1.
Paavo Nurmi
–
Paavo Johannes Nurmi was a Finnish middle- and long-distance runner. He was nicknamed the Flying Finn as he dominated distance running in the early 20th century, Nurmi set 22 official world records at distances between 1500 metres and 20 kilometres, and won nine gold and three silver medals in his twelve events in the Olympic Games. At his peak, Nurmi was undefeated at distances from 800 m upwards for 121 races, throughout his 14-year career, he remained unbeaten in cross country events and the 10,000 m. Born into a family, Nurmi left school at 12 to provide for his family. In 1912, he was inspired by the Olympic feats of Hannes Kolehmainen, Nurmi started to flourish during his military service, setting national records en route to his international debut at the 1920 Summer Olympics. After a silver medal in the 5000 m, he took gold in the 10,000 m and the cross country events. In 1923, Nurmi became the first, and so far only, runner to hold the record in the mile, the 5000 m. He went on to set new records for the 1500 m. Seemingly untouched by the Paris heat wave, Nurmi won all his races and returned home five gold medals. Struggling with injuries and motivation issues after his exhaustive U. S. tour in 1925, Nurmi found his long-time rivals Ville Ritola and Edvin Wide ever more serious challengers. At the 1928 Summer Olympics, Nurmi recaptured the 10,000 m title but was beaten for the gold in the 5000 m and he then turned his attention to longer distances, breaking the world records for events such as the one hour run and the 25-mile marathon. Nurmi intended to end his career with a gold medal. In a controversial case that strained Finland–Sweden relations and sparked an inter-IAAF battle, two days before the opening ceremonies, the council rejected his entries. Although he was never declared a professional, Nurmis suspension became definite in 1934, in 1952, he was the lighter of the Olympic Flame at the Summer Olympics in Helsinki. Nurmi, who ran without a stopwatch in his hand, has been credited for introducing the even pace strategy and analytic approach to running. Nurmi was born in Turku, Finland, to carpenter Johan Fredrik Nurmi, Nurmis siblings, Siiri, Saara, Martti and Lahja, were born in 1898,1902,1905 and 1908, respectively. In 1903, the Nurmi family moved from Raunistula into a 40-square-meter apartment in central Turku, the young Nurmi and his friends were inspired by the English long-distance runner Alfred Shrubb. They regularly ran or walked six kilometres to swim in Ruissalo, by the age of eleven, Nurmi ran the 1500 metres in 5,02
Paavo Nurmi
–
Nurmi at the
1920 Summer Olympics
Paavo Nurmi
–
Nurmi with his family in 1924
Paavo Nurmi
–
Nurmi at the 1920 Olympic trials
Paavo Nurmi
–
Nurmi at the
1924 Summer Olympics
2.
Clothing
–
Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
Clothing
–
Clothing in history, showing (from top) Egyptians, Ancient Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, and 13th through 15th century Europeans.
Clothing
–
A
baby wearing many items of
winter clothing:
headband,
cap, fur-lined
coat,
shawl and
sweater
Clothing
–
Former 3rd Duke of Fife wearing a traditional
Scottish kilt. (1984)
Clothing
–
Former
US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and
Turkish President Abdullah Gül both wearing Western-style
business suits.
3.
Retail
–
Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Retailing involves the process of selling goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand is identified through a supply chain, Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation. In the digital age, a number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels. Digital technologies are changing the way that consumers pay for goods. Retailing support services may include the provision of credit, delivery services. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products, sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing, sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing, it not always result in a purchase. Retail shops occur in a range of types and in many different contexts - from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only, forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing and mail order. Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means to cut off, clip, pare and it was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a sale in small quantities in 1433. Like in French, the retail in both Dutch and German also refers to the sale of small quantities of items. Also see History of merchants, History of the market place, open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria. These markets typically occupied a place in the towns centre, surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling, merchants or peddlers, the Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit, the Phoenicians extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed an alphabet which was much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt
Retail
–
Macy's Herald Square,
New York City.
Retail
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
Retail
–
San Juan de Dios Market in
Guadalajara, Jalisco
Retail
–
Inside a supermarket in
Russia
4.
Sewing
–
Sewing is the craft of fastening or attaching objects using stitches made with a needle and thread. Sewing is one of the oldest of the arts, arising in the Paleolithic era. For thousands of years, all sewing was done by hand, fine hand sewing is a characteristic of high-quality tailoring, haute couture fashion, and custom dressmaking, and is pursued by both textile artists and hobbyists as a means of creative expression. The first known use of the sewing was in the 14th century. Sewing has an ancient history estimated to begin during the Paleolithic Age, Sewing was used to stitch together animal hides for clothing and for shelter. The weaving of cloth from natural fibres originated in the Middle East around 4000 BCE, and perhaps earlier during the Neolithic Age, during the Middle Ages, Europeans who could afford it employed seamstresses and tailors. Sewing for the most part was an occupation, and most sewing before the 19th century was practical. Clothing was an investment for most people, and women had an important role in extending the longevity of items of clothing. Clothing that was faded would be turned inside-out so that it could continue to be worn, once clothing became worn or torn, it would be taken apart and the reusable cloth sewn together into new items of clothing, made into quilts, or otherwise put to practical use. The many steps involved in making clothing from scratch meant that women often bartered their expertise in a skill with one another. Decorative needlework such as embroidery was a skill, and young women with the time. From the Middle Ages to the 17th century, sewing tools such as needles, decorative embroidery was valued in many cultures worldwide. Some examples are the Cretan Open Filling stitch, Romanian Couching or Oriental Couching, the stitches associated with embroidery spread by way of the trade routes that were active during the Middle Ages. European imperial settlements also spread embroidery and sewing techniques worldwide, however, there are instances of sewing techniques indigenous to cultures in distant locations from one another, where cross-cultural communication would have been historically unlikely. For example, a method of reverse appliqué known to areas of South America is also known to Southeast Asia, the Industrial Revolution shifted the production of textiles from the household to the mills. In the early decades of the Industrial Revolution, the machinery produced whole cloth, the worlds first sewing machine was patented in 1790 by Thomas Saint. By the early 1840s, other early sewing machines began to appear, by the 1850s, Isaac Singer developed the first sewing machines that could operate quickly and accurately and surpass the productivity of a seamstress or tailor sewing by hand. While much clothing was produced at home by female members of the family
Sewing
–
Sewing Fisherman´s Wife by
Anna Ancher, 1890.
Sewing
–
Seated woman sewing a
kimono,
Utagawa Kuniyoshi, early 19th century. Different cultures have developed diverse sewing techniques, from methods of cutting fabric to types of stitches.
Sewing
–
Early 20th century sewing in
Detroit, Michigan.
Sewing
–
A woman sewing as a street vendor in
Bangkok, Thailand.
5.
Tailor
–
A tailor is a person who makes, repairs, or alters clothing professionally, especially suits and mens clothing. The term refers to a set of hand and machine sewing and pressing techniques that are unique to the construction of traditional jackets. Retailers of tailored suits often take their services internationally, traveling to various cities, traditional tailoring is called bespoke tailoring in the United Kingdom, where the heart of the trade is Londons Savile Row tailoring, and custom tailoring in the United States and Hong Kong. This is unlike made to measure which uses pre-existing patterns, a bespoke garment or suit is completely original and unique to each customer. Famous fictional tailors include the tailor in The Tailor of Gloucester, The Emperors New Clothes, a more recent example is John le Carrés The Tailor of Panama. As the tailoring profession has evolved, so too have the methods of tailoring, there are a number of distinctive business models of which modern tailors may practice. While some may practice many, there are others who will only one or two. Local tailoring is as the name implies, typically the tailor is met locally and the garment produced locally. This method enables the tailor to take measurements, assess posture. Local tailors will typically have a showroom or shopfront allowing clients to choose fabrics from samples or return the garment easily should it require further modification and this is the most traditional form of tailoring. Hong Kong and London are the most famous for high quality bespoke tailoring, distance tailoring involves ordering a garment from an out-of-town tailor enabling cheaper labour to be used. In practice this can now be done on a global scale via e-commerce websites, unlike local tailoring, customers must take their own measurements, fabric selection must be made from a photo, and if further alterations are required the garment must be shipped. Today, the most common platform for distance tailoring is via online tailors, online tailors sometimes offer to pay for needed alterations at a local tailor. Another new option is the concept where a free test suit is made to the provided measurements, the test suit can be tried on and worn to see where any adjustments are wanted. The final suit is tailored to the new specifications provided by the test suit fitting. Traveling tailors travel between cities and station in a luxury hotel for a short period of time to meet. In the hotel, the customer will be able to select the fabric from samples, the order then will be shipped to the customer within three to four weeks time. Unlike local tailoring, if further alterations are required the garment must be shipped, today, most traveling tailors are from Hong Kong, traveling to the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Australia and Japan
Tailor
–
Tailoring first fitting in
Italy
Tailor
–
Clothier and tailor in the
Financial District of
Boston, Massachusetts
Tailor
–
Vintage tailor's button from
Hobart, Tasmania
Tailor
–
A roadside tailor in
Haikou City,
Hainan Province,
China
6.
Button
–
In modern clothing and fashion design, a button is a small fastener, now most commonly made of plastic, but also frequently of metal, wood or seashell, which secures two pieces of fabric together. In archaeology, a button can be a significant artifact, in the applied arts and in craft, a button can be an example of folk art, studio craft, or even a miniature work of art. Buttons are most often attached to articles of clothing but can also be used on such as wallets. However, buttons may be sewn onto garments and similar items exclusively for purposes of ornamentation, buttons serving as fasteners work by slipping through a fabric or thread loop, or by sliding through a buttonhole. Other types of fastenings include zippers, Velcro and magnets, buttons made from seashell were used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE. Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing with thread. Ian McNeil holds that, The button, in fact, was used more as an ornament than as a fastening. It is made of a shell and about 5000 years old. Functional buttons with buttonholes for fastening or closing clothes appeared first in Germany in the 13th century and they soon became widespread with the rise of snug-fitting garments in 13th- and 14th-century Europe. At least one modern smuggler has tried to use this method, also making use of the storage possibilities of metal buttons, during the World Wars, British and U. S. military locket buttons were made, containing miniature working compasses. Buttons can be crafted by artisans, craftspeople or artists from raw materials or found objects. Alternatively, they can be the product of low-tech cottage industry or can be mass-produced in high-tech factories, buttons made by artists are art objects, known to button collectors as studio buttons. Vegetable ivory was said to be the most popular for suits and shirts, nowadays, hard plastic, seashell, metals, and wood are the most common materials used in button-making, the others tending to be used only in premium or antique apparel, or found in collections. Over 60% of the worlds supply comes from Qiaotou, Yongjia County. Flat or sew-through buttons have holes through which thread is sewn to attach the button, flat buttons may be attached by sewing machine rather than by hand, and may be used with heavy fabrics by working a thread shank to extend the height of the button above the fabric. Popular examples of such buttons are shirt studs and cufflinks, Snap fasteners are metal round discs pinched through the fabric. They are often found on clothing, in particular on denim pieces such as pants and jackets and they are more securely fastened to the material. As they rely on a metal rivet attached securely to the fabric and they are made of two couples, the male stud couple and the female stud couple
Button
–
Brass buttons from a the uniform of a Danish
WWI artillery lieutenant
Button
–
Modern buttons made from
vegetable ivory
Button
–
Three plastic sew-through buttons (left) and one shank, fabric-covered button (right)
Button
7.
Ribbon
–
A ribbon or riband is a thin band of material, typically cloth but also plastic or sometimes metal, used primarily as decorative binding and tying. Cloth ribbons are made of materials such as silk, velvet, cotton, and jute and of synthetic materials, such as polyester, nylon. Ribbon is used for innumerable useful, ornamental, and symbolic purposes, cultures around the world use ribbon in their hair, around the body, and as ornamentation on non-human animals, buildings, and packaging. Some popular fabrics used to make ribbons are satin, organza, sheer, silk, velvet, the word ribbon comes from Middle English ribban or riban from Old French ruban, which is probably of Germanic origin. Along with that of tapes, fringes, and other smallwares, the essential feature of a ribbon loom is the simultaneous weaving in one loom frame of two or more webs, going up to as many as forty narrow fabrics in modern looms. A loom in which several narrow webs could be woven at one time is mentioned as having working in Dantzig towards the end of the 16th century. Similar looms were at work in Leiden in 1620, where their use gave rise to so much discontent and rioting on the part of the weavers that the states-general had to prohibit their use. The prohibition was renewed at intervals throughout the century. In 1676, under the name of the Dutch loom or engine loom, it was brought to London, in 1745, John Kay, the inventor of the fly-shuttle, obtained, conjointly with Joseph Stell, a patent for improvements in the ribbon loom. Since that period, it has benefited by the applied to weaving machinery generally. Ribbon-weaving is known to have been established near St. Etienne as early as the 11th century, and that town has remained the headquarters of the industry. During the Huguenot troubles, ribbon-weavers from St. Etienne settled at Basel, krefeld is the centre of the German ribbon industry, the manufacture of black velvet ribbon being there a specialty. In England Coventry is the most important seat of ribbon-making, which is also prosecuted at Norwich and Leicester. While satin and other sorts of ribbon have always used in lingerie. This upsurge led to increased ribbon manufacturing as well as new, presently, the North American continent remains the largest importer of ribbon and ribbon derivative products. Inspired by European silk ribbons obtained through trade, Great Lakes, typewriters and dot matrix printers use a cloth or plastic ribbon to hold the ink. Pieces of ribbon are used as symbols of support or awareness for social causes and are called awareness ribbons. Ribbons are used in ceremonies, such as in a ribbon cutting ceremony
Ribbon
–
Ribbons
8.
Zipper
–
A zipper, zip, fly, or zip fastener, formerly known as a clasp locker, is a commonly used device for binding the edges of an opening of fabric or other flexible material, like on a garment or a bag. It is used in clothing, luggage and other bags, sporting goods, camping gear, Whitcomb L. Judson was an American inventor from Chicago who invented and constructed a workable zipper. The method, still in use today, is based on interlocking teeth, initially it was called the “hookless fastener” and was later redesigned to become more reliable. The bulk of a zipper/zip consists of two rows of protruding teeth, which may be made to interdigitate, linking the rows and these teeth can be either individual or shaped from a continuous coil, and are also referred to as elements. The slider, operated by hand, moves along the rows of teeth, inside the slider is a Y-shaped channel that meshes together or separates the opposing rows of teeth, depending on the direction of the sliders movement. The word Zipper is onomatopoetic, because it was named for the sound the device makes when used, in many jackets and similar garments, the opening is closed completely when the slider is at one of the ends of the tape. The mechanism allows for partial fastening where only some of the tape is fastened together, in many kinds of luggage, there are two sliders on the tape, mounted in opposite directions head to head, the part of the zipper between them is unfastened. When the sliders are on opposite ends of the then the jacket is closed. If the lower slider is raised then the two sides of the jacket may be opened to allow more comfortable sitting or bicycling. When both sliders are lowered then the zipper may be totally separated, although potentially convenient, there are often problems getting this type of zipper to start or to separate. Zippers may increase or decrease the size of an opening to allow or restrict the passage of objects, as in the fly of trousers or in a pocket. Join or separate two ends or sides of a garment, as in the front of a jacket, or on the front. Attach or detach a part of the garment to or from another. Attach or detach a small pouch or bag to or from a larger one, one example of this is military rugsacks has smaller pouches or bags attached on its side using one or two zippers. Be used to decorate an item and these variations are achieved by sewing one end of the zipper together, sewing both ends together, or allowing both ends of the zipper to fall completely apart. A zipper costs relatively little, but if it fails, the garment may be unusable until the zipper is repaired or replaced—which can be quite difficult, problems often lie with the zipper slider, when it becomes worn it does not properly align and join the alternating teeth. With separating zippers, the pin may tear loose from the tape. If a zipper fails, it can either jam or partially break off, in 1851, Elias Howe received a patent for an Automatic, Continuous Clothing Closure
Zipper
–
Zippers with common teeth variations: metal teeth (top), coil teeth and plastic teeth.
Zipper
–
Examples of special zippers with different tape materials, colors and patterns.
Zipper
–
A two-way (double-separating) zipper.
Zipper
–
A coil zipper with its slider removed.
9.
Geoffrey Chaucer
–
Geoffrey Chaucer, known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages. He was the first poet to be buried in Poets Corner of Westminster Abbey, among his many works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde. He is best known today for The Canterbury Tales, Chaucers work was crucial in legitimizing the literary use of the Middle English vernacular at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin. Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London sometime around 1343, though the precise date and his father and grandfather were both London vintners, several previous generations had been merchants in Ipswich. In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffreys father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure. In the City Hustings Roll 110,5, Ric II, dated June 1380, Geoffrey Chaucer refers to himself as me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie. He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the Kings Works. In 1359, in the stages of the Hundred Years War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Elizabeths husband. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims, Edward paid £16 for his ransom, a considerable sum, and Chaucer was released. After this, Chaucers life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward IIIs queen, Philippa of Hainault, and a sister of Katherine Swynford and it is uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are most commonly cited. His son, Thomas Chaucer, had a career, as chief butler to four kings, envoy to France. Thomass daughter, Alice, married the Duke of Suffolk, thomass great-grandson, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed. Geoffreys other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun at Barking Abbey, Agnes, an attendant at Henry IVs coronation, Chaucers Treatise on the Astrolabe was written for Lewis. According to tradition, Chaucer studied law in the Inner Temple at this time and he became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a valet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety of tasks. His wife also received a pension for court employment and he travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet. In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, two other literary stars of the era were in attendance, Jean Froissart and Petrarch
Geoffrey Chaucer
–
Portrait of Chaucer from the 17th century.
Geoffrey Chaucer
–
Chaucer as a pilgrim from the
Ellesmere manuscript
Geoffrey Chaucer
–
A 19th-century depiction of Chaucer
Geoffrey Chaucer
–
Portrait of Chaucer (16th century), f.1 - BL Add MS 5141
10.
The Canterbury Tales
–
The Canterbury Tales is a collection of 24 stories that runs to over 17,000 lines written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer between 1387–1400. In 1386, Chaucer became Controller of Customs and Justice of Peace and and it was during these years that Chaucer began working on his most famous text, The Canterbury Tales. The prize for this contest is a meal at the Tabard Inn at Southwark on their return. He uses the tales and descriptions of its characters to paint an ironic and critical portrait of English society at the time, Chaucers use of such a wide range of classes and types of people was without precedent in English. Although the characters are fictional, they offer a variety of insights into customs. Often, such insight leads to a variety of discussions and disagreements among people in the 14th century, structurally, the collection resembles The Decameron, which Chaucer may have read during his first diplomatic mission to Italy in 1372. It is unclear to what extent Chaucer was seminal in this evolution of literary preference, while Chaucer clearly states the addressees of many of his poems, the intended audience of The Canterbury Tales is more difficult to determine. Chaucer was a courtier, leading some to believe that he was mainly a court poet who wrote exclusively for nobility, the Canterbury Tales is generally thought to have been incomplete at the end of Chaucers life. In the General Prologue, some thirty pilgrims are introduced, according to the Prologue, Chaucers intention was to write two stories from the perspective of each pilgrim on the way to and from their ultimate destination, St. Thomas Beckets shrine. Although perhaps incomplete, The Canterbury Tales is revered as one of the most important works in English literature, not only do readers find it entertaining, but it is also open to a wide range of interpretations. The question of whether The Canterbury Tales is finished has not yet been answered, there are 83 known manuscripts of the work from the late medieval and early Renaissance periods, more than any other vernacular literary text with the exception of The Prick of Conscience. This is taken as evidence of the popularity during the century after Chaucers death. Fifty-five of these manuscripts are thought to have been complete at one time, even the earliest surviving manuscripts are not Chaucers originals, the oldest being MS Peniarth 392 D, compiled by a scribe shortly after Chaucers death. The most beautiful of the manuscripts of the tales is the Ellesmere Manuscript, the first version of The Canterbury Tales to be published in print was William Caxtons 1478 edition. Only 10 copies of this edition are known to exist, including one held by the British Library, since this print edition was created from a now-lost manuscript, it is counted as among the 83 manuscripts. In 2004, Professor Linne Mooney claimed that she was able to identify the scrivener who worked for Chaucer as an Adam Pinkhurst. No authorial, arguably complete version of the Tales exists and no consensus has been reached regarding the order in which Chaucer intended the stories to be placed, textual and manuscript clues have been adduced to support the two most popular modern methods of ordering the tales. Some scholarly editions divide the Tales into ten Fragments, however, between Fragments, the connection is less obvious
The Canterbury Tales
–
A Tale from the Decameron by
John William Waterhouse.
The Canterbury Tales
The Canterbury Tales
–
Canterbury Cathedral from the north west
circa 1890–1900 (retouched from a black & white photograph)
The Canterbury Tales
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales in the hand of his personal scribe Adam Pinkhurst, c.1400
11.
Peddler
–
A peddler, in British English pedlar, also known as a canvasser, chapman, cheapjack, hawker, higler, huckster, monger, or solicitor, is a traveling vendor of goods. In England, the term was used for travellers hawking goods in the countryside to small towns and villages. In London more specific terms were used, such as costermonger, Peddlers have a long and colourful history. From antiquity, peddlers filled the gaps in the market economy by providing consumers with the convenience of door-to-door service. They operated alongside town markets and fairs where they often purchased surplus stocks which were resold to consumers. Thus, peddlers played an important role in linking these consumers, some peddlers worked as agents or travelling salesmen for larger manufacturers, thus were the precursor to the modern travelling salesman. In Europe, suspicions of dishonest or petty criminal activity was associated with peddlers and travellers. From the 16th century, peddlers were often associated with negative connotations - attitudes which persisted well into the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The origin of the word, known in English since 1225, is unknown, historically, peddlers travelled on foot, carrying their wares, or by means of a person- or animal-drawn cart or wagon. Peddlers were known by a variety of names throughout the ages, including Arabber, hawker), costermonger, chapman, huckster, typically, peddlers operated door-to-door, plied the streets or stationed themselves at the fringes of formal trade venues such as open air markets or fairs. Peddlers sometimes doubled as performers, healers, or fortune-tellers, as market towns flourished in medieval Europe, peddlers found a role operating on the fringes of the formal economy. They called directly on homes, delivering produce to the door thereby saving customers time travelling to markets or fairs, however, customers paied a higher price for this convenience. Some peddlers operated out of inns or taverns, where they acted as an agent rather than a reseller. Peddlers played an important role providing services to geographically isolated districts, such as in the regions of Europe, thereby linking these districs with wider trading routes. ”By the eighteenth century, some peddlers worked for industrial producers. In England, these peddlers were known as “Manchester men. ”Employed by a factory or entrepreneur and they were the precursors to the modern sales representative. In the United States, the era of the traveling peddler probably peaked in the decades just before the American Civil War, the large advances in industrial mass production and freight transportation as a result of the war laid the groundwork for the beginnings of modern retail and distribution networks. Further, the rise of mail order catalogues offered another way for people in rural or other remote areas to obtain items not readily available in local stores. In the United States, the travelling salesman became a character in countless jokes
Peddler
–
Peddler woman in
Nishapur
Peddler
–
De Marskramer, by
Hieronymus Bosch,
Museum Boijmans van Beuningen
Peddler
–
Belgian milk peddlers, c. 1890-1900
Peddler
–
A
Moroccan peddler in
Ceriale,
Italy
12.
Old Norse
–
Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
Old Norse
–
The
Rök Runestone in
Östergötland, Sweden, is the longest surviving source of early Old East Norse. It is inscribed on both sides.
Old Norse
–
Old West Norse dialect
13.
Icelandic language
–
Icelandic /aɪsˈlændɪk/ is a North Germanic language, the language of Iceland. It is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic or Nordic branch of the Germanic languages, historically, it was the westernmost of the Indo-European languages prior to the colonisation of the Americas. Icelandic, Faroese, Norn, and Western Norwegian formerly constituted West Nordic, Danish, Eastern Norwegian, modern Norwegian Bokmål is influenced by both groups, leading the Nordic languages to be divided into mainland Scandinavian languages and Insular Nordic. Most Western European languages have reduced levels of inflection, particularly noun declension. In contrast, Icelandic retains a four-case synthetic grammar comparable to, Icelandic is distinguished by a wide assortment of irregular declensions. Icelandic also has many instances of oblique cases without any governing word, for example, many of the various Latin ablatives have a corresponding Icelandic dative. The vast majority of Icelandic speakers—about 320, 000—live in Iceland, more than 8,000 Icelandic speakers live in Denmark, of whom approximately 3,000 are students. The language is spoken by some 5,000 people in the United States. Notably in the province of Manitoba, while 97% of the population of Iceland consider Icelandic their mother tongue, the language is in decline in some communities outside Iceland, particularly in Canada. Icelandic speakers outside Iceland represent recent emigration in almost all cases except Gimli, Manitoba, the state-funded Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies serves as a centre for preserving the medieval Icelandic manuscripts and studying the language and its literature. Since 1995, on 16 November each year, the birthday of 19th-century poet Jónas Hallgrímsson is celebrated as Icelandic Language Day, the oldest preserved texts in Icelandic were written around 1100 AD. Much of the texts are based on poetry and laws traditionally preserved orally, the most famous of the texts, which were written in Iceland from the 12th century onward, are the Icelandic Sagas. They comprise the historical works and the eddaic poems, the language of the sagas is Old Icelandic, a western dialect of Old Norse. Danish rule of Iceland from 1380 to 1918 had little effect on the evolution of Icelandic, though more archaic than the other living Germanic languages, Icelandic changed markedly in pronunciation from the 12th to the 16th century, especially in vowels. The modern Icelandic alphabet has developed from an established in the 19th century. The later Rasmus Rask standard was a re-creation of the old treatise, with changes to fit concurrent Germanic conventions. Various archaic features, as the letter ð, had not been used much in later centuries, rasks standard constituted a major change in practice. Later 20th-century changes include the use of é instead of je, apart from the addition of new vocabulary, written Icelandic has not changed substantially since the 11th century, when the first texts were written on vellum
Icelandic language
–
A page from the
Landnámabók
Icelandic language
–
regions where Icelandic is the language of the majority
Icelandic language
–
Photograph taken from page 206 of Colloquial Icelandic.
Icelandic language
–
Eyjafjallajökull, one of the smaller ice caps of Iceland, situated to the north of Skógar and to the west of Mýrdalsjökull, is Icelandic for "glacier of Eyjafjöll"
14.
Mercery
–
Mercery initially referred to silk, linen, and fustian textiles imported to England in the 12th century. The term mercery later extended to goods made of these and the sellers of those goods, the term mercer for cloth merchants is now largely obsolete. Mercers were formerly merchants or traders who dealt in cloth, typically fine cloth that was not produced locally, inventories of mercers in small towns, however, suggest that many were shopkeepers who dealt in various dry commodities other than cloth. Related occupations include haberdasher, draper and cloth merchant, while clothier historically referred to someone who manufactured cloth, by the 21st century the word mercer was primarily used in connection with the Worshipful Company of Mercers, one of the twelve great Liveries Companies of the City of London
Mercery
–
A mercery (mercer's shop) in Brussels
15.
Anglo-Norman language
–
Anglo-Norman, also known as Anglo-Norman French, is a variety of the Norman language that was used in England and, to a lesser extent, elsewhere in the British Isles during the Anglo-Norman period. One of these was Old Norman, also known as Old Northern French, other followers spoke varieties of the Picard language or western French. It was spoken in the law courts, schools, and universities and, in due course, in at least some sections of the gentry and the growing bourgeoisie. Private and commercial correspondence was carried out in Anglo-Norman or Anglo-French from the 13th to the 15th century though its spelling forms were often displaced by continental spellings. Social classes other than the nobility became keen to learn French, manuscripts containing materials for instructing non-native speakers still exist, although Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French were eventually eclipsed by modern English, they had been used widely enough to influence English vocabulary permanently. Thus, many original Germanic words, cognates of which can still be found in Nordic, German, other such examples are heir apparent, court martial, and body politic. The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom still features in French the mottos of both the British Monarch, Dieu et mon droit and the Order of the Garter, Honi soit qui mal y pense. Dieu et mon droit was first used by Richard I in 1198, the motto appears below the shield of the Royal Coat of Arms. Anglo-Norman was never the administrative language of England, Latin was the major language of record in legal. There is evidence, too, that foreign words often entered English via Anglo-Norman, by the late 15th century, however, what remained of insular French had become heavily anglicised, see Law French. It continued to be known as Norman French until the end of the 19th century even though, philologically, among important writers of the Anglo-Norman cultural commonwealth is Marie de France. Much of the earliest recorded French is in fact Anglo-Norman French, Latin did not disappear in medieval England either, it was used by the Church, the royal government and much local administration, as it had been before 1066, in parallel with Middle English. The early adoption of Anglo-Norman as a written and literary language probably owes something to this history of bilingualism in writing, thus, typically, local records are rather different from continental French, with diplomatic and international trade documents closest to the emerging continental norm. English remained the vernacular of the people throughout this period. The resulting virtual trilinguism in spoken and written language was one of medieval Latin, diverse French varieties, from the conquest until the end of the 14th century, French was the language of the king and his court. During this period, marriages with French princesses reinforced the French status in the royal family, nevertheless, during the 13th century, intermarriages with English nobility became more frequent. French became progressively a second language among the upper classes, moreover, with the Hundred Years War and the growing spirit of English nationalism, the status of French diminished. French was the tongue of every English king from William the Conqueror until Henry IV
Anglo-Norman language
–
About 28% of English
vocabulary comes from French, including the Anglo-French language (green)
16.
Fustian
–
Fustian is a variety of heavy cloth woven from cotton, chiefly prepared for menswear. It is also used figuratively to refer to pompous, inflated or pretentious writing or speech and this literary use is because the cloth type was often used as padding, hence, the purposeless words are fustian. It embraces plain twilled cloth known as jean, and cut similar to velvet, known as velveteen, moleskin. The original medieval fustian was a stout but respectable cloth with a cotton weft and a linen warp. The term seems to have become less precise, and was applied to a coarse cloth made of wool and linen, and in the reign of Edward III of England. By the early 20th century, fustians were usually of cotton dyed various colors, in a petition to Parliament during the reign of Mary I, fustian of Naples is mentioned. In the 13th and 14th centuries priests robes and womens dresses were made of fustian, but though dresses are made from some kinds. From 1800 to 1850 it was commonly called Baragan Fustian, crucial to process of manufacture was fustian cutting. This was a process using a fustian cutting knife. This tool was around 50 cm long, and looked like a spike, about 10 cm from the tip. It was inserted along the fabric alongside two warp threads, and under the raised weft, and as it was guided forward the blade severed the weft. In corduroy, there were seven ridges to the inch, so along a 31in bolt, over a 60hr week the cutter would be expected to produce 500 yards of 7-8 ridge corduroy. Velveteen was cut the way but had 32 ridges per inch so production would be proportionately less. Cutting was one part of the process, the yarn was sized and the cloth was woven—there would be a high number of weft threads to warp. The ridges were manually cut, and the cloth sent to be finished and it was scoured to remove the size, and brushed to raise the nap. This was then singed over a gas flame, then bleached and it was now stentered to pull it out to the standard width. The cloth was woven at 31 or 32 inches and during processing has shrunk to 27 inches, stentering would stabilise the width to 28 inches. The back of the cloth would now be filled to give it stiffness and this could be with a glue based mixture that could be formed from boiled bones
Fustian
–
Textile samples: Fustian, Linen, and Moleskin.
Fustian
–
Corduroy: This modern diagram shows the warp (3) and the long (red-4) and short (green-5) weft threads; traditionally the knife (1) and the guide (2) are attached and the cutting motion is upwards.
Fustian
17.
Worsted
–
Worsted is a high-quality type of wool yarn, the fabric made from this yarn, and a yarn weight category. The name derives from Worstead, a village in the English county of Norfolk, in the same period, many weavers from Flanders moved to Norfolk. Worsted yarns/fabrics are distinct from woollens, the former is considered stronger, finer, smoother, Worsted was made from the long-staple pasture wool from sheep breeds such as Teeswaters, Old Leicester Longwool and Romney Marsh. Pasture wool was not carded, instead it was washed, gilled and combed, oiled, when woven, worsteds were scoured but not fulled. Worsted wool fabric is used in the making of tailored garments such as suits, as opposed to woollen wool. The essential feature of worsted yarn is straight, parallel fibres, originally, long, fine staple wool was spun to create worsted yarn, today, other long fibres are also used. Many spinners differentiate between worsted preparation and worsted spinning, Worsted preparation refers to the way the fibre is prepared before spinning, using ginning machines which force the fibre staples to lie parallel to each other. Once these fibres have been made into a top, they are then combed to remove the short fibres, the long fibres are combined in subsequent gilling machines to again make the fibres parallel. This produces overlapping untwisted strands called slivers, Worsted spinning refers to using a worsted technique, which produces a smooth yarn in which the fibres lie parallel. Roving and wool top are used to spin worsted yarn. Many hand spinners buy their fibre in roving or top form, top and roving are ropelike in appearance, in that they can be thick and long. While some mills put a slight twist in the rovings they make, the fibres in top and rovings all lie parallel to one another along the length, which makes top ideal for spinning worsted yarns. Worsted-spun yarns, used to create worsted fabric, are spun from fibres that have been combed, to ensure that the fibres all run the same direction, butt-end to tip, a short draw is used in spinning worsted fibres. In short draw spinning, spun from combed roving, sliver or wool top, the fibres are held fanned out in one hand while the other hand pulls a small number from the mass. The twist is kept between the hand and the wheel — there is never any twist between the two hands. Worsted cloth, archaically known as stuff, is lightweight and has a coarse texture. The weave is usually twill or plain, twilled fabrics such as whipcord, gabardine and serge are often made from worsted yarn. Worsted fabric made from wool has a recovery, meaning that it is resilient and quickly returns to its natural shape
Worsted
–
Worsted wool yarn with 4
plies
Worsted
–
Worsted yarn made from
Merino wool
Worsted
–
Materials
18.
Saint Louis IX
–
Louis IX, commonly known as Saint Louis, was King of France from 1226 until his death. Louis was crowned in Reims at the age of 12, following the death of his father Louis VIII the Lion, although his mother, Blanche of Castile, ruled the kingdom until he reached maturity. During Louiss childhood, Blanche dealt with the opposition of rebellious vassals, as an adult, Louis IX faced recurring conflicts with some of the most powerful nobles, such as Hugh X of Lusignan and Peter of Dreux. Simultaneously, Henry III of England tried to restore his continental possessions and his reign saw the annexation of several provinces, notably Normandy, Maine and Provence. Louis IX was a reformer and developed French royal justice, in which the king is the judge to whom anyone is able to appeal to seek the amendment of a judgment. He banned trials by ordeal, tried to prevent the private wars that were plaguing the country, to enforce the correct application of this new legal system, Louis IX created provosts and bailiffs. According to his vow made after an illness, and confirmed after a miraculous cure. He was succeeded by his son Philip III, Louiss actions were inspired by Christian values and Catholic devotion. He decided to punish blasphemy, gambling, interest-bearing loans and prostitution and he also expanded the scope of the Inquisition and ordered the burning of Talmuds. He is the only canonized king of France, and there are many places named after him. Much of what is known of Louiss life comes from Jean de Joinvilles famous Life of Saint Louis, two other important biographies were written by the kings confessor, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and his chaplain, William of Chartres. The fourth important source of information is William of Saint-Parthus biography, while several individuals wrote biographies in the decades following the kings death, only Jean of Joinville, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and William of Chartres wrote from personal knowledge of the king. Louis was born on 25 April 1214 at Poissy, near Paris, the son of Prince Louis the Lion and Princess Blanche, and baptised in La Collégiale Notre-Dame church. His grandfather on his fathers side was Philip II, king of France, while his grandfather on his mothers side was Alfonso VIII, tutors of Blanches choosing taught him most of what a king must know—Latin, public speaking, writing, military arts, and government. He was 9 years old when his grandfather Philip II died, a member of the House of Capet, Louis was twelve years old when his father died on 8 November 1226. He was crowned king within the month at Reims cathedral, because of Louiss youth, his mother ruled France as regent during his minority. Louis mother trained him to be a leader and a good Christian. She used to say, I love you, my son, as much as a mother can love her child
Saint Louis IX
–
Representation of Saint Louis considered to be true to life, early 14th century. Statue from the church of
Mainneville, Eure, France.
Saint Louis IX
–
Coin of Saint Louis,
Cabinet des Médailles. – The Latin inscription reads LVDOVICVS (i.e. "Louis") DEI GRACIA (i.e. "
by the Grace of God ", where Latin gratia was spelt gracia) FRANCOR REX (i.e. "
King of the Franks ", where Francor. is the abbreviation of Francorum).
Saint Louis IX
–
Equestrian statue of King Saint Louis at the
Sacré-Cœur
Saint Louis IX
–
Death of Saint Louis: On 25 August 1270, Saint Louis dies under his fleurdelisé tent before the city of Tunis. Illuminated by
Jean Fouquet,
Grandes Chroniques de France (1455–1460)
19.
Patron saint
–
Catholics believe that patron saints, having already transcended to the metaphysical, are able to intercede effectively for the needs of their special charges. Historically, a practice has also occurred in many Islamic lands. With regard to the omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote. Traditionally, it has been understood that the saint of a particular place prays for that places wellbeing and for the health. Saints often become the patrons of places where they were born or had been active, professions sometimes have a patron saint owing to that individual being involved somewhat with it, although some of the connections were tenuous. Lacking such a saint, an occupation would have a patron whose acts or miracles in some way recall the profession and it is, however, generally discouraged in some Protestant branches such as Calvinism, where the practice is considered a form of idolatry. In Islam, the veneration or commemoration and recognition of saints is found in many branches of traditional Sunnism
Patron saint
–
Saint Matthew the Apostle, depicted with an angel, is the patron saint of
Salerno, Italy, bankers and tax collectors
Patron saint
–
A branch of
Saint Honore Cake Shop, a
Hong Kong chain bakery, in Hong Kong.
Saint Honorius (Honoré) is the patron saint of bakers and confectioners.
20.
Saint Nicholas
–
Saint Nicholas, also called Nikolaos of Myra, was a historic 4th-century Christian saint and Greek Bishop of Myra, in Asia Minor. Because of the miracles attributed to his intercession, he is also known as Nikolaos the Wonderworker. The historical Saint Nicholas is commemorated and revered among Anglican, Catholic, Lutheran, in addition, some Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, and other Reformed churches have been named in honor of Saint Nicholas. Saint Nicholas is the saint of sailors, merchants, archers, repentant thieves, children, brewers, pawnbrokers. The historical Saint Nicholas, as known from history, He was born at Patara. In his youth he made a pilgrimage to Egypt and the Palestine area, shortly after his return he became Bishop of Myra and was later cast into prison during the persecution of Diocletian. He was released after the accession of Constantine and was present at the Council of Nicaea, in 1087, Italian merchants took his body from Myra, bringing it to Bari in Italy. Nicholas was born in Asia Minor in the Roman Empire, to a Greek family during the century in the city of Patara. He lived in Myra, Lycia, at a time when the region was Greek in its heritage, culture and he was the only son of wealthy Christian parents named Epiphanius and Johanna according to some accounts and Theophanes and Nonna according to others. He was very religious from an age and according to legend. His wealthy parents died in an epidemic while Nicholas was still young and he tonsured the young Nicholas as a reader and later ordained him a presbyter. In the year AD305, several monks from Anatolia in Asia Minor came to the Holy Land to Beit Jala, Judea and this was before St. Sava’s Monastery was founded in the desert east of Bethlehem on the Kidron Gorge near the Dead Sea. These monks lived on the mountain overlooking Bethlehem in a few caves, in the years 312–315, St. Nicholas lived there and came as a pilgrim to visit the Holy Sepulchre, Golgotha, Bethlehem, and many other sites in the Holy Land. The Saint Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church is located on the site of his cave in Beit Jala where today there are stories about Nicholas still handed down from generation to generation. A text written in his own hand is still in the care of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, in 317 he returned to Asia Minor and was soon thereafter consecrated bishop in Myra. In 325, he was one of many bishops to answer the request of Constantine and appear at the First Council of Nicaea, there, Nicholas was a staunch anti-Arian, defender of the Orthodox Christian position, and one of the bishops who signed the Nicene Creed. Tradition has it that he became so angry with the heretic Arius during the Council that he struck him in the face. The modern city of Demre, Turkey is built near the ruins of the home town of ancient Myra
Saint Nicholas
–
Russian icon depicting St Nicholas with scenes from his life. Late 15th century or early 16th century. National Museum, Stockholm.
Saint Nicholas
–
Basilica di San Nicola in
Bari, Italy where most of the
relics of St. Nicholas are kept today.
Saint Nicholas
–
The church of
San Nicolò al Lido (Venice), hosts half of Nicolas' relics
Saint Nicholas
–
Supposed effigy of St. Nicholas near Thomastown, Ireland.
21.
Catherine of Alexandria
–
According to her hagiography, she was both a princess and a noted scholar, who became a Christian around the age of fourteen, and converted hundreds of people to Christianity. She was martyred around the age of 18, over 1,100 years following her martyrdom, Saint Joan of Arc identified Catherine as one of the Saints who appeared to her and counselled her. The Eastern Orthodox Church venerates her as a Great Martyr, in the Catholic Church she is traditionally revered as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. In 1969 the Catholic Church removed her feast day from the General Roman Calendar, however, in 2002, her feast was restored to the General Roman Calendar as an optional memorial. According to the narrative, Catherine was the daughter of Constus. From a young age she devoted herself to study, a vision of the Madonna and Child persuaded her to become a Christian. When the persecutions began under Maxentius, she went to the emperor, the emperor summoned fifty of the best pagan philosophers and orators to dispute with her, hoping that they would refute her pro-Christian arguments, but Catherine won the debate. Several of her adversaries, conquered by her eloquence, declared themselves Christians and were at once put to death, upon the failure of Maxentius to make Catherine yield by way of torture, he tried to win the beautiful and wise princess over by proposing marriage. The saint refused, declaring that her spouse was Jesus Christ, the furious emperor condemned Catherine to death on a spiked breaking wheel, but, at her touch, it shattered. A tradition dating to about 800 states that carried her corpse to Mount Sinai. Her body was discovered around the year 800 at Mount Sinai, with hair still growing, in the 6th century, the Eastern Emperor Justinian had established what is now Saint Catherines Monastery in Egypt. Although Eusebius did not name the woman, she had identified with Dorothea of Alexandria. It is also referred to as Saint Helens Chapel, the main church was built between 548 and 565, and the monastery became a major pilgrimage site for devotees of Catherine and the other relics and sacred sites there. Saint Catherines Monastery survives, and is a repository of early Christian art, architecture and illuminated manuscripts that remains open to tourists. The site is sacred to Christianity and Islam, there is no evidence that Katherine herself was a historical figure and she may well have been a composite drawn from memories of women persecuted for their faith. Many aspects of her Passio are clearly legendary and conform to well-known hagiographical topoi, rufinus states that her first name was Dorothea, and that at her christening she acquired the name Aikaterina, a name that signifies her pure, clean and uncontaminated nature. There are several pilgrimage narratives that chronicle the journey to Mount Sinai, most notably those of John Mandeville, however, the monastery at Mount Sinai was the best-known site of Catherine pilgrimage, but was also the most difficult to reach. The most prominent Western shrine was the monastery in Rouen that claimed to house Catherines fingers and it was not alone in the west, however, accompanied by many, scattered shrines and altars dedicated to Catherine, which existed throughout France and England
Catherine of Alexandria
–
Bernardino Luini – Portrait of Catherine of Alexandria (
National Art Museum of Azerbaijan)
Catherine of Alexandria
–
Icon of Saint Catherine of Alexandria, with scenes from her martyrdom.
Catherine of Alexandria
–
St Catherine of Alexandria by
Artemisia Gentileschi
Catherine of Alexandria
–
Catherine of Alexandria, by
Carlo Crivelli.
22.
Worshipful Company of Haberdashers
–
The Worshipful Company of Haberdashers, one of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies, is an ancient merchant guild of London, England associated with the silk and velvet trades. The Haberdashers Company follows the Mercers Company in precedence, receiving its first Royal Charter in 1448, the formal name under which it is incorporated is The Master and Four Wardens of the Fraternity of the Art or Mystery of Haberdashers in the City of London. As an educational foundation, the Haberdashers Company maintains a tradition of supporting schools. It founded a school in Hoxton in 1690, and following redevelopment of the site, in June 1875, it reopened the school. At the same time, it opened a boys and girls school in Hatcham, the Hoxton Boys School moved to Hampstead, North London, and subsequently to Elstree in 1961 to become the Haberdashers Askes Boys School, Elstree. The Girls School, founded in Hoxton moved to Creffield Road, Acton, opening on 1st November 1989 with 47 Hoxton pupils and 12 new girls, working in a temporary iron building. In September 1974, it opened on its present site in Elstree as Haberdashers Askes School for Girls, in 1990, at Haberdashers School, Monmouth, the Glover Music School was established funded by Dr Jane Glover CBE, sister of the present Master. In keeping with its Christian tradition, the Haberdashers Company continues to present copies of the King James Bible to starters at all its schools, the company owns and takes an interest in the patronage of its eight parish church advowsons. The company is sole trustee of two educational charities, Haberdashers Askes Charity and the William Joness Schools Foundation. The company ranks eighth in the order of precedence of City livery companies and, as such, like other livery companies, it supports the work of the Lord Mayor, the City of London Corporation and the Sheriffs of London. HRH The Earl of Wessex currently serves on the Haberdashers Court of Assistants, the Haberdashers motto is Serve and Obey. The Haberdashers Company moved to its new hall at 18 West Smithfield on 15 April 2002, on 24 October 2002 Queen Elizabeth II was welcomed by the Master Haberdasher, Nicholas Lund, to formally declare its Hall open. On the south side of the property, the company has developed office space opens onto Hosier Lane. Within the hall, its cloisters to the side lead via a circular staircase to the first floor where its Court Room, Committee Room. The reception gallery leads to the hall, which has a high vaulted ceiling and is entirely oak-panelled. There are also offices for staff, facilities for catering staff with storage and cellars below the hall, together with accommodation for the Master. The Clerk to the Haberdashers Company, since 2013, is Commodore Philip Thicknesse RN, and the Revd Canon David Parrott serves as Honorary Chaplain. cityoflondon. gov. uk
Worshipful Company of Haberdashers
–
An 1831 heraldic
property mark of the Haberdashers' Company
23.
City of London
–
The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
City of London
–
The City of London skyline in December 2013
City of London
–
The
Waterloo Helmet, c. 150–50 BC, found in the
River Thames
City of London
–
A surviving fragment of the
London Wall, built around 200 AD, close to
Tower Hill
City of London
–
Plaque near
Southwark Bridge noting the activities around the time of
King Alfred.
24.
Harry Truman
–
Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
Harry Truman
–
Harry S. Truman
Harry Truman
–
Truman in uniform ca. 1918
Harry Truman
–
Drawer from the Senate desk used by Truman
Harry Truman
–
Roosevelt /Truman poster from 1944
25.
Hatter
–
Hatmaking is the manufacture of hats and head-wear. Millinery is the designing and manufacture of hats, a millinery shop is a store that sells those goods. A milliner or hatter designs, makes, trims, or sells hats, Millinery is sold to women, men and children, though some definitions limit the term to womens hats. More recently, the term milliner has evolved to describe a person who designs, makes, sells or trims hats primarily for a female clientele. The origin of the term is probably the Middle English milener, meaning an inhabitant of the city of Milan or one who deals in items from Milan, known for its fashion, many styles of headgear have been popular through history and worn for different functions and events. They can be part of uniforms or worn to indicate social status, styles include the top hat, hats worn as part of military uniforms, cowboy hat, and cocktail hat. This is a partial list of people who have had a significant influence on hatmaking, international Hat Company, an American manufacturer credited with inventing one of Americas most popular early 20th century harvest hats for field hands, farmers, and workmen. Hawley Products Company, an American manufacturer credited with inventing the tropical shaped, pressed fiber sun helmet used from World War II through the Persian Gulf War. John Cavanagh, an American hatter whose innovations included manufacturing regular, long, james Lock & Co. of London, is credited with the introduction of the bowler hat in 1849. John Batterson Stetson, credited with inventing the classic cowboy hat Giuseppe Borsalino, anna Ben-Yusuf wrote The Art of Millinery, one of the first reference books on millinery technique. Rose Bertin, milliner and modiste to Marie Antoinette, is described as the worlds first celebrity fashion designer. John Boyd is one of Londons most respected milliners and is known for the famous pink tricorn hat worn by Diana, lilly Daché was a famous American milliner of the mid-20th century. Frederick Fox was an Australian born milliner noted for his designs for the British Royal family, mr. John was an American milliner considered by some to be the millinery equivalent of Dior in the 1940s and 1950s. Stephen Jones of London, is considered one of the worlds most radical and important milliners of the late 20th, simone Mirman was known for her designs for Elizabeth II and other members of the British Royal Family. Caroline Reboux was a milliner of the 19th and early 20th centuries. David Shilling is a milliner, artist and designer based in Monaco. Justin Smith is an award-winning milliner creating bespoke and couture hats under the J Smith Esquire brand, philip Treacy of London is an award-winning milliner
Hatter
–
Paja toquilla hatmaker,
Cuenca,
Ecuador
Hatter
–
Canada's early fur trade was largely built on the fashion for
beaver hats in Europe, particularly
top hats. The steps in manufacturing hats are illustrated in this image from 1858.
Hatter
–
Hat-maker making a felt hat
Hatter
–
The Millinery Shop by Edgar Degas
26.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
27.
Tack (sewing)
–
In sewing, to tack or baste is to make quick, temporary stitching intended to be removed. X-shaped tacking stitches are also common on vents on the back of mens suit jackets. They are meant to hold the flaps in place during shipping and they should be removed before being worn, however many buyers do not realize it. Brand labels loosely basted on the edges of the sleeves of suits as well as womens winter coats should also be removed after purchase. They are meant to help customers to identify the brands in the store without reaching into the collar. To temporarily attach a lace collar, ruffles, or other trim to clothing so that the article may be removed easily for cleaning or to be worn with a different garment. For this purpose, tacking stitches are sewn by hand in such a way that they are almost invisible from the outside of the garment, to transfer pattern markings to fabric, or to otherwise mark the point where two pieces of fabric are to be joined. A special loose looped stitch used for purpose is called a tack or tailors tack. A basting stitch is essentially a straight stitch, sewn with long stitches, the basting stitch is used for temporarily holding sandwiched pieces of fabric in place. The stitch is removed after the piece is finished, often used in quilting or embroidery
Tack (sewing)
–
Basting thread on the right side (outer side) of fabric.
Tack (sewing)
–
Tracing paper from a pattern is basted to fabric before a piece is cut. The basting marks are outlined with
tailor's chalk.
Tack (sewing)
–
Tailor's tacks mark fabric to trace a pattern piece, without attaching tracing paper.
28.
Darning
–
Darning is a sewing technique for repairing holes or worn areas in fabric or knitting using needle and thread alone. It is often done by hand, but it is possible to darn with a sewing machine. Net darning, also called filet lace, is a 19th-century technique using stitching on a foundation fabric to imitate lace. Needle weaving is a drawn thread work embroidery technique that involves darning patterns into barelaid warp or weft thread, in its simplest form, darning consists of anchoring the thread in the fabric on the edge of the hole and carrying it across the gap. It is then anchored on the side, usually with a running stitch or two. If enough threads are criss-crossed over the hole, the hole will eventually be covered with a mass of thread, fine darning, sometimes known as Belgian darning, attempts to make the repair as invisible and neat as possible. Often the hole is cut into a square or darn blends into the fabric, there are many varieties of fine darning. Simple over-and-under weaving of threads can be replaced by various fancy weaves, such as twills, chevrons, invisible darning is the epitome of this attempt at restoring the fabric to its original integrity. Threads from the original weaving are unraveled from a hem or seam, invisible darning is appropriate for extremely expensive fabrics and items of apparel. In machine darning, lines of machine running stitch are run back and forth across the hole, then the fabric is rotated and this is a fast way to darn, but it cannot match the effects of fine darning. When the repairs are finished, the egg is removed. A shell of the tiger cowry Cypraea tigris, an ornament in Europe. A darning mushroom is a tool usually made of wood. The sock is stretched over the top of the mushroom. A darning gourd is a dried gourd with a pronounced neck. The sock can be stretched over the end of the gourd. A used incandescent light bulb can be used to hold a sock in place for darning, the length of the stitches may be varied to produce geometric designs. Traditional embroidery using pattern darning is found in Africa, Japan, Northern and Eastern Europe, pattern darning is also used as a filling stitch in blackwork embroidery
Darning
–
"Cashmere darn", a fine darning technique for
twill fabric, from The Dictionary of Needlework, 1885.
Darning
–
"Swiss darning" to repair knits
Darning
–
Darning egg, early 20th century
Darning
–
Pattern darning
29.
Gather (sewing)
–
Gathering is a sewing technique for shortening the length of a strip of fabric so that the longer piece can be attached to a shorter piece. It is commonly used in clothing to manage fullness, as when a full sleeve is attached to the armscye or cuff of a shirt, in simple gathering, parallel rows of running stitches are sewn along one edge of the fabric to be gathered. The stitching threads are pulled or drawn up so that the fabric forms small folds along the threads. Gathering seams once involved tedious hand sewing of basting, which was time consuming and inefficient, now, a quick and easy way to make a gather is to use a wide zigzag stitch with a sewing machine. Both the upper and lower thread are pulled long and placed in front of the sewing machine, then zigzagging is carefully sewed over top of the two threads without catching the threads as it is sewn. At the end the thread is pulled and is then gathered, pleating is mainly used to make skirts, but can have other uses. It is very used to make larger pieces of clothing with some shape to them
Gather (sewing)
–
Paul Revere in a shirt gathered at shoulder and cuffs, 1776.
Gather (sewing)
–
This photo shows a quick and easy method of machine gathering. This zigzag gathering technique is the strongest and most sturdy method of gathering.
30.
Gusset
–
In sewing, a gusset is a triangular or rhomboidal piece of fabric inserted into a seam to add breadth or reduce stress from tight-fitting clothing. Gussets were used at the shoulders, underarms, and hems of traditional shirts, gussets are used in manufacturing of modern tights and pantyhose to add breadth at the crotch seam. As with other underwear, these gussets are often made of moisture-wicking breathable fabrics such as cotton, to keep the genital area dry. The phrase dont bust a gusset is an admonition to calm down, becoming so enraged and inflated that one busted a gusset would imply extreme rage and expansion beyond ones clothing capacity. Gussets are also used when making three-piece bags, for example in a pattern for a bag as a long, wide piece which connects the front piece and back piece. By becoming the sides and bottom of the bag, the opens the bag up beyond what simply attaching the front to the back would do. With reference to the dimension of the gusset, the measurements of a flat bottom bag may be quoted as LxWxG, pillows too, are often gusseted, generally an inch or two. The side panels thicken the pillow, allowing more stuffing without bulging, gussets are also used in other areas of manufacturing, e. g. bicycle frames employ gussets to add strength and rigidity. Gusset plates, usually triangular, are used to join metal plates. Special envelopes will also employ a gusset to allow for expansion when containing more than just a few sheets of paper for example
Gusset
–
Late medieval shirt with gussets in the seams at shoulder, underarm, and
hem.
31.
Stitch (textile arts)
–
In the textile arts, a stitch is a single turn or loop of thread, or yarn. Stitches are the elements of sewing, knitting, embroidery, crochet. A variety of stitches, each one or more names, are used for specific purposes. In knitting, a stitch is a loop of yarn, secured to the loops beside it to form a row or course of stitches and to the loops above. In securing the previous stitch in a wale, the next stitch can pass through the previous loop either from below or above, if the former, the stitch is denoted as a knit stitch or a plain stitch, if the latter, as a purl stitch. The two stitches are related in that a knit stitch seen from one side of the fabric appears as a stitch on the other side. In crochet, stitches are made by pulling a loop of thread through the work with a crochet hook, crochet stitches are named based on their structure. In the English-speaking crochet world, basic stitches have different names that vary by country, the differences are usually referred to as UK/US or British/American
Stitch (textile arts)
–
Hand-stitches.
Stitch (textile arts)
–
Fundamentals
32.
Backstitch
–
In embroidery, these stitches form lines and are most often used to outline shapes and to add fine detail to an embroidered picture. It is used as a hand-sewing utility stitch to attach definitively and strongly two pieces of fabric together and it is also used for writing. Basic backstitch is used to outline shapes in modern cross-stitch, in Assisi embroidery, although superficially similar to Holbein stitch, commonly used in blackwork embroidery, backstitch differs in the way it is worked, requiring a single journey only to complete a line of stitching. Stem stitch is an ancient technique, surviving mantles embroidered with stem stitch by the Paracas people of Peru are dated to the first century BCE. Stem stitch is used in the Bayeux Tapestry, an embroidered cloth probably dating to the later 1070s, for lettering, split stitch in silk is characteristic of Opus Anglicanum, an embroidery style of Medieval England. Backstitch is most easily worked on a fabric, where the threads can be counted to ensure regularity. The stitches are worked in a two steps forward, one step back fashion, along the line to be filled, as shown in the diagram, neatly worked in a straight line this stitch resembles chain stitching produced by a sewing machine. The back stitch can also be used as a hand sewing utility stitch to attach two pieces of fabric together, variants of backstitch include, Basic backstitch or point de sable. It is generally used for outlining shapes and for stitching flower stems, whipped stem stitch Outline stitch, sometimes distinguished from stem stitch in that the thread passes above rather than below the needle. Split stitch, in which the needle pierces the thread rather than returning to one side, Assisi embroidery Blackwork embroidery Cross-stitch Embroidery stitches Caulfield, S. F. A. and B. C. Saward, The Dictionary of Needlework,1885, mary Thomass Dictionary of Embroidery Stitches, Revised by Jan Eaton. ISBN 0-340-51075-7 Enthoven, Jacqueline, The Creative Stitches of Embroidery, Van Norstrand Rheinhold,1964, ISBN 0-442-22318-8 Readers Digest, Complete Guide to Needlework. ISBN 0-89577-059-8 Levey, S. M. and D. King, The Victoria and Albert Museums Textile Collection Vol.3, Embroidery in Britain from 1200 to 1750, Victoria and Albert Museum,1993, ISBN 1-85177-126-3
Backstitch
–
Detail of the
Bayeux Tapestry showing text and outlines in stem stitch.
Backstitch
–
Styles
Backstitch
Backstitch
33.
Bar tack
–
In sewing, bar tack, also written bar-tack or bartack, refers to a series of stitches used to reinforce areas of a garment that may be subject to stress or additional wear. Typical areas for bar tack stitches include pocket openings, buttonholes, belt loops, the bottom of a fly opening, tucks, pleats, bar tacks may be sewn by hand, using whip stitches, or by machine, using zigzag stitches. The bar commonly varies between 1⁄16 to 1⁄8 inch in width and 1⁄4 to 3⁄8 inch in length, in some garments, such as jeans, the bar tack will be sewn in a contrasting color. Similar stitches to the bar include the arrowhead tack and crows foot tack
Bar tack
–
Two bartack stitches, blue and white, on a piece of cloth.
34.
Blanket stitch
–
The blanket stitch is a stitch used to reinforce the edge of thick materials. Depending on circumstances, it may also be called a whip stitch or a crochet stitch and it is defined as A decorative stitch used to finish an unhemmed blanket. The stitch can be seen on sides of the blanket. This stitch has long been both an application by hand and as a machine sewn stitch, when done by hand, it is sometimes considered a crochet stitch, used to join pieces together to make a blanket or other larger item. It is used in sewing leather pieces together, as traditionally done by indigenous American cultures, the whipstitch is also a type of surgical suturing stitch. When done by machine, it may be called a whip stitch or, sometimes and this machine was produced and patented by the Merrow Machine Company in 1877. The defining characteristic of the machine is its ability to sew with yarn. From 1877-1925 the machine evolved dramatically, and consequently so did the capacity of manufacturers to produce goods with the whip stitch, the blanket stitch is commonly used as a decorative stitch on an array of garments. Besides blankets, it is used on sweaters, outerwear, swimsuits, home furnishings, pillows, there are many styles of production blanket stitching, including rolled, narrow, with elastic, and traditional. Additionally, the term blanket stitch has become a verb, describing the application of the stitch
Blanket stitch
–
A
merrow blanket stitch
Blanket stitch
–
A merrow industrial crochet machine
Blanket stitch
Blanket stitch
35.
Blind stitch
–
A blind stitch in sewing is a method of joining two pieces of fabric so that the stitch thread is invisible, or nearly invisible. There are several techniques for creating a blind stitch by hand sewing, a common technique used to create a hem, or blind hem, hides the stitches on both sides of the garment. The sewer catches only a few threads of the each time the needle is pulled through the fabric. Other techniques hide the stitch within the folds of the fabric, a slip stitch or catch stitch can be used to create the blind stitch, except that they are worked inside the hem, 1⁄8 to 1⁄4 inch away from the edge of the hem fabric. A sewing machine can also create a blind hem, in this case, a specialty presser foot is needed. A zigzag stitch technique may be used with a machine to create a blind stitch
Blind stitch
–
References [edit]
36.
Buttonhole stitch
–
Buttonhole stitch and the related blanket stitch are hand-sewing stitches used in tailoring, embroidery, and needle lace-making. Buttonhole stitches catch a loop of the thread on the surface of the fabric, the finished stitch in some ways resembles a letter L depending on the spacing of the stitches. For buttonholes the stitches are tightly packed together and for blanket edges they are spaced out. The properties of this make it ideal for preventing raveling of woven fabric. Buttonhole stitches are structurally similar to featherstitches, buttonhole stitch scallops, usually raised or padded by rows of straight or chain stitches, were a popular edging in the 19th century. Buttonhole stitches are used in cutwork, including Broderie Anglaise. Embroidery stitch Virginia Churchill Bath, Needlework in America, Viking Press,1979 ISBN 0-670-50575-7 S. F. A, saward, The Dictionary of Needlework,1885. Samplers and Stitches, a handbook of the art, London 1920,1989 facsimile, Batsford. Media related to Embroidery stitches at Wikimedia Commons
Buttonhole stitch
–
Embroidery with stems in buttonhole and leaves in detached buttonhole stitch, worked in natural
perle cotton on cotton-linen
fabric,
United States, 1990s.
Buttonhole stitch
–
Raised buttonhole scallops, from
Isabella Beeton 's Beeton's Book of Needlework
Buttonhole stitch
–
Tailor's buttonhole stitch
Buttonhole stitch
–
Styles
37.
Cross stitches
–
Cross stitches in embroidery, needlepoint, and other forms of needlework include a number of related stitches in which the thread is sewn in an x or + shape. Cross stitch has been called probably the most widely used stitch of all and is part of the traditions of the Balkans, Middle East, Afghanistan, Colonial America. Cross stitches were typical of 16th century canvas work, falling out of fashion in favor of tent stitch toward the end of the century, canvas work in cross stitch became popular again in the mid-19th century with the Berlin wool work craze. Herringbone, fishbone, Van Dyke, and related crossed stitches are used in embroidery, especially to add texture to stems, leaves. Basic cross stitch is used to fill backgrounds in Assisi work, much of contemporary cross-stitch embroidery derives from this tradition. F. A. and B. C. Saward, The Dictionary of Needlework,1885, enthoven, Jacqueline, The Creative Stitches of Embroidery, Van Norstrand Rheinhold,1964, ISBN 0-442-22318-8 Readers Digest, Complete Guide to Needlework
Cross stitches
–
Detail of cross stitch embroidery from
Sweden.
Cross stitches
–
Cross stitch sampler with alphabets, crowns, and coronets, 1760
Cross stitches
–
Cross stitch in canvas work
Cross stitches
–
Basic cross stitch as worked in embroidery
38.
Chain stitch
–
Chain stitch is a sewing and embroidery technique in which a series of looped stitches form a chain-like pattern. Chain stitch is an ancient craft – examples of surviving Chinese chain stitch embroidery worked in silk thread have been dated to the Warring States period, handmade chain stitch embroidery does not require that the needle pass through more than one layer of fabric. For this reason the stitch is an effective surface embellishment near seams on finished fabric, because chain stitches can form flowing, curved lines, they are used in many surface embroidery styles that mimic drawing in thread. Chain stitches are used in making tambour lace, needlelace, macramé. The earliest archaeological evidence of chain stitch embroidery dates from 1100 BC in China, excavated from royal tombs, the embroidery was made using threads of silk. Chain stitch embroidery has also found dating to the Warring States period. Chain stitch designs spread to Iran through the Silk Road, chain stitch was the stitch used by early sewing machines, however, as it is easily unravelled from fabric, this was soon replaced with the more secure lockstitch. Machine embroidery in chain stitch, often in traditional hand-worked crewel designs, is found on curtains, bed linens, then, as the needle rises upward, the friction of the thread against the fabric is sufficient to form a small loop on the underside of the material. That loop is caught by a needle which is beneath the work. The machine then moves the material forward projecting the loop on the underside from the previous stitch, the next drop of the needle goes through the previous loop. The circular needle then releases the first loop and picks up the new loop, the Double chain stitch uses two threads. It is rarely used in todays machines except for ornamental purposes because it uses a lot of thread and it is found in bulk material packaging, where it is used to close big bags. In this case it is useful to allow an easy opening of the bag. F. A, saward, The Dictionary of Needlework,1885. March 1992, ISBN 0-89577-059-8 Kalotaszeg embroidery at MagyarMuseum. org
Chain stitch
–
Traditional embroidery in chain stitch on a
Kazakh rug, contemporary.
Chain stitch
–
Detail of an embroidered silk gauze ritual garment from a 4th-century BC, Zhou era tomb at Mashan, Hubei province, China. Rows of even, round chain-stitches are used both for outline and to fill in color.
Chain stitch
–
Machine embroidery in chain stitch on a
voile curtain,
China, early 21st century.
Chain stitch
–
Open chain stitch from
Kalotaszeg, early 20th century.
39.
Cross-stitch
–
Cross-stitch is a form of sewing and a popular form of counted-thread embroidery in which X-shaped stitches in a tiled, raster-like pattern are used to form a picture. The stitcher counts the threads on a piece of fabric in each direction so that the stitches are of uniform size. This form of cross-stitch is also called counted cross-stitch in order to distinguish it from other forms of cross-stitch, sometimes cross-stitch is done on designs printed on the fabric, the stitcher simply stitches over the printed pattern. Cross-stitch is also executed on easily countable fabric called aida cloth, fabrics used in cross-stitch include linen, aida, and mixed-content fabrics called evenweave such as jobelan. Fabrics are categorized by threads per inch, which can range from 11 to 40 count, aida fabric has a lower count because it is made with two threads grouped together for ease of stitching. The finished stitching size is reduced by half if the stitcher counts and stitches over one fabric thread. These methods are referred to as 2 over 2 - i. e.2 embroidery threads used to stitch over 2 fabric threads. Cross-stitch is the oldest form of embroidery and can be all over the world. Many folk museums show examples of clothing decorated with cross-stitch, especially from continental Europe, Asia, and Eastern and Central Europe. The cross stitch sampler is called that because it was stitched by a young girl to learn how to stitch and to record alphabet. These samples of her stitching could be referred back to over the years, often, motifs and initials were stitched on household items to identify their owner, or simply to decorate the otherwise-plain cloth. In the United States, the earliest known cross-stitch sampler is currently housed at Pilgrim Hall in Plymouth, the sampler was created by Loara Standish, daughter of Captain Myles Standish and pioneer of the Leviathan stitch, circa 1653. Traditionally, cross-stitch was used to embellish items like household linens, tablecloths, dishcloths, although there are many cross-stitchers who still employ it in this fashion, it is now increasingly popular to work the pattern on pieces of fabric and hang them on the wall for decoration. Cross stitch is often used to make greeting cards, pillowtops, or as inserts for box tops, coasters. Multicoloured, shaded, painting-like patterns as we know today are a fairly modern development. Besides designs created expressly for cross stitch, there are programs that convert a photograph or a fine art image into a chart suitable for stitching. One stunning example of this is in the cross stitched reproduction of the Sistine Chapel charted and stitched by Joanna Lopianowski-Roberts, individually owned local needlework shops often have stitching nights at their shops, or host weekend stitching retreats. Today cotton floss is the most common embroidery thread and it is a thread made of mercerized cotton, composed of six strands that are only loosely twisted together and easily separable
Cross-stitch
–
Cross-stitch
sampler,
Germany
Cross-stitch
–
Detail of floral border pattern in cotton. Tea cloth (small tablecloth),
Hungary, mid-twentieth century
Cross-stitch
–
Cross stitch from
Surif. Top half of picture is the reverse side.
Cross-stitch
–
Ukrainian girls in traditional embroidered costumes
40.
Embroidery stitch
–
The thread stroke on the front side produced by this is also called stitch. In the context of embroidery, an embroidery stitch means one or more stitches that are executed in the same way. Embroidery stitches are also called stitches for short, embroidery stitches are the smallest units in embroidery. Embroidery uses various combinations of stitches, each embroidery stitch has a special name to help identify it. These names vary from country to country and region to region, some embroidery books will include name variations. Taken by themselves the stitches are mostly simple to execute, however when put together the results can be extremely complex, Straight stitches pass through the fabric ground in a simple up and down motion, and for the most part moving in a single direction. Examples of straight stitches are, Running or basting stitch Simple satin stitch Algerian eye stitch Fern stitch Straight Stitches that have two journeys, examples, Holbein stitch, also known as the double running stitch Bosnian stitch Back stitches pass through the fabric ground in an encircling motion. The needle then goes back to the back of the fabric through the hole the stitch first came up from. The needle then repeats the movement to the left of the stitches and continues, some examples of a back stitch are, Stem stitch or outline stitch Split stitch. The needle pierces the thread as it come back up, crewel stitch Chain stitches catch a loop of the thread on the surface of the fabric. The needle then passes back to the back of the fabric through the second hole, examples of chain stitches are, Chain stitch Lazy Daisy stitch, or detached chain. The loop stitch is held to the fabric at the end by a tiny tacking stitch. In the classic buttonhole stitch, the needle is returned to the back of the fabric at an angle to the original start of the thread. The finished stitch in some ways resembles a letter L depending on the spacing of the stitches, for buttonholes the stitches are tightly packed together and for blanket edges they are more spaced out. The properties of this make it ideal for preventing raveling of woven fabric. This stitch is also the basis for many forms of needle lace, examples of buttonhole or blanket stitches. Many examples of cross stitches can be found here Knotted stitches are formed by wrapping the thread around the needle, once or several times and this is a predominate stitch in Brazilian embroidery, used to create flowers. Another form of embroidery that uses knots is Candlewicking, where the knots are created by forming a figure 8 around the needle
Embroidery stitch
Embroidery stitch
–
An illustration of the buttonhole stitch.
Embroidery stitch
Embroidery stitch
–
Bullion knot
41.
Hemstitch
–
Hemstitch or hem-stitch is a decorative drawn thread work or openwork hand-sewing technique for embellishing the hem of clothing or household linens. Unlike an ordinary hem, hemstitching can employ embroidery thread in a color so as to be noticeable. Multiple rows of drawn thread work may be used, hand hemstitching can be imitated by a hemstitching machine which has a piercer that pierces holes into the fabric and two separate needles that sew the hole open. There are also hemstitcher attachments for home sewing machines, and simple decorative stitches can be used over drawn threads to suggest hand-hemstitching
Hemstitch
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Hemstitched
handkerchief.
42.
Lockstitch
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A lockstitch is the most common mechanical stitch made by a sewing machine. The term single needle stitching, often found on dress shirt labels, the lockstitch uses two threads, an upper and a lower. Lockstitch is so named because the two threads, upper and lower, lock together in the hole in the fabric which they pass through. The upper thread runs from a spool kept on a spindle on top of or next to the machine, through a mechanism, through the take-up arm. Meanwhile the lower thread is wound onto a bobbin, which is inserted into a case in the section of the machine below the material. To make one stitch, the machine lowers the threaded needle through the cloth into the bobbin area, the hook mechanism carries the upper thread entirely around the bobbin case, so that it has made one wrap of the bobbin thread. Then the take-up arm pulls the upper thread back to the top. Then the feed dogs pull the material along one stitch length, ideally, the lockstitch is formed in the center of the thickness of the material—that is to say, ideally the upper thread entwines the lower thread in the middle of the material. The thread tension mechanisms, one for the thread and one for the lower thread. The geometry of the lockstitch is controlled by the presence or absence of, sideways movements of the machines needle, in older machines, the needle and feed motion is controlled by mechanical cams. Some modern household machines offer a slot for user-replaceable custom stitch cams, in more recent designs, the needle and feed motion are directly motorized. Straight stitch geometry is produced when the needle has no sideways movements, because its two threads run straight and parallel, a straight stitch is not natively stretchable. Zigzag stitch geometry is produced when the needle moves rhythmically side to side while stitching, most lockstitch machines made after the 1960s are capable of doing this, older machines achieve the same stitch with a specialist presser foot which moves the fabric beneath the stationary needle. Zigzag stitches are used when a stretchable stitch is required, such as when sewing stretchy fabrics, blind stitch geometry is a derivative of the zigzag. It is created in the manner, except that the needle zigs to the side. It is used to reduce the visibility of hems and other seam edges, stretch stitch geometry is specifically for stretchability. While the needle is moving, as for straight or zigzag stitches, as with zigzag stitches, stretch stitching is controlled by mechanical cams, but because of the dual action, stretch stitch machines have double cams. Most home sewing machines are machines, although overlockers have entered the home market in the past ten years or so
Lockstitch
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Thread tension correct and incorrect
Lockstitch
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Sewing machine creating a lockstitch using an oscillating boat shuttle
43.
Overlock
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An overlock is a kind of stitch that sews over the edge of one or two pieces of cloth for edging, hemming, or seaming. Usually an overlock sewing machine will cut the edges of the cloth as they are fed through, though some are made without cutters, the inclusion of automated cutters allows overlock machines to create finished seams easily and quickly. An overlock sewing machine differs from a sewing machine in that it uses loopers fed by multiple thread cones rather than a bobbin. Loopers serve to create loops that pass from the needle thread to the edges of the fabric so that the edges of the fabric are contained within the seam. Overlock sewing machines usually run at speeds, from 1000 to over 9000 rpm. Overlock stitches are extremely versatile, as they can be used for decoration, reinforcement, overlocking is also referred to as overedging, merrowing, or serging. Though serging” technically refers to overlocking with cutters, in practice the four terms are used interchangeably, overlock stitching was invented by the Merrow Machine Company in 1881. J. Makens Merrow and his son Joseph Merrow, who owned a mill established in Connecticut in 1838. Merrows first patent was a machine for crochet stitching, and the Merrow Machine Company still produces crochet machines based on this original model and this technology was a starting point for the development of the overlock machine, patented by Joseph Merrow in 1889. Unlike standard lockstitching, which uses a bobbin, overlock sewing machines utilize loopers to create thread loops for the needle to pass through, merrows original three-thread overedge sewing machine is the forerunner of contemporary overlocking machines. Throughout the early 20th Century, the areas of Connecticut, USA and New York, USA were the centers of textile manufacturing, consequently many overlock machine companies established themselves in the Northeastern United States. They presented the concept to their company, but the idea was rejected, the group, so committed to this concept, quit their jobs and formed a new company, Juki Corporation, to design and build their dream machine. This was the birth of a machine that could produce an overlock stitch – a baby lock. Nick Tacony, founder of Tacony Corporation, had the foresight and ability to alert to new consumer demands. This eliminated the challenge of finishing seams with a machine by giving sewing enthusiasts the opportunity to create clothing like a professional garment manufacturer. In the United States, the term overlocker has largely replaced by serger. However, in parts of the world such as Australia and the UK. Overlock stitches are classified in a number of ways, the most basic classification is by the number of threads used in the stitch
Overlock
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The purl stitch.
Overlock
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An overlock machine.
Overlock
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A Zoje 5 cone industrial overlocker
Overlock
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1-thread, 5/8” wide, 12 stitches per inch
44.
Pick stitch
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A pick stitch in sewing is a simple running stitch that catches only a few threads of the fabric, showing very little of the thread on the right side of the garment. It is also known as stab stitch. A pick stitch can be made either the inside of the garment or the outside. A pick stitch is used for making hems, although it is also used with contrasting thread to create a decorative finish on some garments. It has decorative uses in embroidery and it is exceedingly useful for inserting zips and is surprisingly strong for this purpose. Many home-sewers and new dressmakers find this easier than inserting zips by sewing machine. A pick stitch along the outside of a lapel is a hallmark of a high-end, a finely made pick stitch is difficult to accomplish but can be achieved with practice
Pick stitch
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A pick stitched hem using thread that closely matches the colour of the fabric, appearing almost invisible on the outside of the garment.
Pick stitch
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A pick stitch in contrasting thread creating a decorative embroidery outline inside the petals of a fabric poppy.
45.
Running stitch
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The running stitch or straight stitch is the basic stitch in hand-sewing and embroidery, on which all other forms of sewing are based. The stitch is worked by passing the needle in and out of the fabric, Running stitches may be of varying length, but typically more thread is visible on the top of the sewing than on the underside. So, a running stitch runs through the fabric, Running stitches are used in hand-sewing and tailoring to sew basic seams, in hand patchwork to assemble pieces, and in quilting to hold the fabric layers and batting or wadding in place. Loosely spaced rows of running stitches are used to support padded satin stitch. Running stitches are a component of traditional embroidery styles, including kantha of India and Bangladesh. Basting stitches, also called tailors tack, are long running stitches used to two pieces of fabric or trim aligned during final sewing, or to otherwise temporarily sew two pieces together. Darning stitches are closely spaced rows of running stitches used to fill or reinforce worn areas of a textile. Holbein or double-running stitches have a row of running stitches worked in a reverse direction in between the stitches of the first pass, to make a solid line of stitching. Double darning stitches are closely spaced rows of Holbein stitches, embroidery stitch Caulfield, S. F. A. and B. C. Saward, The Dictionary of Nedlework,1885, ISBN 0-89577-059-8 Running Stitch Younes is on wikee
Running stitch
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Detail of a contemporary
quilt with
quilting in free-form white and colored running stitches.
Running stitch
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Embroidered Pillow Cover,
Naxos, 17th-18th century. Silk embroidery on linen ground fabric. Embroidery: running stitch in alternate alignment.
Running stitch
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Styles
Running stitch
46.
Sashiko stitching
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Sashiko is a form of decorative reinforcement stitching from Japan. Traditionally used to reinforce points of wear or to repair worn places or tears with patches, the white cotton thread on the traditional indigo blue cloth gives sashiko its distinctive appearance, though decorative items sometimes use red thread. Sashiko embroidery was used to strengthen the homespun clothes of olden times, worn out clothes were pieced together to make new garments by using simple running stitches. These clothes increased their strength with this durable embroidery, mostly geometric patterns are used to make this work. The embroidery uses special sashiko thread and needle, modern day sashiko stitching is not restricted to the traditional indigo coloured fabric but uses a variety of colour combinations, and it is considered a beautiful surface embellishment for fabrics. Many sashiko patterns were derived from Chinese designs, but just as many were developed by the Japanese themselves
Sashiko stitching
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Sashiko stitching on a reversible fireman's coat (hikeshibanten) with
ginkgo leaves (top), interlocking circles (bottom), and
kanji characters,
paste-resist dying and hand-painted pigment on plain-weave cotton, from the late
Edo -early
Meiji period (
Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
Sashiko stitching
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Quilting
Sashiko stitching
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Styles
Sashiko stitching
47.
Topstitch
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Topstitching is a sewing technique where the line of stitching is designed to be seen from the outside of the garment, either decorative or functional. Topstitching is used most often on garment edges such as necklines and hems and it can also be used to attach details like pockets or tabs on zippers, especially on bags. Decorative topstitching is designed to show, and may be done in a thread or with a special type of stitch. Otherwise, topstitching is generally done using a straight stitch with a thread that matches the fashion fabric
Topstitch
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A shirt
placket with buttons and topstitching.
48.
Zigzag stitch
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A zigzag stitch is variant geometry of the lockstitch. When creating a zigzag stitch, the motion of the sewing machines needle is controlled by a cam. As the cam rotates, a follower, connected to the needle bar, rides along the cam. As the follower moves in and out, the bar is moved from side to side. Sewing machines made before the mid 1960s mostly lack this hardware and so cannot natively produce a zigzag stitch, some notable exceptions are the Necchi, the first dedicated zigzag machine for the consumer market, introduced in 1947, and the Elna Supermatic introduced in 1952. The Supermatic was the first example of a machine with interchangeable cams, enabling a vast range of other stitches rather than just zigzag. Older sewing machines which only sew a straight stitch can be adapted to sew a zigzag by means of an attachment, the attachment replaces the machines presser foot with its own, and draws mechanical power from the machines needle clamp. It creates a zigzag by mechanically moving the side to side as the machine runs. The zigzaggers foot has longitudinal grooves on its underside, facing the material and this allows the zigzagger to move the material side to side while the machines feed dogs are simultaneously moving the material forward or backward in the usual manner. Singer produced variety of Singer Automatic Zigzagger attachments over the years and these zigzaggers are equipped with pop-in cams for making four different zigzag stitches, as well as a bight control for choosing the zigzag width. There are also sets of additional different cams, four cams per set, all cam sets are Singer part number 161008, and contain the following cams, * The #2 red set is included with the 160985 and 161102 zigzaggers. ** Older #2 white sets have red-colored cams, YS Star is a brand of Japanese sewing accessories that once included a zigzagger, model YS-7. Like the Singer zigzagger, it fits almost any low-shank sewing machine and its stitch pattern is controlled by small flat rectangular metal templates, seven of which are included. Two versions were made, The White Sewing Machine Company produced a zigzag attachment like the others and it was called the White Zigzag Attachment, part number 1640. Rather than using cams or templates, it is much simpler, a blind stitch is a variant geometry of the zigzag stitch. It is also called a blind hem and it is composed the same way as a zigzag, except that the individual zig-zag pairs are each separated by several straight stitches. Its purpose is to create a nearly invisible hem, because only the zigzags penetrate to the side of the material
Zigzag stitch
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Singer model 160985 zigzagger
Zigzag stitch
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Singer model 160985 zigzagger kit
Zigzag stitch
