory, the scarcity of software compatible with the 286 protected mode, meant that the market was still open for another solution. Originally, a single 64 kB window of memory, called a frame, was possible. Programs had to be written in a way to access expanded memory. The window between lower RAM and expanded RAM could be moved around to different locations within the Expanded RAM, a first attempt to use a bank switching technique was made by Tall Tree Systems with their JRAM boards, but these did not catch on. Lotus Development, Intel, and Microsoft cooperated to develop the EMS standard, the first publicly available version of EMS, version 3.0 allowed access of up to 4 MB of expanded memory. This was increased to 8 MB with version 3.2 of the specification, the final version of EMS, version 4.0 increased the maximum amount of expanded memory to 32 MB and supported additional functionality. Microsoft thought that bank switching was a necessary, but inelegant and temporary, stopgap measure, Bill Gates said of expanded memory, the companies planned to launch the standard at the Spring 1985 COMDEX, with many expansion-card and software companies announcing their support. The first public version of the EMS standard, called EMS3.0 was released in 1985, EMS3.2 used a 64 KB region in the upper 384 KB divided into four 16 KB pages which could be used to map portions of the expanded memory. In turn, EMS3.2 was improved upon by a group of three companies, AST Research, Quadram and Ashton-Tate, which created their own Enhanced EMS standard. EEMS allowed any 16 KB region in lower RAM to be mapped to expanded memory, thus, entire programs could be switched in and out of the extra RAM. EEMS also added support for two sets of mapping registers and these features were used by early DOS multitasker software such as DESQview. Released in 1987, the LIM EMS4.0 specification incorporated practically all features of EEMS, a new feature added in LIM EMS4.0 was that EMS boards could have multiple sets of page mapping registers. This allowed a form of DOS multitasking
19.
Modem
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A modem is a network hardware device that modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is attempting to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily, modems can be used with any means of transmitting analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second. Modems can also be classified by their rate, measured in baud. The baud unit denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a new signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency shift keying with two frequencies, corresponding to two distinct symbols, to carry 300 bits per second using 300 baud. By contrast, the original ITU V.22 standard, which could transmit and receive four distinct symbols, news wire services in the 1920s used multiplex devices that satisfied the definition of a modem. However, the function was incidental to the multiplexing function, so they are not commonly included in the history of modems. S. SAGE modems were described by AT&Ts Bell Labs as conforming to their newly published Bell 101 dataset standard, while they ran on dedicated telephone lines, the devices at each end were no different from commercial acoustically coupled Bell 101,110 baud modems. The 201A and 201B Data-Phones were synchronous modems using two-bit-per-baud phase-shift keying, the famous Bell 103A dataset standard was also introduced by AT&T in 1962. It provided full-duplex service at 300 bit/s over normal phone lines, frequency-shift keying was used, with the call originator transmitting at 1,070 or 1,270 Hz and the answering modem transmitting at 2,025 or 2,225 Hz. The readily available 103A2 gave an important boost to the use of remote low-speed terminals such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR and KSR, AT&T reduced modem costs by introducing the originate-only 113D and the answer-only 113B/C modems. For many years, the Bell System maintained a monopoly on the use of its phone lines, however, the seminal Hush-a-Phone v. FCC case of 1956 concluded it was within the FCCs jurisdiction to regulate the operation of the Bell System. The FCC found that as long as a device was not electronically attached to the system and this led to a number of devices that mechanically connected to the phone through a standard handset. Since most handsets were supplied by Western Electric and thus of a standard design and this type of connection was used for many devices, such as answering machines. Acoustically coupled Bell 103A-compatible 300 bit/s modems were common during the 1970s, well-known models included the Novation CAT and the Anderson-Jacobson, the latter spun off from an in-house project at Stanford Research Institute. An even lower-cost option was the Pennywhistle modem, designed to be built using parts from electronics scrap, in December 1972, Vadic introduced the VA3400, notable for full-duplex operation at 1,200 bit/s over the phone network. Like the 103A, it used different frequency bands for transmit, in November 1976, AT&T introduced the 212A modem to compete with Vadic
20.
Ethernet
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Ethernet /ˈiːθərnɛt/ is a family of computer networking technologies commonly used in local area networks, metropolitan area networks and wide area networks. It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE802.3, over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as token ring, FDDI and ARCNET. The original 10BASE5 Ethernet uses coaxial cable as a medium, while the newer Ethernet variants use twisted pair. Over the course of its history, Ethernet data transfer rates have increased from the original 2.94 megabits per second to the latest 100 gigabits per second. The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layer in use with Ethernet, systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called frames. As per the OSI model, Ethernet provides services up to, since its commercial release, Ethernet has retained a good degree of backward compatibility. Features such as the 48-bit MAC address and Ethernet frame format have influenced other networking protocols, the primary alternative for some uses of contemporary LANs is Wi-Fi, a wireless protocol standardized as IEEE802.11. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973 and 1974 and it was inspired by ALOHAnet, which Robert Metcalfe had studied as part of his PhD dissertation. In 1975, Xerox filed a patent application listing Metcalfe, David Boggs, Chuck Thacker, in 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper. Metcalfe left Xerox in June 1979 to form 3Com and he convinced Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel, and Xerox to work together to promote Ethernet as a standard. The so-called DIX standard, for Digital/Intel/Xerox, specified 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, with 48-bit destination and source addresses and it was published on September 30,1980 as The Ethernet, A Local Area Network. Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specifications, version 2 was published in November,1982 and defines what has become known as Ethernet II. Formal standardization efforts proceeded at the time and resulted in the publication of IEEE802.3 on June 23,1983. Ethernet initially competed with two largely proprietary systems, Token Ring and Token Bus, in the process, 3Com became a major company. 3Com shipped its first 10 Mbit/s Ethernet 3C100 NIC in March 1981, an Ethernet adapter card for the IBM PC was released in 1982, and, by 1985, 3Com had sold 100,000. Parallel port based Ethernet adapters were produced for a time, with drivers for DOS, by the early 1990s, Ethernet became so prevalent that it was a must-have feature for modern computers, and Ethernet ports began to appear on some PCs and most workstations. This process was sped up with the introduction of 10BASE-T and its relatively small modular connector. Since then, Ethernet technology has evolved to meet new bandwidth, in addition to computers, Ethernet is now used to interconnect appliances and other personal devices
21.
IBM Personal Computer
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The IBM Personal Computer, commonly known as the IBM PC, is the original version and progenitor of the IBM PC compatible hardware platform. It is IBM model number 5150, and was introduced on August 12,1981 and it was created by a team of engineers and designers under the direction of Don Estridge of the IBM Entry Systems Division in Boca Raton, Florida. IBM compatible became an important criterion for sales growth, only the Apple Macintosh family kept significant market share without compatibility with the IBM personal computer, International Business Machines, one of the worlds largest companies, had a 62% share of the mainframe computer market in 1981. Its share of the computer market, however, had declined from 60% in 1970 to 32% in 1980. In 1979 BusinessWeek asked, Is IBM just another stodgy, mature company, by 1981 its stock price had declined by 22%. IBMs earnings for the first half the year grew by 5. 3%—one third of the inflation rate—while those of minicomputer maker Digital Equipment Corporation grew by more than 35%. B. M, No longer dominates the computer business. IBM wished to avoid the outcome with the new personal computer industry, dominated by the Commodore PET, Atari 8-bit family, Apple II, Tandy Corporations TRS-80. With $150 million in sales by 1979 and projected growth of more than 40% in the early 1980s. The Japanese project, codenamed Go, ended before the 1981 release of the American-designed IBM PC codenamed Chess, whether IBM had waited too long to enter an industry in which Apple and others were already successful was unclear. An observer stated that IBM bringing out a computer would be like teaching an elephant to tap dance. Successful microcomputer company Vector Graphics fiscal 1980 revenue was $12 million, the company only sold through its internal sales force, had no experience with resellers or retail stores, and did not introduce the first product designed to work with non-IBM equipment until 1980. Another observer claimed that IBM made decisions so slowly that, when tested, as with other large computer companies, its new products typically required about four to five years for development. IBM had to learn how to develop, mass-produce. The potential importance to microcomputers of a company so prestigious, that a saying in American companies stated No one ever got fired for buying IBM, was nonetheless clear. InfoWorld, which described itself as The Newsweekly for Microcomputer Users, stated that for my grandmother, is far and away the media star, not because of its features, but because it exists at all. When the number eight company in the Fortune 500 enters the field, the influence of a personal computer made by a company whose name has literally come to mean computer to most of the world is hard to contemplate. The editorial acknowledged that some factions in our industry have looked upon IBM as the enemy, desktop sized programmable calculators by Hewlett Packard had evolved into the HP9830 BASIC language computer by 1972. In 1972–1973 a team led by Dr. SCAMP emulated an IBM1130 minicomputer to run APL\1130, in 1973 APL was generally available only on mainframe computers, and most desktop sized microcomputers such as the Wang 2200 or HP9800 offered only BASIC
22.
IBM Personal Computer XT
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The IBM Personal Computer XT, often shortened to the IBM XT, PC XT, or simply XT, is a version of the IBM PC with a built-in hard drive. It was released as IBM Machine Type number 5160 on March 8,1983, apart from the hard drive, it was essentially the same as the original PC, with only minor improvements. The XT was mainly intended as an enhanced IBM PC for business users, later floppy-only models would effectively replace the original model 5150 PC. A corresponding 3270 PC featuring 3270 terminal emulation was released later in October 1983, the motherboard had an Intel 8088 microprocessor running at 4.77 MHz, with a socket for an optional 8087 math coprocessor. IBM recognized soon after the IBM PCs release in 1981 that its five 8-bit I/O channel expansion slots were insufficient. An internal IBM publication stated in October 1981 about the number that In my opinion, it could be a problem, a BYTE Magazine article commented that DOS2.0 is more revolutionary and advanced than the computer itself. Unlike many hard disk systems on microcomputers at the time, the XT was able to boot directly off the drive, aside from the hard disk, a serial port card was also standard equipment on the XT, all other cards being optional. By the end of 1983, the XT was neck-and-neck with the original PC for sales, two were behind the floppy drive and shorter than PCs slots. The other six fit into the space as the PCs five slots. Most PC cards would not fit into the two slots, and some would not fit into the six standard-length, but narrower, slots. The floppy and hard drive adapters, the serial port card, the basic specification was soon upgraded to have 256 KB of RAM as standard. Expansion slots could be used for I/O devices or for memory expansion, available Video cards were initially the Monochrome Display Adapter and Color Graphics Adapter, with Enhanced Graphics Adapter and Professional Graphics Controller becoming available in 1984. The XT had a case similar to that of the IBM PC. It weighed 32 pounds and was approximately 19.5 inches wide by 16 inches deep by 5.5 inches high, the power supply of the original XT sold in the US was configured for 120 V AC only and could not be used with 240 V mains supplies. XTs with 240V-compatible power supplies were sold in international markets. Both were rated at 130 Watts, the operating system usually sold with the XT was PC DOS2.0 or, by the time the XT was discontinued in early 1987, DOS3.2. Like the original PC, the XT came with IBM BASIC in its ROM, the XT BIOS also displayed a memory count during the POST, unlike the PC. The XT was discontinued in the spring of 1987, replaced by the PS/2 Model 30, XT motherboards came in two different versions
23.
Intel 8086
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The 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor chip designed by Intel between early 1976 and mid-1978, when it was released. The 8086 gave rise to the x86 architecture which eventually became Intels most successful line of processors, in 1972, Intel launched the 8008, the first 8-bit microprocessor. It implemented a set designed by Datapoint corporation with programmable CRT terminals in mind. The device needed several additional ICs to produce a computer, in part due to it being packaged in a small 18-pin memory package. Two years later, Intel launched the 8080, employing the new 40-pin DIL packages originally developed for calculator ICs to enable a separate address bus and it had an extended instruction set that was source compatible with the 8008 and also included some 16-bit instructions to make programming easier. Other well known 8-bit microprocessors that emerged during these years were Motorola 6800, General Instrument PIC16X, MOS Technology 6502, Zilog Z80, the 8086 project started in May 1976 and was originally intended as a temporary substitute for the ambitious and delayed iAPX432 project. It was an attempt to draw attention from the less-delayed 16- and 32-bit processors of other manufacturers and at the time to counter the threat from the Zilog Z80. The programming model and instruction set was based on the 8080 in order to make this possible, however, the 8086 design was expanded to support full 16-bit processing, instead of the fairly basic 16-bit capabilities of the 8080/8085. Instructions directly supporting nested ALGOL-family languages such as Pascal and PL/M were also added, according to principal architect Stephen P. Morse, this was a result of a more software centric approach than in the design of earlier Intel processors. Other enhancements included microcoded multiply and divide instructions and a bus structure better adapted to future coprocessors, the 8086 took a little more than two years from idea to working product, which was considered rather fast for a complex design in 1976–1978. The 8086 was sequenced using a mixture of random logic and microcode and was implemented using depletion-load nMOS circuitry with approximately 20,000 active transistors and it was soon moved to a new refined nMOS manufacturing process called HMOS that Intel originally developed for manufacturing of fast static RAM products. This was followed by HMOS-II, HMOS-III versions, and, eventually, the original chip measured 33 mm² and minimum feature size was 3.2 μm. The architecture was defined by Stephen P. Morse with some help, logic designer Jim McKevitt and John Bayliss were the lead engineers of the hardware-level development team and Bill Pohlman the manager for the project. All internal registers, as well as internal and external buses, are 16 bits wide. A 20-bit external address bus provides a 1 MB physical address space and this address space is addressed by means of internal memory segmentation. The data bus is multiplexed with the bus in order to fit all of the control lines into a standard 40-pin dual in-line package. It provides a 16-bit I/O address bus, supporting 64 KB of separate I/O space, the maximum linear address space is limited to 64 KB, simply because internal address/index registers are only 16 bits wide. Programming over 64 KB memory boundaries involves adjusting the segment registers, some of the control pins, which carry essential signals for all external operations, have more than one function depending upon whether the device is operated in min or max mode
24.
Intel 8088
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The Intel 8088 microprocessor is a variant of the Intel 8086. Introduced on July 1,1979, the 8088 had an 8-bit external data bus instead of the 16-bit bus of the 8086, the 16-bit registers and the one megabyte address range were unchanged, however. In fact, according to the Intel documentation, the 8086 and 8088 have the execution unit —only the bus interface unit is different. The original IBM PC was based on the 8088, the 8088 was designed in Israel, at Intels Haifa laboratory, as were a large number of Intels processors. The prefetch queue of the 8088 was shortened to four bytes, from the 8086s six bytes, and these modifications of the basic 8086 design were one of the first jobs assigned to Intels then new design office and laboratory in Haifa, Israel. Later followed the 80C88, a fully static CHMOS design, which could operate with clock speeds from 0 to 8 MHz, there were also several other, more or less similar, variants from other manufacturers. For instance, the NEC V20 was a pin compatible and slightly faster variant of the 8088, successive NEC8088 compatible processors would run at up to 16 MHz. In 1984, Commodore International signed a deal to manufacture the 8088 for use in a licensed Dynalogic Hyperion clone, when announced, the list price of the 8088 was US $124.80. The 8088 is architecturally similar to the 8086. The main difference is there are only 8 data lines instead of the 8086s 16 lines. All of the pins of the device perform the same function as they do with the 8086 with two exceptions. First, pin 34 is no longer BHE, instead it outputs a maximum mode status, SSO. Combined with the IO/M and DT/R signals, the bus cycles can be decoded, the second change is the pin that signals if a memory access or input/output access is being made has had it sense reversed. The pin on the 8088 is IO/M, on the 8086 part it is IO/M. The reason for the reversal is that it makes the 8088 compatible with the 8085. 33–1 million instructions per second. The speed of the unit and the bus of the 8086 CPU was well balanced, with a typical instruction mix. Cutting down the bus to 8 bits made it a bottleneck in the 8088. With the speed of instruction fetch reduced by 50% in the 8088 as compared to the 8086, when the queue is empty, instructions take as long to complete as they take to fetch
25.
PC Card
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In computing, PC Card is a configuration for computer parallel communication peripheral interface, designed for laptop computers. Originally introduced as PCMCIA, the PC Card standard as well as its successors like CardBus were defined and developed by the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association and it was originally designed as a standard for memory-expansion cards for computer storage. The existence of a general standard for notebook peripherals led to many kinds of devices being made available based on its configurability, including network cards, modems. The PCMCIA1.0 card standard was published by the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association in November 1990 and was adopted by more than eighty vendors. It corresponds with the Japanese JEIDA memory card 4.0 standard, sanDisk launched its PCMCIA card in October 1992. The company was the first to introduce a writeable Flash RAM card for the HP 95LX and these cards conformed to a supplemental PCMCIA-ATA standard that allowed them to appear as more conventional IDE hard drives to the 95LX or a PC. This had the advantage of raising the limit on capacity to the full 32M available under DOS3.22 on the 95LX. It soon became clear that the PCMCIA card standard needed expansion to support smart I/O cards to address the emerging need for fax, modem, LAN, harddisk and it also needed interrupt facilities and hot plugging, which required the definition of new BIOS and operating system interfaces. This led to the introduction of release 2.0 of the PCMCIA standard and JEIDA4.1 in September 1991, many notebooks in the 1990s had two adjacent type-II slots, which allowed installation of two type-II cards or one, double-thickness, type-III card. The cards were used in early digital SLR cameras, such as the Kodak DCS300 series. However, their use as storage expansion is no longer common. The PC Card port has been superseded by the ExpressCard interface since 2003, some Japanese brand consumer entertainment devices such as TV sets include a PC Card slot for playback of media. PC Card = PCMCIA Card, 16-bit or 32-bit PC Card 32-bit version = Cardbus 16-bit vs. 32-bit,32 bit includes DMA or bus mastering, 16-bit does not Types I–III, Type I, configuration thickness 3.3 mm Type II, 16-bit or 32-bit. Configuration thickness 5.0 mm Type III, 16-bit or 32-bit, configuration thickness 10.5 mm PC Card was superseded by ExpressCard in 2003. PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association, the group of companies that defined the standard and this acronym was difficult to say and remember, and was sometimes jokingly referred to as People Cant Memorize Computer Industry Acronyms. To recognize increased scope beyond memory, and to aid in marketing and this was the name of the standard from version 2 of the specification onwards. These cards were used for wireless networks, modems, and other functions in notebook PCs, all PC Card devices use a similar sized package which is 85.6 millimetres long and 54.0 millimetres wide, the same size as a credit card. The shape is used by the Common Interface form of conditional-access modules for DVB broadcasts
26.
Infrared Data Association
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The Infrared Data Association is an industry-driven interest group that was founded in 1993 by around 50 companies. IrDA provides specifications for a set of protocols for wireless infrared communications. The main reason for using IrDA had been wireless data transfer over the “last one meter” using point-and-shoot principles, thus, it has been implemented in portable devices such as mobile telephones, laptops, cameras, printers, and medical devices. Main characteristics of this kind of optical communication is physically secure data transfer, line-of-sight. The mandatory IrPHY is the layer of the IrDA specifications. It comprises optical link definitions, modulation, coding, cyclic redundancy check and the framer. Different data rates use different modulation/coding schemes, SIR,9. 6–115.2 kbit/s, asynchronous, RZI, UART-like, 3/16 pulse MIR,0. 576–1.2 m, the 10 GigaIR also define new usage models that supports higher link distances up to several meters. Additionally, bigger blocks of data can be transferred by sending multiple frames consecutively and this can be adjusted with a parameter called window size. Finally, data blocks up to 8 MB can be sent at once, combined with a low bit error rate of generally <10−9, that communication could be very efficient compared to other wireless solutions. IrDA transceivers communicate with infrared pulses in a cone that extends at least 15 degrees half angle off center, in practice, there are some devices on the market that do not reach one meter, while other devices may reach up to several meters. There are also devices that do not tolerate extreme closeness, the typical sweet spot for IrDA communications is from 5 to 60 cm away from a transceiver, in the center of the cone. The two devices that communicate simulate full-duplex communication by quickly turning the link around, the primary device controls the timing of the link, but both sides are bound to certain hard constraints and are encouraged to turn the link around as fast as possible. The mandatory IrLAP is the layer of the IrDA specifications. It lies on top of the IrPHY layer and below the IrLMP layer and it represents the data link layer of the OSI model. The primary device controls the secondary devices, only if the primary device requests a secondary device to send, is it allowed to do so. The mandatory IrLMP is the layer of the IrDA specifications. It can be broken down into two parts, first, the LM-MUX, which lies on top of the IrLAP layer. The optional Tiny TP lies on top of the IrLMP layer and it provides, Transportation of large messages by SAR Flow control by giving credits to every logical channel The optional IrCOMM lets the infrared device act like either a serial or parallel port
27.
Serial port
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In computing, a serial port is a serial communication interface through which information transfers in or out one bit at a time. Throughout most of the history of computers, data was transferred through serial ports to devices such as modems, terminals. Modern computers without serial ports may require serial-to-USB converters to allow compatibility with RS-232 serial devices, serial ports are still used in applications such as industrial automation systems, scientific instruments, point of sale systems and some industrial and consumer products. Server computers may use a port as a control console for diagnostics. Network equipment often use serial console for configuration, serial ports are still used in these areas as they are simple, cheap and their console functions are highly standardized and widespread. A serial port requires very little supporting software from the host system, some computers, such as the IBM PC, use an integrated circuit called a UART. This IC converts characters to and from asynchronous serial form, implementing the timing and framing of data in hardware, very low-cost systems, such as some early home computers, would instead use the CPU to send the data through an output pin, using the bit-banging technique. Early home computers often had proprietary serial ports with pinouts and voltage levels incompatible with RS-232, low-cost processors now allow higher-speed, but more complex, serial communication standards such as USB and FireWire to replace RS-232. These make it possible to connect devices that would not have operated feasibly over slower serial connections, such as storage, sound. Many personal computer motherboards still have at least one serial port, small-form-factor systems and laptops may omit RS-232 connector ports to conserve space, but the electronics are still there. RS-232 has been standard for so long that the circuits needed to control a serial port became very cheap and often exist on a single chip, sometimes also with circuitry for a parallel port. The individual signals on a serial port are unidirectional and when connecting two devices the outputs of one device must be connected to the inputs of the other, devices are divided into two categories data terminal equipment and data circuit-terminating equipment. A line that is an output on a DTE device is an input on a DCE device and vice versa so a DCE device can be connected to a DTE device with a straight wired cable, conventionally, computers and terminals are DTE while modems and peripherals are DCE. If it is necessary to connect two DTE devices a cross-over null modem, in the form of either an adapter or a cable, generally, serial port connectors are gendered, only allowing connectors to mate with a connector of the opposite gender. With D-subminiature connectors, the male connectors have protruding pins, either type of connector can be mounted on equipment or a panel, or terminate a cable. Connectors mounted on DTE are likely to be male, and those mounted on DCE are likely to be female, however, this is far from universal, for instance, most serial printers have a female DB25 connector, but they are DTEs. The desire to supply serial interface cards with two ports required that IBM reduce the size of the connector to fit onto a single card back panel, a DE-9 connector also fits onto a card with a second DB-25 connector. Starting around the time of the introduction of the IBM PC-AT, serial ports were built with a 9-pin connector to save cost
28.
CompactFlash
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CompactFlash is a flash memory mass storage device used mainly in portable electronic devices. The format was specified and the devices were first manufactured by SanDisk in 1994, CompactFlash became the most successful of the early memory card formats, surpassing Miniature Card and SmartMedia. Subsequent formats, such as MMC/SD, various Memory Stick formats, most of these cards are smaller than CompactFlash while offering comparable capacity and speed. Proprietary memory card formats for use in audio and video, such as P2 and SxS, are faster. CompactFlash remains popular and is supported by many devices and high-end consumer devices. As of 2017, both Canon and Nikon use CompactFlash for their digital still cameras. Canon also chose CompactFlash as the medium for its professional high-definition tapeless video cameras. Ikegami professional video cameras can record video onto CompactFlash cards through an adaptor. Traditional CompactFlash cards use the Parallel ATA interface, but in 2008, CFast is based on the Serial ATA interface. In November 2010, SanDisk, Sony and Nikon presented a next generation card format to the CompactFlash Association, the new format has a similar form factor to CF/CFast but is based on the PCI Express interface instead of Parallel ATA or Serial ATA. The XQD card format was announced by the CompactFlash Association in December 2011. There are two subdivisions of CF cards,3.3 mm-thick type I and 5 mm-thick type II. The type II slot is used by miniature hard drives and some other devices, there are four main card speeds, original CF, CF High Speed, faster CF3.0 standard and the faster CF4.0 standard adopted as of 2007. CompactFlash was originally built around Intels NOR-based flash memory, but has switched to NAND technology, CF is among the oldest and most successful formats, and has held a niche in the professional camera market especially well. It has benefited from both a better cost to memory-size ratio and, for much of the life, generally greater available capacity than other formats. As some newer types are smaller, they can be used directly in a CF card slot with an adapter. Formats that can be used this way include SD/MMC, Memory Stick Duo, xD-Picture Card in a Type I slot and SmartMedia in a Type II slot, some multi-card readers use CF for I/O as well. The CompactFlash interface is a 50-pin subset of the 68-pin PCMCIA connector and it can be easily slipped into a passive 68-pin PCMCIA Type II to CF Type I adapter that fully meets PCMCIA electrical and mechanical interface specifications, according to compactflash. org
29.
Computer mouse
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A computer mouse is a pointing device that detects two-dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a pointer on a display, physically, a mouse consists of an object held in ones hand, with one or more buttons. Mice often also other elements, such as touch surfaces and wheels. The earliest known publication of the mouse as referring to a computer pointing device is in Bill Englishs July 1965 publication. The plural for the rodent is always mice in modern usage. The plural of a mouse is mouses and mice according to most dictionaries. The first recorded usage is mice, the online Oxford Dictionaries cites a 1984 use. The trackball, a pointing device, was invented in 1944 by Ralph Benjamin as part of a World War II-era fire-control radar plotting system called Comprehensive Display System. Benjamin was then working for the British Royal Navy Scientific Service, Benjamins project used analog computers to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a joystick. Benjamin felt that a more elegant input device was needed and invented what they called a ball for this purpose. The device was patented in 1947, but only a prototype using a ball rolling on two rubber-coated wheels was ever built, and the device was kept as a military secret. Another early trackball was built by British electrical engineer Kenyon Taylor in collaboration with Tom Cranston, Taylor was part of the original Ferranti Canada, working on the Royal Canadian Navys DATAR system in 1952. DATAR was similar in concept to Benjamins display, the trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, by counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined. A digital computer calculated the tracks and sent the data to other ships in a task force using pulse-code modulation radio signals. This trackball used a standard Canadian five-pin bowling ball and it was not patented, since it was a secret military project. Douglas Engelbart of the Stanford Research Institute has been credited in published books by Thierry Bardini, Paul Ceruzzi, Howard Rheingold, Engelbart was also recognized as such in various obituary titles after his death in July 2013. That November, while attending a conference on computer graphics in Reno, Nevada, Engelbart began to ponder how to adapt the underlying principles of the planimeter to X-Y coordinate input
30.
Windows 3.0
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Windows 3.0, a graphical environment, is the third major release of Microsoft Windows, and was released on May 22,1990. It became the first widely successful version of Windows and a rival to Apple Macintosh and it was followed by Windows 3.1. Windows 3.0 originated in 1989 when David Weise and Murray Sargent independently decided to develop a protected mode Windows as an experiment and they cobbled together a rough prototype and presented it to company executives, who were impressed enough to approve it as an official project. However, this was of limited use for the home market, the MS-DOS Executive file manager/program launcher was replaced with the icon-based Program Manager and the list-based File Manager, splitting files and programs. The Control Panel, previously available as an applet, was re-modeled after the one in the classic Mac OS. It centralized system settings, including control over the scheme of the interface. A number of applications were included, such as the text editor Notepad and the word processor Write, a macro recorder, the paint program Paintbrush. Also, the earlier Reversi game was complemented with the card game Microsoft Solitaire, 256-color VGA and MCGA modes were supported for the first time. Windows 3.0 includes a Protected/Enhanced mode which allows Windows applications to use memory in a more painless manner than their DOS counterparts could. It can run in any of Real, Standard, or 386 Enhanced modes, Windows 3.0 tries to auto detect which mode to run in, although it can be forced to run in a specific mode using the switches, /r, /s and /3 respectively. Since Windows 3.0 runs in 16-bit 286 protected mode and not 32-bit 386 protected mode, however, on 32-bit CPUs, the programmer had access to larger memory pointers and so it was possible to expand program segments to whatever size was desired. Because of this, Windows 3.0 can access only 16 MB total of RAM and this was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel for Windows/286. The official system requirements for Windows 3.1 or higher Also, Windows 3.0 cannot run in full color on most 8086/88 machines, as the built-in 640×350 EGA and 640×480 VGA drivers contained Intel 80186 instructions. MCGA 320×200 and 640×480 drivers did not contain these instructions and this could be worked around by installing the Windows 2. x EGA/VGA drivers, replacing the CPU with an NEC V20/V30, or by using a modified VGA driver that supports the 8086/88. Real mode primarily existed as a way to run Windows 2. x applications and it was removed in Windows 3. 1x. Almost all applications designed for Windows 3.0 had to be run in standard or 386 enhanced modes, however, it was necessary to load Windows 3.0 in real mode to run SWAPFILE. EXE, which allowed users to change virtual memory settings. Officially, Microsoft stated that an 8Mhz turbo 8086 was the minimum CPU needed to run Windows 3.0 and it could be run on 4.77 MHz 8088 machines, but performance is so slow as to render the OS almost unusable. Up to 4 MB of EMS memory is supported in real mode, Standard mode was used most often as its requirements were more in-line with an average PC of that era — an 80286 processor with at least 1 MB of memory
31.
Color Graphics Adapter
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For this reason, it also became that computers first color computer display standard. Built around the Motorola MC6845 display controller, the CGA card featured several graphics, the highest display resolution of any mode was 640×200, and the highest color depth supported was 4-bit. CGA supports, 320×200 in 4 colors from a 16 color hardware palette, the 40×25 text and 320×200 graphics modes are usable with a television, and the 80×25 text and 640×200 graphics modes are intended for a monitor. Despite varying bit depths among the CGA graphics modes, CGA processes colors in its palette in four bits, in graphics modes, colors are set per-pixel, in text modes, colors are set per-character, with an independent foreground and background color for each character. These four bits are passed on unmodified to the DE-9 connector at the back of the card, leaving all color processing to the RGBI monitor connected to it. With respect to the RGBI color model described above, the monitor would use approximately the following formula to process the digital four-bit color number to analog voltages ranging from 0.0 to 1. For the composite output, these four-bit color numbers are encoded by the CGAs onboard hardware into an NTSC-compatible signal fed to the cards RCA output jack. For cost reasons, this is not done using an RGB-to-YIQ converter as called for by the NTSC standard, consequently, the hues seen are lacking in purity, notably, both cyan and yellow have a greenish tint, and color 6 again looks dark yellow instead of brown. When the CGA was introduced in 1981, IBM did not offer an RGBI monitor, instead, customers were supposed to use the RCA output with an RF modulator to connect the CGA to their television set. The IBM5153 Personal Computer Color Display would not be introduced until March 1983 and this is relevant insofar as if an application or game programmer used either one of these configurations, they will have expected color 6 to look dark yellow instead of brown. CGA offers four BIOS text modes, 40×25 characters in up to 16 colors, each character is a pattern of 8×8 dots. The effective screen resolution in this mode is 320×200 pixels, though individual pixels cannot be addressed independently, the choice of patterns for any location is thus limited to one of the 256 available characters, the patterns for which are stored in a ROM chip on the card itself. The display font in text mode is fixed and cannot be changed. The card has sufficient video RAM for eight different text pages in this mode, BIOS Modes 0 &1 select 40 column text modes. The difference between two modes can only be seen on a composite monitor, mode 0 disables the color burst. Mode 1 enables the color burst, allowing for color, Mode 0 and Mode 1 are functionally identical on RGB monitors and on later adapters that emulate CGA without supporting composite color output. 80×25 characters in up to 16 colors, each character is again an 8×8 dot pattern, in a pixel aspect ratio of 1,2.4. The effective screen resolution of this mode is 640×200 pixels, again, the pixels cannot be individually addressed
32.
Electroluminescence
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Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon and electrical phenomenon in which a material emits light in response to the passage of an electric current or to a strong electric field. This is distinct from black body light emission resulting from heat, from a reaction, sound. Electroluminescence is the result of recombination of electrons and holes in a material. The excited electrons release their energy as photons - light, the active materials are generally semiconductors of wide enough bandwidth to allow exit of the light. The most typical inorganic thin-film EL is ZnS, Mn with yellow-orange emission, general Electric has patents dating to 1938 on flat electroluminescent panels that are still made as night lights and backlights for instrument panel displays. The drawbacks of conventional electroluminescent lights are low efficiency and lifetimes limited to hundreds of hours, electroluminescent panels are a capacitor where the dielectric between the outside plates is a phosphor that gives off photons when the capacitor is charged. By making one of the transparent, the large area exposed emits light. These lamps have proven incredibly reliable, with some known to be still functional after nearly 50 years of continuous operation. Raytheon, Sudbury, MA, manufactured the Apollo guidance computer, powder phosphor-based electroluminescent panels are frequently used as backlights to liquid crystal displays. They readily provide a gentle, even illumination to the display while consuming relatively little electric power. They do, however, require high voltage. For battery-operated devices, this voltage must be generated by a circuit within the device. For line-voltage-operated devices, it may be supplied directly from the power line, electroluminescent nightlights operate in this fashion. Brightness per unit area increases with increased voltage and frequency, thin film phosphor electroluminescence was first commercialized during the 1980s by Sharp Corporation in Japan, Finlux in Finland, and Planar Systems in the USA. Here, bright, long-life light emission is achieved in thin film yellow-emitting manganese-doped zinc sulfide material, displays using this technology were manufactured for medical and vehicle applications where ruggedness and wide viewing angles were crucial, and liquid crystal displays were not well developed. In 1992, Timex introduced its Indiglo EL display on some watches, recently, blue-, red-, and green-emitting thin film electroluminescent materials that offer the potential for long life and full color electroluminescent displays have been developed. In either case, the EL material must be enclosed between two electrodes and at least one electrode must be transparent to allow the escape of the produced light. Glass coated with tin oxide is commonly used as the front electrode while the back electrode is coated with reflective metal
33.
Hardware code page
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In computing, a hardware code page refers to a code page supported natively by a hardware device such as a display adapter or printer. The glyphs to present the characters are stored in the alphanumeric character generators resident read-only memory and are thus not user-changeable and they are available for use by the system without having to load any font definitions into the device first. In North American IBM-compatible PCs, the code page of the display adapter is typically code page 437. Most display adapters support a single 8-bit hardware code page only, the bitmaps were often stored in an EPROM in a DIP socket. At most, the code page to be activated was user-selectable via jumpers. Printers for the Eastern European or Middle Eastern markets sometimes support other locale-specific hardware code pages to choose from and they can be selected via DIP switches or configuration menus on the printer, or via specific escape sequences. When operating systems initialize their code page switching logic, they need to know but have no means to determine the previously active hardware code page by themselves, therefore, for code page switching to work correctly, the hardware code page needs to be specified. Arabic and Hebrew MS-DOS do not use DISPLAY. SYS and PRINTER. SYS, but provide similar facilities using ARABIC. COM, HEBREW. COM, hardware code pages are also OEM code pages. The designation OEM, for original equipment manufacturer, indicates that the set could be changed by the manufacturer to meet different markets. Hence, the group of OEM code pages is a superset of hardware code pages, pC-9800 series Alt codes Non-US character ROMs from MDA/CGA/Hercules cards. Archived from the original on 2016-06-09
34.
Code page 437
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Code page 437 is the character set of the original IBM PC, or DOS. It is also known as CP437, OEM-US, OEM437, PC-8, the set includes ASCII codes 32–126, extended codes for accented letters, some Greek letters, icons, and line-drawing symbols. It is sometimes referred to as the OEM font or high ASCII and this character set remains the primary font in the core of any EGA and VGA-compatible graphics card. Text shown when a PC reboots, before any other font can be loaded from a storage medium, many file formats developed at the time of the IBM PC are based on code page 437 as well. The IBM Enhanced Graphics Adapter contained an 8×14 pixels-per-character version, all these display adapters have text modes in which each character cell contains an 8-bit character code point, giving 256 possible values for graphic characters. All 256 codes were assigned a character in ROM, including the codes from 0 to 31 that were reserved in ASCII for non-graphical control characters. Various Eastern European PCs used different character sets, sometimes user-selectable via jumpers or CMOS setup. These sets were designed to match 437 as much as possible, for sharing the code points for many of the line-drawing characters. A legacy of code page 437 and other DOS codepages is the set of number combinations used in Windows Alt keycodes introduced in the first versions of DOS, the user could enter a character by holding down the Alt key and entering the three-digit decimal Alt keycode on the numpad. The following tables show code page 437, each character is shown with its equivalent Unicode code point and its decimal code point. See also the notes below as there are multiple equivalent Unicode characters for some code points, the decimal codes are also known as Alt codes. Although the ROM provides a graphic for all 256 different possible 8-bit codes, some APIs will not print some code points, in particular the range 1-31, instead they will interpret them as control characters. For instance many methods of outputting text on the original IBM PC would interpret the codes for BEL, BS, CR, many printers were also unable to print these characters. Legend, When translating to Unicode it should be noted that some codes do not have a unique, single Unicode equivalent and we were also fascinated by dedicated word processors from Wang, because we believed that general-purpose machines could do that just as well. Thats why, when it time to design the keyboard for the IBM PC, we put the funny Wang character set into the machine—you know, smiley faces and boxes and triangles. We were thinking wed like to do a clone of Wang word-processing software someday, according to an interview with David J. Bradley the characters were decided upon during a four-hour meeting on a plane trip from Seattle to Atlanta by Andy Saenz, Lew Eggebrecht and himself. The selection of characters has some internal logic, Table rows 0 and 1. The isolated character 127 also belongs to this group, Table rows 2 to 7, codes 32 to 126, are the standard ASCII printable characters
35.
Code page 850
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Code page 850 is a code page used under DOS in Western Europe. Systems largely replaced code page 850 with, first, Windows-1252, and later with UCS-2, at the same time, the changes frequently caused display glitches with programs that made use of the box-drawing characters to display a GUI-like surface in text mode. In 1998, code page 858 was derived from code page by changing code point 213 from a dotless i ‹ı› to the euro sign ‹€›. The following table shows code page 850, each character appears with its equivalent Unicode code-point and its decimal code-point. Only the second half of the table is shown, the first half being the same as ASCII, code points 1–31 and 127 may be either ASCII control characters or code page 437 graphics, legend, Western Latin character sets Hardware code page LMBCS-1
36.
Code page 866
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Code page 866 is a code page used under DOS and OS/2 to write Cyrillic script. It is based on the character set of GOST 19768-87. The code was used during the DOS era because it preserves the pseudographic symbols. Each character is shown with its equivalent Unicode code point and its code point. Only the second half of the table is shown, the first half being the same as ASCII, IBM code page 808 is a variant of code page 866, the only difference is the euro sign in position FDhex replacing the universal currency sign. Code page 900 slipped through into the distribution of the Russian MS-DOS5.0 LCD. CPI codepage information file, kornai, Andras, Birnbaum, David J. da Cruz, Frank, Davis, Bur, Fowler, George, Paine, Richard B. Paperno, Slava, Simonsen, Keld J. Thobe, Glenn E. Vulis, Dimitri, van Wingen, Johan W. CYRILLIC ENCODING FAQ Version 1.3
37.
Coca-Cola
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Coca-Cola is a carbonated soft drink produced by The Coca-Cola Company. The drinks name refers to two of its ingredients, which were kola nuts and coca leaves. The current formula of Coca-Cola remains a secret, although a variety of reported recipes. The Coca-Cola Company produces concentrate, which is sold to licensed Coca-Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold exclusive territory contracts with the company, produce the product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water. A typical 12-US-fluid-ounce can contains 38 grams of sugar, the bottlers then sell, distribute and merchandise Coca-Cola to retail stores, restaurants and vending machines throughout the world. The Coca-Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains of major restaurants, the Coca-Cola Company has on occasion introduced other cola drinks under the Coke name. Based on Interbrands best global brand study of 2015, Coca-Cola was the third most valuable brand. In 2013, Coke products were sold in over 200 countries worldwide, confederate Colonel John Pemberton, who was wounded in the American Civil War and became addicted to morphine, began a quest to find a substitute for the problematic drug. The prototype Coca-Cola recipe was formulated at Pembertons Eagle Drug and Chemical House and he may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a French coca wine. It is also worth noting that a Spanish drink called Kola Coca was presented at a contest in Philadelphia in 1885, the patent for this Spanish drink was bought by Coca-Cola in 1953. In 1885, Pemberton registered his French Wine Coca nerve tonic, in 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca-Cola, a nonalcoholic version of French Wine Coca. The first sales were at Jacobs Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, Pemberton claimed Coca-Cola cured many diseases, including morphine addiction, indigestion, nerve disorders, headaches, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the year in the Atlanta Journal. By 1888, three versions of Coca-Cola – sold by three separate businesses – were on the market, a co-partnership had been formed on January 14,1888 between Pemberton and four Atlanta businessmen, J. C. Mayfield, A. O. Not codified by any signed document, a statement given by Asa Candler years later asserted under testimony that he had acquired a stake in Pembertons company as early as 1887. John Pemberton declared that the name Coca-Cola belonged to his son, Charley, Charleys exclusive control over the Coca Cola name became a continual thorn in Asa Candlers side. Candlers oldest son, Charles Howard Candler, authored a book in 1950 published by Emory University, in this definitive biography about his father, Candler specifically states
38.
Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
39.
Piggyback (transportation)
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Piggyback transportation refers to the transportation of goods where one transportation unit is carried on the back of something else. It is a form of intermodal transportation and combined transport. Piggyback is a corruption of pickaback, which is likely a folk etymology alteration of pick pack, which perhaps is from pick, in rail transport, the practice of carrying trailers or semi-trailers in a train atop a flatcar is referred to as piggybacking. Early drawings of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway c1830 show road coaches being piggybacked on railway flat wagons, the rail service provided for trucks which are carried on trains for part of their journey is referred to as a rolling road, or rolling highway. A related transportation method is the transport of semi-trailers, without road tractors. The loading of semi-trailers in the United States grew from 1% of freight in 1957 to 15% in 1986, in South Australia, rolling stock is transferred to and from the isolated Eyre Peninsular Railway from Whyalla to Port Lincoln on road trailers. A change in the gauge of the bogies is carried out at the same time, small ships of all kinds can be piggybacked on larger ships. Examples include lifeboats, landing craft, and minesweepers on motherships, as well as Midget submarines on larger submarines, in space transportation systems, a smaller satellite that is carried as a secondary payload on a launch is said to be piggybacked on the main launch. The American Space Shuttle was carried on top of specially-modified Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft when the shuttle landed at places other than Kennedy Space Center, the metal caterpillar treads of a tank wear out quickly when travelling long distances on ordinary roads. It is therefore necessary to provide tank transporters, which have rubber tires, to the battlefield
40.
Nokia 2110
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The Nokia 2110 was a cellular phone made by the Finnish telecommunications firm Nokia, first announced in 1994. It is the first Nokia with the Nokia tune ringtone, the phone has only basic functions like SMS send/receive, and lists 10 dialed calls,10 received calls and 10 missed calls. A later version Nokia 2110i came with a memory and a protruding antenna knob. When the phone was released it was smaller than others of its price. A variant model, the Nokia 2140, was the launch handset on the Orange network and it differed in that it was designed to work on the 1800MHz frequency then utilised by Orange, and had a slightly less bulbous design. A North American model was available called Nokia 2190. It was one of the phones available on the Pacific Bell Mobile Services. A TDMA version was produced as the Nokia 2120
41.
GSM
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As of 2014 it has become the de facto global standard for mobile communications – with over 90% market share, operating in over 219 countries and territories. This expanded over time to include communications, first by circuit-switched transport, then by packet data transport via GPRS. Subsequently, the 3GPP developed third-generation UMTS standards followed by fourth-generation LTE Advanced standards, GSM is a trademark owned by the GSM Association. It may also refer to the most common voice codec used, the decision to develop a continental standard eventually resulted in a unified, open, standard-based network which was larger than that in the United States. In February 1987 Europe produced the very first agreed GSM Technical Specification, the MoU drew-in mobile operators from across Europe to pledge to invest in new GSM networks to an ambitious common date. In 1989, the Groupe Spécial Mobile committee was transferred from CEPT to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute, in parallel, France and Germany signed a joint development agreement in 1984 and were joined by Italy and the UK in 1986. In 1986 the European Commission proposed reserving the 900 MHz spectrum band for GSM, the former Finnish prime minister Harri Holkeri made the worlds first GSM call on July 1,1991, calling Kaarina Suonio using a network built by Telenokia and Siemens and operated by Radiolinja. In the following year,1992, saw the sending of the first short messaging service message, work began in 1991 to expand the GSM standard to the 1800 MHz frequency band and the first 1800 MHz network became operational in the UK by 1993 called and DCS1800. Also that year, Telecom Australia became the first network operator to deploy a GSM network outside Europe and the first practical hand-held GSM mobile phone became available. In 1995, fax, data and SMS messaging services were launched commercially, in the same year, the GSM Association formed. Pre-paid GSM SIM cards were launched in 1996 and worldwide GSM subscribers passed 100 million in 1998, in 2000 the first commercial GPRS services were launched and the first GPRS-compatible handsets became available for sale. In 2001 the first UMTS network was launched, a 3G technology that is not part of GSM, worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded 500 million. In 2002 the first Multimedia Messaging Service were introduced and the first GSM network in the 800 MHz frequency band became operational, EDGE services first became operational in a network in 2003 and the number of worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded 1 billion in 2004. By 2005, GSM networks accounted for more than 75% of the cellular network market. In 2005 the first HSDPA-capable network also became operational, the first HSUPA network launched in 2007. Worldwide GSM subscribers exceeded three billion in 2008, GSM is a second-generation standard employing time-division multiple-Access spectrum-sharing, issued by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute. GSM, for the first time, set a standard for Europe for wireless networks. It was also adopted by many countries outside Europe and this allowed subscribers to use other GSM networks that have roaming agreements with each other
42.
Mobile phone
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A mobile phone is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the systems of a mobile phone operator. Most modern mobile telephone services use a network architecture, and, therefore. Mobile phones which offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to seven billion, penetrating 100% of the global population. In first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone manufacturers were Samsung, Apple, a handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a pocket-size folding telephone with a thin carbon microphone. Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships, the race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. The first commercial automated cellular network was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and this was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Several other countries followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology, in 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. In 1991, the digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators, ten years later, in 2001, the third generation was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard. This was followed by 3. 5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access family, allowing UMTS networks to have data transfer speeds. By 2009, it had become clear that, at point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies
43.
Nokia
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Nokia Corporation, stylised as NOKIA, is a Finnish multinational communications and information technology company, founded in 1865. Nokia is headquartered in Espoo, Uusimaa, in the greater Helsinki metropolitan area, in 2014, Nokia employed 61,656 people across 120 countries, did business in more than 150 countries and reported annual revenues of around €12.73 billion. Nokia is a limited company listed on the Helsinki Stock Exchange. It is the worlds 274th-largest company measured by 2013 revenues according to the Fortune Global 500 and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, the company has had various industries in its 151-year history. It was founded as a mill, and now focuses on large-scale telecommunications infrastructures. Nokias dominance also extended into the industry through its Symbian platform. Nokia eventually entered into a pact with Microsoft in 2011 to exclusively use Microsofts Windows Phone platform on future smartphones and its mobile phone business was eventually bought by Microsoft in an overall deal totaling $7.17 billion. Stephen Elop, Nokias former CEO, and several other joined the new Microsoft Mobile subsidiary of Microsoft as part of the deal. Nokia has a history, dating back to 1865 when Fredrik Idestam. A second pulp mill was created in 1868 near the town of Nokia, in 1871, Idestam together with friend Leo Mechelin formed a shared company and called it Nokia, after the town of the second pulp mill. For the next 90 years, Nokia on its own would be a forest and power industry company, in 1922, Nokia was jointly-owned with a trio partnership with Finnish Cable Works and Finnish Rubber Works. Nokia Corporation now boasted many industries including rubber, forestry, cable, electricity, in the 1970s, the newly formed conglomerate started entering the networking and radio industry. Nokia also started making military equipment for Finlands defence forces, such as the Sanomalaite M/90 communicator in 1983, in 1979, Nokia went into a joint venture with television maker Salora, to create Mobira, which would lay out the foundation of Nokias future mobile phone division. In 1981, Mobira launched the Nordic Mobile Telephone service, the worlds first international cellular network, then in 1982, Mobira launched the Mobira Senator car phone, which can be considered as Nokias first mobile phone. At that time, though, Nokia had no interest at all in mobile phones and it is only due to the Salo, Finland-based Salora-Mobira that the idea was pushed through. In 1987, Finnish Cable Works discontinued production of cables at its Helsinki factory, nokian Tyres, a tyre producer that was originally formed as a division of Finnish Rubber Works in 1932, split away from Nokia Corporation in 1988. Two years later in 1990, Finnish Rubber Works followed suit and this allowed Nokia Corporation to solely focus on communications. Jorma Ollila became CEO in 1992, Nokias first fully portable mobile phone was the Mobira Cityman 900 in 1987
