1.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
2.
Ancient South Arabian script
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The ancient Yemeni alphabet branched from the Proto-Sinaitic script in about the 9th century BC. It was used for writing the Old South Arabian languages of the Sabaic, Qatabanic, Hadramautic, Minaean, Himyaritic, the earliest inscriptions in the alphabet date to the 9th century BC in the Akele Guzai region, Eritrea. There are no vowels, instead using the mater lectionis to mark them, in Ethiopia and Eritrea it evolved later into the Geez script, which, with added symbols throughout the centuries, has been used to write Amharic, Tigrinya and Tigre, as well as other languages. Zabūr is the name of the form of the South Arabian script that was used by the ancient Yemenis in addition to their monumental script. As yet only one thousand such texts have been discovered, of which perhaps some 26 have been published. It is usually written from right to left but can also be written left to right. When written from left to right the characters are flipped horizontally, the spacing or separation between words is done with a vertical bar mark. Letters in words are not connected together and it does not implement any diacritical marks, differing in this respect from the modern Arabic alphabet. The South Arabian alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in October,2009 with the release of version 5.2, the Unicode block, called Old South Arabian, is U+10A60–U+10A7F. Note that U+10A7D OLD SOUTH ARABIAN NUMBER ONE represents both the one and a word divider. Photos from National Museum of Yemen, Photos from Yemen Military Museum, Eduard Glaser Carl Rathjens Stein, the Ancient South Arabian Minuscule Inscriptions on Wood, A New Genre of Pre-Islamic Epigraphy. Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap Ex Oriente Lux, die altsüdarabischen Minuskelinschriften auf Holzstäbchen aus der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek in München. Il trono della regina di Saba, Artemide, Roma. pp. 149–155, Ancient scripts on South Arabian SI Omniglots entry on South Arabian
3.
South Arabia
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South Arabia is inhabited by peoples partaking distinctive linguistic and ethnic affinities, as well as traditions and culture, transcending recent political boundaries. This is the region of Qahtanite. Anciently, there was a South Arabian alphabet, which was borrowed by Ethiopia, Yemen or al-Yaman means the right side. One etymology derives Yemen from yamin the right side as the south is on the right facing the sunrise. Another derives Yemen from yumn meaning felicity as the region is fertile, yaman derives from Yam, Yams, Yame, Yame or Miya, Miyah, Miah. Three thousand years ago, several different ancient states occupied the region of South Arabia, e. g. Main, Qataban, Hadhramaut, Saba. In these ancient times South Arabia claimed several notable features, the dam at Marib. Two thousand years ago the Himyarites became the masters of South Arabia, from Ethiopia across Al-Bahr Al-Ahmar came armies of Axum first in the 3rd–4th centuries, then later in the 6th under King Kaleb who established dominion, c. They were displaced by Persian forces of the Sassanid dynasty, c.575, a half-century later, in the year 6 A. H. the region became Muslim. Ancient kingdoms and appellations, Saba, Maīn, Qatabān, Ḥaḑramawt, Awsān, Himyar
4.
Arabian Peninsula
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The Arabian Peninsula, simplified Arabia is a peninsula of Western Asia situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian plate. From a geological perspective, it is considered a subcontinent of Asia and it is the largest peninsula in the world, at 3,237,500 km2. The Arabian Peninsula consists of the countries Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, the Arabian Peninsula plays a critical geopolitical role in the Middle East and the Arab world due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas. Before the modern era, it was divided into four regions, Hejaz, Najd, Southern Arabia. Hejaz and Najd make up most of Saudi Arabia, Southern Arabia consists of Yemen and some parts of Saudi Arabia and Oman. Eastern Arabia consists of the coastal strip of the Persian Gulf. The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the southwest there are mountain ranges, harrat ash Shaam is a large volcanic field that extends from the northwestern Arabian Peninsula into Jordan and southern Syria. The peninsulas constituent countries are Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the island nation of Bahrain lies off the east coast of the peninsula. Six countries form the Gulf Cooperation Council, however, this is a disputed term. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the part of the peninsula. The majority of the population of the live in Saudi Arabia. The peninsula contains the worlds largest reserves of oil, Saudi Arabia and the UAE are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, a peninsula in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home of the Arabic-language television station Al Jazeera. Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, though historically lightly populated, political Arabia is noted for a high population growth rate - as the result of both very strong inflows of migrant labor as well as sustained high birth rates. The population tends to be young and heavily skewed gender ratio dominated by males. In many states, the number of South Asians exceeds that of the local citizenry, the four smallest states, which have their entire coastlines on the Persian Gulf, exhibit the worlds most extreme population growth, roughly tripling every 20 years. In 2014, the population of the Arabian Peninsula was 77,983,936. Listed here are the human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups in Arabia Haplogroup J is the most abundant component in the Arabian peninsula and its two main subclades, show opposite latitudinal gradients in the Middle East
5.
Hadhramaut Governorate
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Hadhramaut or Hadramawt is a governorate of Yemen. Lying within the historical region of Hadhramaut, it is the countrys largest governorate. The capital of Hadhramut is the city of Mukalla, other cities in Hadhramaut include the historical towns of Shibam, Sena, Seiyun, Tarim, and Ash Shihr. It was badly hit by rainfall during the 2008 Yemen floods, the Socotra archipelago was part of Hadhramaut Governorate from 2004 to December 2013 when it formed the newly created Soqatra Governorate
6.
Yemen
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Yemen, officially known as the Republic of Yemen, is an Arab country in Western Asia, occupying South Arabia, the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. Yemen is the second-largest country in the peninsula, occupying 527,970 km2, the coastline stretches for about 2,000 km. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to the south, although Yemens constitutionally stated capital is the city of Sanaa, the city has been under rebel control since February 2015. Because of this, Yemens capital has been relocated to the port city of Aden. Yemens territory includes more than 200 islands, the largest of these is Socotra, Yemen was the home of the Sabaeans, a trading state that flourished for over a thousand years and probably also included parts of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 275 AD, the region came under the rule of the later Jewish-influenced Himyarite Kingdom, Christianity arrived in the fourth century, whereas Judaism and local paganism were already established. Islam spread quickly in the century and Yemenite troops were crucial in the expansion of the early Islamic conquests. Administration of Yemen has long been notoriously difficult, several dynasties emerged from the ninth to 16th centuries, the Rasulid dynasty being the strongest and most prosperous. The country was divided between the Ottoman and British empires in the twentieth century. The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established after World War I in North Yemen before the creation of the Yemen Arab Republic in 1962, South Yemen remained a British protectorate known as the Aden Protectorate until 1967 when it became an independent state and later, a Marxist state. The two Yemeni states united to form the modern republic of Yemen in 1990, Yemen is a developing country, and the poorest country in the Middle East. Under the rule of President Ali Abdullah Saleh, Yemen was described as a kleptocracy, according to the 2009 international corruption Perception Index by Transparency International, Yemen ranked 164 out of 182 countries surveyed. President Saleh stepped down and the powers of the presidency were transferred to Vice President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, the transitional process was disrupted by conflicts between the Houthis and al-Islah, as well as the al-Qaeda insurgency. In September 2014, the Houthis took over Sanaa, later declaring themselves in control of the government in a coup détat, since then, a Saudi-led intervention has taken place, however, it could not stop the civil war. Instead, the Saudis and the others have destroyed some hospitals, schools and homes, Yemen was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions as Yamnat. In Arabic literature, the term includes much greater territory than that of the republic of Yemen. It stretches from the northern Asir Region in southwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar Governorate in southern Oman, one etymology derives Yemen from yumn, meaning felicity, as much of the country is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix, as opposed to Arabia Deserta, al-Yaman significantly plays on the notion of the land to the right, when in Mecca facing the dawn, complementary to Al-Sham, the Land to the Left, referring to the Levant
7.
Thamud
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The Thamūd is the name of an ancient civilization in the Hejaz known from the 1st millennium BC to near the time of Muhammad. The Thamud civilization was located in the north of the peninsula, although they are thought to have originated in Southern Arabia, Arabic tradition has them moving north to settle on the slopes of Mount Athlab near Madain Saleh. Numerous Thamudic rock writings and pictures have found on Mount Ath-lab. The oldest known reference to Thamud is a 715 BC inscription of the Assyrian king Sargon II and they were living here much earlier, well before Abraham when we compare the family tree of Prophets, as their Ancestors were Iram and Ars. They are referred to as ‘Tamudaei’ in the writings of Aristo of Chios, Ptolemy, like the ʿĀd, the Qur’an mentions the Thamud in Surah Al-Araf in the context of several prophets who warned their people of coming judgment. The verses advise Thamud to take warning from the destruction of ʿĀd, to the Thamud people their brother Salih. Worship Allah, you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord and this is the she-camel of God sent to you as a Sign. So leave her to eat within Gods land, and do not touch her with harm, and remember when He made you successors after ʿAd and settled you in the land, and you take for yourselves palaces from its plains and carve from the mountains, homes. Then remember the favors of God and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption. ”This verse suggests some kind of relationship between ʿĀd and Thamud, and ʿĀd may even have been a part of Thamuds history and culture. Just as Nuhs people were seen as the ancestors of ʿĀd, the ʿĀad were a people living in southern Arabia. Some remains of the Thamud were found in the region where the ʿĀd had lived, especially around the region where capital city of the Hadramites, the descendants of ʿĀd, stood. ”So the earthquake seized them, and they became within their home fallen prone. In Surah Al-Qamar it says “Indeed, we sent upon them one shriek and this can be illustrated by what happened among the nations. When the royal authority of ʿĀd was wiped out, their brethren and they were succeeded, in turn, by their brethren, the Amalekites. The Amalekites were succeeded by their brethren, the Himyar, the Himyar were succeeded by their brethren, the Tubbas, who belonged to the Himyar. They, likewise, were succeeded, by the Adhwa.130 Then, the Yemen, al-Bahrayn, ‘Oman, and the Jazirah have long been in Arab possession, but for thousands of years, the rule of these areas has belonged to different nations in succession. They also founded cities and towns and promoted the development of sedentary culture, among such nations were the ‘Ad and the Thamud, the Amalekites and the Himyar after them, the Tubba‘s, and the other South Arabian rulers. There was a period of royal authority and sedentary culture
8.
Saleh
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Saleh or Salih was a prophet of ancient Arabia mentioned in the Quran, who prophesied to the tribe of Thamud. Saleh is sometimes equated with Shelakh, a figure from the Hebrew Bible, the Thamudi people are believed to have been the successors to the ancient tribe of ʿĀd. Their ancestor may have been ‘Eber ibn Shelakh the descendant of Noah, with the advance of material civilization, the people of Thamud became materialistic and arrogant as well as godless. Thus, God sent the prophet and seer Saleh, to them about the impending doom they would face if they did not mend their sinful ways. In later Islamic history, when Muhammad led his expedition to Tabuk against the Romans, on a reported Roman invasion from the Levant, the prophet and his companions walked past the land of Thamud. Historic Petra had several places of worship, and the mountain at the site. The narrow gorge leading to the site, known as the Siq, can sometimes channel the wind to produce a loud trumpet-like sound, and it is known by local Bedouin as the trumpet of God. The name of Saleh may originate in the name of the city, as it was known as Sela, a word deriving from the Hebrew term Selah, meaning rock. The prophet Saleh is not mentioned in any other Abrahamic scripture or contemporary historical text, salehs life in his community had been so righteous that the people of Thamud virtually relied upon him for support. In fact, he might have chosen as their leader or king if he had too followed their idolatrous ways. But Saleh was chosen by God as a prophet and he was born for a mission, to preach against the selfishness of the wealthy. Although Saleh preached the message for a period of time. Saleh kept informing his people to look around them and remember the numerous miracles God had bestowed upon them, in monologues of preaching, Saleh reminded his people of the countless castles and palaces they built, and of their technological superiority over neighboring communities. Furthermore, he told them about their ancestors, the ʿĀd tribe, as usually happened in such events, the poor and the needy were the steadfast believers from the community and the suppressive were the rich and arrogant townsfolk. As Saleh took the side of the underprivileged, the chieftains of the tribe reviled the prophet, thus, God gave Thamud tribe a she-camel, to provide them with sustenance, as both a blessing and a test. Pasture was considered a gift of God, and the camel would be a trial to see if the arrogant. The rich, instead of accepting the test of God, hamstrung the she-camel, nine of the worst people were involved in the slaying of the camel, which invited the wrath of God. The people of Thamud had three days for further repentance to God
9.
Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
10.
Biblical Hebrew
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The term Hebrew was not used for the language in the Bible, which was referred to as Canaanite or Judahite, but the name was used in Greek and Mishnaic Hebrew texts. Biblical Hebrew is attested from about the 10th century BCE, and persisted through and beyond the Second Temple period, Biblical Hebrew eventually developed into Mishnaic Hebrew, which was spoken until the second century CE. There is also evidence of regional dialectal variation, including differences between Biblical Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel and in the southern Kingdom of Judah. Biblical Hebrew has been written with a number of different writing systems, the Hebrews adopted the Phoenician alphabet around the 12th century BCE, which developed into the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. This was retained by the Samaritans, who use the descendent Samaritan alphabet to this day, however, the Aramaic alphabet gradually displaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet for the Jews, and it became the source for the modern Hebrew alphabet. All of these scripts were lacking letters to represent all of the sounds of Biblical Hebrew, though these sounds are reflected in Greek and these scripts originally only indicated consonants, but certain letters, known by the Latin term matres lectionis, became increasingly used to mark vowels. In the Middle Ages, various systems of diacritics were developed to mark the vowels in Hebrew manuscripts, of these, Biblical Hebrew possessed a series of emphatic consonants whose precise articulation is disputed, likely ejective or pharyngealized. Earlier Biblical Hebrew possessed three consonants which did not have their own letters in the system, but over time they merged with other consonants. The stop consonants developed fricative allophones under the influence of Aramaic, the pharyngeal and glottal consonants underwent weakening in some regional dialects, as reflected in the modern Samaritan Hebrew reading tradition. Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic morphology with nonconcatenative morphology, arranging Semitic roots into patterns to form words, Biblical Hebrew distinguished two genders, three numbers. Verbs were marked for voice and mood, and had two conjugations which may have indicated aspect and/or tense, the tense or aspect of verbs was also influenced by the conjugation ו, in the so-called waw-consecutive construction. Default word order was verb–subject–object, and verbs inflected for the number, gender, pronominal suffixes could be appended to verbs or nouns, and nouns had special construct states for use in possessive constructions. The earliest written sources refer to Biblical Hebrew by the name of the land in which it was spoken, the Hebrew Bible also shows that the language was called יהודית Judaean, Judahite. In the Hellenistic period Greek writings use the names Hebraios, Hebraïsti, Jews also began referring to Hebrew as לשון הקדש the Holy Tongue in Mishnaic Hebrew. The term Classical Hebrew may include all pre-medieval dialects of Hebrew, including Mishnaic Hebrew, the term Biblical Hebrew refers to pre-Mishnaic dialects. The archeological record for the prehistory of Biblical Hebrew is far more complete than the record of Biblical Hebrew itself, Early Northwest Semitic materials are attested from 2350 BCE to 1200 BCE, the end of the Bronze Age. Hebrew developed during the half of the second millennium BCE between the Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea, an area known as Canaan. The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered was found at Khirbet Qeiyafa, the kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 BCE
11.
Book of Genesis
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The Book of Genesis is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. The basic narrative expresses the theme, God creates the world and appoints man as his regent. The new post-Flood world is also corrupt, God does not destroy it, instead calling one man, Abraham, to be the seed of its salvation. At Gods command Abraham descends from his home into the land of Canaan, given to him by God, Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the Exodus. The narrative is punctuated by a series of covenants with God, the books author or authors appear to have structured it around ten toledot sections, but modern commentators see it in terms of a primeval history followed by the cycle of Patriarchal stories. In Judaism, the importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking God to his chosen people. It is not clear, however, what this meant to the original authors, while the first is far shorter than the second, it sets out the basic themes and provides an interpretive key for understanding the entire book. The primeval history has a symmetrical structure hinging on chapters 6–9, God creates the world in six days and consecrates the seventh as a day of rest. God creates the first humans Adam and Eve and all the animals in the Garden of Eden but instructs them not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A talking serpent portrayed as a creature or trickster, entices Eve into eating it anyway. Eve bears two sons, Cain and Abel, Cain kills Abel after God accepts Abels offering but not Cains. Eve bears another son, Seth, to take Abels place, after many generations of Adam have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by the sin of man and Nephilim, and God determines to wipe out mankind. First, he instructs the righteous Noah and his family to build a huge boat, then God sends a great flood to wipe out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God promises that he not destroy the world a second time with water with the rainbow as the symbol of his promise. But upon seeing mankind cooperating to build a great tower city, God instructs Abram to travel from his home in Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. Abrams name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife Sarai to Sarah, because Sarah is old, she tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a second wife. God resolves to destroy the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah for the sins of their people, Abraham protests and gets God to agree not to destroy the cities if 10 righteous men can be found. Angels save Abrahams nephew Lot and his family, but his wife back on the destruction against their command and is turned into a pillar of salt
12.
Books of Chronicles
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In the Hebrew Bible, Chronicles is a single book, called Diḇrê Hayyāmîm, and is the final book of Ketuvim, the third and last part of the Tanakh. Chronicles was divided into two books in the Septuagint and called I and II Paralipoménōn, the English name comes from the Latin name chronikon, which was given to the text by scholar Jerome in the 5th century. Chronicles present the narrative from the first human being, Adam, through the history of ancient Judah. The Chronicles narrative begins with Adam and the story is carried forward, almost entirely by genealogical lists. The bulk of the remainder of 1 Chronicles, after an account of Saul, is concerned with the reign of David. The next long section concerns Davids son Solomon, and the part is concerned with the Kingdom of Judah with occasional references to the second kingdom of Israel. Originally a single work, Chronicles was divided into two in the Septuagint, a Greek translation produced in the immediately preceding Jesus. Within this broad structure there are signs that the author has used various devices to structure his work. The last events in Chronicles take place in the reign of Cyrus the Great, the Persian king who conquered Babylon in 539 BC and it was probably composed between 400–250 BC, with the period 350–300 BC the most likely. The latest person mentioned in Chronicles is Anani, a descendant of King Jehoiachin according to the Masoretic Text. Ananis birth would likely have been sometime between 425 and 400 BC, the Septuagint gives an additional five generations in the genealogy of Anani. For those scholars who side with the Septuagints reading, Ananis likely date of birth is a century later, Chronicles appears to be largely the work of a single individual, with some later additions and editing. The writer was probably male, probably a Levite, and probably from Jerusalem and he was well read, a skilled editor, and a sophisticated theologian. His intention was to use Israels past to convey messages to his peers. One of the most striking, although inconclusive, features of Chronicles is that its closing sentence is repeated as the opening of Ezra–Nehemiah. The last half of the 20th century saw a radical reappraisal, despite much discussion of this issue, no agreement has been reached. Recent suggestions have been that it was intended as a clarification of the history in Genesis-Kings, the message which the author wished to give to his audience was this, God is active in history, and especially the history of Israel. The faithfulness or sins of individual kings are immediately rewarded or punished by God, God calls Israel to a special relationship
13.
Qahtanite
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The terms Qahtanite and Qahtani refers to Arabs who originate from the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula, especially from Yemen. According to Islamic tradition, the Qahtanites are pure Arabs, unlike the Adnanites who are Arabized Arabs, the Qahtani people are divided into the two sub-groups of Himyar and Kahlan. Arab tradition maintains that an ancestral figure named Qahtan and his 24 sons are the progenitors of the southern inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula known as Qahtani. Early Islamic historians identified Qahtan with the Yoqtan son of Eber of the Hebrew Bible although he may also be another descendant of Ishmael, among the sons of Qahtan are noteworthy figures like Azaal and Hadhramaut. Another son is Yarub, and his son Yashjub is the father of Abd Shams, all Yemeni tribes trace their ancestry back to this Saba, either through Himyar or Kahlan, his two sons. The Qahtani people are divided into the two sub-groups of Himyar and Kahlan, who represent the settled Arabs of the south and their nomadic kinsmen. The Kahlan division of Qahtan consists of 4 subgroups, the Ta or Tayy, the Azd group which invaded Oman, the Amila-Judham group of Palestine, and the Hamdan-Madhhij group who mostly remain in Yemen. The Kahlan branch includes the tribes, Azd, Hamdan, Khatham, Bajflah, Madhhij, Murad, Zubaid and Nakh, Ashar, Lakhm, Tayy. The first groups of Semitic speakers that moved northward already developed the early Semitic names derived from triliteral and these appellations first appeared in early East Semitic languages, especially Akkadian, Assyrian, and Old Babylonian. This climaxed with the arrival of the Chaldeans, and subsequently the rivaling Medes and Persians, though the Semites lost geopolitical influence, the Aramaic language emerged as the lingua franca of much of the Near East. However, Aramaic usage declined after the defeat of the Persians, the Ghassanids were the last major non-Islamic Semitic migration northward out of Yemen. They revived the Semitic presence in the then Roman-controlled Syria and they initially settled in the Hauran region, eventually spreading to modern Lebanon, Israel & the Palestinian Territories and Jordan, briefly securing governorship of Syria away from the Nabataeans. According to modern historians, the distinction between Adnanites and Qahtanites lacks evidence and may have developed out of the later faction-fighting during the Umayyad period. Genetic distinctions between the nomadic people of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula and the sedentary people of the South are attributed to the early Islamic conquests. Between the 7th and the 14th centuries, the Arabs had forged an empire that extended their rule from most of Spain, during this period of expansionism, the Arabs, including Qahtanite tribes, overspread these lands, intermingling with local native populations while yet maintaining their cultural identity. It is not unlikely to find Arabs of Qahtanite descent as far away as Morocco or Iran, among the most famous examples of Qahtanite Arabs are the social scholar Ibn Khaldun who was born in Tunisia to a family that immigrated from Islamic Spain, Al Kindi, Ibn al-Baitar. Kahlan Azd Ghassanids Hakam, Yemen John Simpson, Treasures from Ancient Yemen Qahtan in the Arab History
14.
Incense Route
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The incense land trade from South Arabia to the Mediterranean flourished between roughly the 7th century BC to the 2nd century AD. The Egyptians had traded in the Red Sea, importing spices, gold and exotic wood from the Land of Punt, Indian goods were brought in Arabian and Indian vessels to Aden. Rawlinson identifies the long-debated ships of Tarshish, as a Tyrian fleet equipped at Ezion-Geber that made several trading voyages to the east bringing back gold, silver, ivory and these goods were transshipped at the port of Ophir. Gerrha exercised influence over the trade routes across Arabia to the Mediterranean. Gerrha was one of the important entry ports for goods shipped from India, due to its prominent position in the incense trade, Yemen attracted settlers from the fertile crescent. The frankincense and myrrh trees were crucial to the economy of Yemen and were recognized as a source of wealth by its rulers, assyrian documents indicate that Tiglath-Pileser III advanced through Phoenicia to Gaza. Gaza was eventually sacked and the ruler of Gaza escaped to Egypt, the motive behind the attack was to gain control of the South Arabian incense trade which had prospered along the region. Archaeological inscriptions also speak of booty retrieved from the land of the mu-u-na-a-a, some scholars identify this group as the Minaeans of South Arabia, who were involved with the incense trade and occupied the northern trading outposts of the Incense Route. Aromatics from Dhofar and luxury goods from India brought wealth to the kingdoms of Arabia, the aromatics of Dhofar were shipped out from the natural harbour of Khor Rori towards the western inhospitable South Arabian coast. The caravans carried these products north to Shabwa and from there on to the kingdoms of Qataban, Saba, Main, the tolls levied by the owners of wells and other facilities added to the overall cost of these luxury goods. This position gave the Nabateans a hold over the trade along the Incense Route, in order to control the Incense Route from the Nabatean a Greek military expedition was undertaken, without success, by Antigonus Cyclops, one of Alexander of Macedonias generals. The Nabatean control over trade increased and spread to the West, the replacement of Greece by the Roman empire as the administrator of the Mediterranean basin led to the resumption of direct trade with the east. According to a historian The South Arabs in protest took to pirate attacks over the Roman ships in the Gulf of Aden, in response, the Romans destroyed Aden and favoured the Western Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea. Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power. The decline of the trade saw Yemen take to the export of coffee via the Red Sea port of al-Mocha. Following the Roman-Persian Wars the areas under the Roman Byzantine Empire were captured by Khosrow I of the Persian Sassanian Dynasty, the Arabs, led by Amr ibn al-As, crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640. This advance marked the beginning of the Islamic conquest of Egypt, finally, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in the 15th century, marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia. UNESCOs World Heritage Committee meeting in November 27,2000 in Cairns, the official citation reads, The World Heritage Committee, headed by Themba Wakashe, recorded Incense Route - Desert Cities in the Negev on UNESCO’s World Heritage List on July 15,2005
15.
Iram of the Pillars
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Iram of the Pillars, also called Aram, Irum, Irem, Erum, or the City of the tent poles, is a reference to a lost city, country or area mentioned in the Qur’an. 10, And Pharaoh, owner of the stakes, –11, whom oppressed within the lands 12, And increased therein the corruption. 13, So your Lord poured upon them a scourge of punishment,14, Indeed, your Lord is in observation. There are several explanations for the reference to Iram – who had lofty pillars, some see this as a geographic location, either a city or an area, others as the name of a tribe. Those identifying it as a city have various suggestions as to where or what city it was. As an area it has identified with the biblical Aram, son of Shem. It has also identified as a tribe, possibly the tribe of ʿĀd. According to some Islamic beliefs, King Shaddad defied the warnings of the prophet Hud and God smote the city, driving it into the sands, the ruins of the city lie buried somewhere in the sands of al-Rub al-Khali. Iram became known to Western literature with the translation of The Book of One Thousand, Iram is used in quatrain 5 of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam to describe the brevity of human endeavors. Iram is the lost city where the Muslim hero Thalaba was kept safe in Robert Southeys Thalaba the Destroyer H. P. Lovecraft places it somewhere near The Nameless City in his stories, in The Call of Cthulhu it is the supposed base of the Cthulhu Cult. Wabar appears in Josephine Teys mystery novel The Singing Sands, in which detective Alan Grant seeks to unravel the meaning of a poem found on the body of a young man. Wabar is one subject of the poem. Iram is the theme of Daniel Eastermans novel The Seventh Sanctuary, in Tim Powers supernatural novel Declare, Wabar was a city inhabited by djinni and their half-human progeny, and was destroyed by a meteor strike. James Rollins novel Sandstorm depicts Ubar as a city in a glass bubble with a lake of antimatter at the middle. The city, which was created as the result of a meteorite impact 20,000 years ago, is destroyed and its characteristic pillars are present in great quantity, and it maintains the warmth of its original environment even far from the sun. In the video game Fallout 4, Ubar is mentioned in the journal of Lorenzo Cabot and he describes his journey to what he believes to be Ubar. In the video game 80 Days, the player playing as Phileas Fogg could potentially encounter a Bedouin Expedition in the Rub Al Khali desert, looking for the fabled lost city of Iram. In the New World of Darkness limited game line, Mummy, the Curse, published by White Wolf Game Studios-Onyx Path, Irem is the Stone Age city where the games protagonists, the Arisen, were created
16.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
17.
Wadi
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Wadi is the Arabic and Hebrew term traditionally referring to a valley. In some instances, it may refer to a dry riverbed that contains water only during times of heavy rain, the term wādī is very widely found in Arabic toponyms. Seasonal streams, frequent in south-east Spain, are called ramblas instead, in the Maghreb, the term wadi is applied to all rivers including regular ones. Wadis are located on the sloping, nearly flat parts of deserts, commonly they begin on the distal portions of fans. In basin and range topography, wadis trend along basin axes at the terminus of fans, permanent channels do not exist, due to lack of continual water flow. Wadi show braided stream patterns because of the deficiency of water, Water percolates down into the stream bed causing abrupt loss in energy and resulting vast deposition. Wadis may develop dams of sediment which results in change of stream patterns in the flash flood. Wind also plays its role in deposition, when wadi sediments are underwater or moist, wind sediments are deposited over them. Thus wadi sediments contain both wind and water sediments, wadi sediments may contain whole range from gravel to mud. There is also range of sedimentary structures. Thus, wadi sediments are most diagnostic of all other desert environments, flash floods represents severe energy conditions and results in wide range of sedimentary structures, including ripples and commonly plane beds. Gravels common display imbrications, Mud drapes show desiccation cracks, wind activity also generates its own sedimentary structures, large scales cross-stratification and wedge shape cross-sets are present. Typical wadi sequence consists of alternating units of wind and water sediments, Water laid sediments show complete fining upward sequence. Wind deposits are stratified and covered with mud-cracked deposits. Some horizontal Loess may also present, modern English usage differentiates a wadi from another canyon or wash by the action and prevalence of water. Wadis, as courses, are formed by water, but are distinguished from river valleys or gullies in that surface water is intermittent or ephemeral. Wadis are generally dry year round, except after a rain, the desert environment is characterized by sudden but infrequent heavy rainfall, often resulting in flash floods. Crossing wadis at certain times of the year can be dangerous as a result, Wadis tend to be associated with centers of human population because sub-surface water is sometimes available in them
18.
Nova (TV series)
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Nova is an American popular science television series produced by WGBH Boston. It is broadcast on Public Broadcasting Service in the U. S. the series has won many major television awards. Nova often includes interviews with scientists doing research in the areas covered. Some episodes have focused on the history of science, the Nova programs have been praised for their good pacing, clear writing, and crisp editing. Websites accompany the segments and have won awards. Nova was created on March 3,1974, by Michael Ambrosino, inspired by the BBC2 television series Horizon, which Ambrosino had seen while working in the UK. Of the first 50 programs, only 19 were original WGBH productions, the practice continues to this day. All the producers and associate producers for the original Nova teams came from either England, Ambrosino was succeeded as executive producer by John Angier, John Mansfield, and Paula S. Apsell, actually as senior executive producer. Nova has been recognized with multiple Peabody Awards and Emmy Awards, the series won a Peabody in 1974, citing it as an imaginative series of science adventures, with a versatility rarely found in television. This episode also won an Emmy, spy Machines was cited for neatly recount the key events of the Cold War and look into the future of American/Soviet SDI competition. The episode also won an Emmy for editing, the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences recognized the series with awards in 1978,1981,1983, and 1989. Julia Cort won an Emmy in 2001 for writing Lifes Greatest Miracle, PBS Nova ScienceNow Nature Equinox - Channel 4 popular science series, last aired in 2001. Horizon comparable BBC2 strand, on air since 1964, Q. E. D. more populist BBC1 science documentary series, which ran from 1982 to 1999. Official website Nova at the Internet Movie Database Nova at TV. com Nova show on YouTube
19.
Bedouin
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The term contrasts against Hathar which refers to the city or town dwellers in the Arabic language. Bedouin means Badiyah dwellers in the Arabic language, as Badyah means literally the visible land, the Bedouins identify themselves as Arabs or by the names of their tribes. City dwellers in Arabia who descended from known tribes refer to themselves as Bedouins to recognize their origin to Arabia. Bedouin territory stretches from the vast deserts of North Africa to the sands of the Middle East. They are traditionally divided into tribes, or clans and share a culture of herding camels. The Bedouin form a part of, but are not synonymous with, Bedouins have been referred to by various names throughout history, including Qedarites in the Old Testament and Arabaa by the Assyrians. They are referred to as the Araab in the Koran, traditions like camel riding and camping in the deserts are also popular leisure activities for urbanised Bedouins who live within close proximity to deserts or other wilderness areas. The term Bedouin derives from a form of the Arabic word badu. The Arabic term badu literally translates in Arabic as Badiyah dwellers, the word bādiyah means visible land such as plain or desert. The term Bedouin therefore means those in bādiyah or those in the desert, in English usage, however, the form Bedouin is commonly used for the singular term, the plural being Bedouins, as indicated by the Oxford English Dictionary, second edition. The term Bedouin also uses the root word as the Arabic noun for the beginning, بداية. The Arabs believe the Bedouins to be the predecessors to the settled Arabs, disputes are settled, interests are pursued, and justice and order are maintained by means of this frame, according to an ethic of self-help and collective responsibility. The individual family unit typically consisted of three or four adults and any number of children, when resources were plentiful, several tents would travel together as a goum. These groups were linked by patriarchal lineage, but were just as likely linked by marriage, acquaintance, or no clearly defined relation. The next scale of interaction within groups was the ibn ʿamm or descent group, whilst the phrase descent group suggests purely a lineage-based arrangement, in reality these groups were fluid and adapted their genealogies to take in new members. The largest scale of tribal interactions is the tribe as a whole, the tribe often claims descent from one common ancestor—as mentioned above. The tribal level is the level that mediated between the Bedouin and the governments and organizations. Distinct structure of the Bedouin society leads to lasting rivalries between different clans
20.
Eastern Desert
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The Eastern Desert is the section of Sahara Desert east of the Nile River, between the river and the Red Sea. It extends from Egypt in the north to Eritrea in the south, other notable ecological areas are Wadi Gamal National Park and Gebel Elba. The Eastern Desert is a setting for safaris and other excursions. Libyan/Western Desert Geography of Egypt Anthony the Great National Parks of Egypt
21.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
22.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
23.
Old South Arabian
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Old South Arabian is a group of four closely related extinct languages spoken in the far southern portion of the Arabian Peninsula. There were a number of other Old South Arabian languages, of very little evidence has survived. One of the most important isoglosses retained in all four languages is the definite article - n. There are however significant differences between the languages, the four main Sayhadic languages were, Sabaean, Minaeic, Qatabanic, and Hadramitic. According to Alice Faber, together with Ethiopian Semitic languages and the Modern South Arabian languages, Inscriptions in another minuscule cursive script written on wooden sticks have also been discovered. The last inscription of these dates back to 554 CE,60 years before the appearance of Islam. Old South Arabian comprised a number of languages, the following are those that have preserved in writing. Besides these, at least Jabal Razih survives today, middle Sabaean, 1st century BC until the 4th century AD Ḥaramitic, the language of the area to the north of Maīn Central Sabaean, the language of the inscriptions from the Sabaean heartland. South Sabaean, the language of the inscriptions from Radman and Ḥimyar Pseudo-Sabaean, minaean language, the language of the city states in al-Jawf − with the exception of Ḥaram − especially the later sparsely populated state of Main. Inscriptions have also been found also outside Maīn in the colonies of Dedan and Madāin Ṣāliḥ, in Egypt. Qatabānian, the language of the kingdom of Qatabān, recorded from the 5th century BC until the 2nd century Awsānian, other varieties such as the language of the tribe of Radmān Ḥaḑramitic, the language of Ḥaḑramaut, with an additional inscription from the Greek island of Delos. 5th century BC until the 4th century AD, with ca.1000 inscriptions, Old South Arabian was written in the Old South Arabian script, a consonantal abjad deriving from the Phoenician alphabet. Compared with other parts of the ancient world, Palestine for instance, something in the region of 10,000 inscriptions exist. The Sabaean lexicon contains about 2,500 words, there are about 1000 so far, very few published, mostly from Nashshān, in Wādī Madhāb. Then in the half of the 19th century Joseph Halévy and Eduard Glaser brought hundreds of Old South Arabian inscriptions, possible tracings. On the basis of large amount of material Fritz Hommel prepared a selection of texts in 1893 along with an attempt at a grammar. Later on the Sabaean expert Nikolaus Rhodokanakis made especially important steps towards understanding Old South Arabic, a completely new field of Old South Arabian script and texts has been opened up since the 1970s by the discovery of wooden cylinders on which Sabaean has been written with a pen. The unknown script and numerous incomprehensible words presented Sabaean studies with new problems, in the German-speaking world, Old South Arabian is taught in the framework of Semitic Studies, and no independent university chair has been dedicated to Old South Arabian Studies
24.
Hadramautic language
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Ḥaḑramautic or Ḥaḑramitic was the easternmost of the four known languages of the Old South Arabian subgroup, of Semitic. It was used in Wādī Ḥaḑramawt, and also the round the Ḥaḑramite capital Shabwah. The Ḥaḑramites also controlled the trade in frankincense through their important trading post of Sumhuram in the Dhofar area of what is now Oman, the sounds of the language were essentially the same as those of Sabaean. g. Ḥaḑramautic mṯnad, which is msnd in the rest of Old South Arabian, potsherds with Old South Arabian letters on them, found in Raybūn, the old Ḥaḑramite capital, have been radiocarbon dated to the 12th century BC. During the course of the history there appeared particular phonetic changes, such as the change from ˤ to ˀ, from ẓ to ṣ. As in other Semitic languages n can be assimilated to a following consonant and it has feminine forms ending in ṯ and s3. Leonid Kogan and Andrey Korotayev, Sayhadic Languages
25.
Qatabanian language
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Qatabānian, one of the four better-documented languages of the Old South Arabian sub-group of South Semitic, was spoken mainly but not exclusively in the kingdom of Qatabān, located in central Yemen. The language is attested between 500 BC and 200 AD, some two thousand inscriptions are known written in the Ancient South Arabian Monumental Script, known as Musnad. These inscriptions are found in Wādī Bayhān and Wādī Ḥārib to the south-east of Marib. Qatabanian inscriptions increase after the beginning of the 4th century BC when the Sabaeans ceased to dominate the area, at the end of the 2nd century AD, Saba and Ḥaḑramawt finally defeated Qatabān, and the inscriptions ended. Qatabānian has a form for the cardinal number one - ṭd / fem. ṭt, this has no cognates in any of the ancient Semitic languages. Qatabānian also has another word for one, ˤs1tn, which is cognate with the Minaean ˤs1t, the Qatabānian forms for three and six are the same as the Old Sabaean words, s2lṯ and s1dṯ. Qatabānian expresses distributives by repeating the number, thus, b-ˤs2r ˤs2r ḫbṣtm mṣˤm l-ṭt ṭt ywmm ten full Ḫabṣat coins each for each day, stephen D. Ricks, Lexicon of Inscriptional Qatabanian. Rome, Pontificio Instituto Biblico,1988. ISBN 978-8876535703 Leonid Kogan and Andrey Korotayev, N. Nebes, P. Stein, Ancient South Arabian, in, Roger D. Woodard, The Cambridge encyclopedia of the Worlds ancient languages Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004 ISBN 0-521-56256-2. In, Stefan Weninger, The Semitic Languages, An International Handbook, de Gruyter Mouton, Berlin 2011, ISBN3110186136, pp. 1042–1073. Alessandra Avanzini, Corpus of South Arabian Inscriptions I-III
26.
Sabaean language
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Sabaean, also sometimes incorrectly known as Ḥimyarite, was an Old South Arabian language spoken in Yemen from c. The Sabaean language belongs to the South Arabian subgroup of the Semitic group of the Afro-Asiatic language family, Sabaean was written in the South Arabian alphabet, and like Hebrew and Arabic marked only consonants, the only indication of vowels being with matres lectionis. The South Arabic alphabet used in Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Yemen beginning in the 8th century BC, Sabaean is attested in some 1040 dedicatory inscriptions,850 building inscriptions,200 legal texts and 1300 short graffiti. No literary texts of any length have yet been brought to light and this paucity of source material, and the limited forms of the inscriptions has made it difficult to get a complete picture of Sabaean grammar. Middle Sabaean, 3rd century BC until the end of the 3rd century AD The best documented language, the largest corpus of texts from this period comes from the Awwam Temple in Marib. Amiritic/Ḥaramitic, the language of the area to the north of Maīn Central Sabaean, South Sabaean, the language of the inscriptions from Radmān and Ḥimyar Pseudo-Sabaean, the literary language of Arabian tribes in Najrān, Ḥaram and Qaryat al-Fāw Late Sabaean, 4th-6th centuries AD. This is the period, when the Christianity and Judaism brought Aramaic. In the Late Sabaean period the ancient names of the gods are no longer mentioned, the last known inscription in Sabaean dates from 554/9 AD. The dialect used in the western Yemeni highlands, known as Central Sabaean, is very homogenous, divergent dialects are usually found in the area surrounding the Central Highlands, such as the important dialect of the city of Ḥaram in the eastern al-Jawf. Inscriptions in the dialect, which is heavily influenced by North Arabic, are also generally considered a form of Sabaean. The Himyarites appeared in the late 2nd century BC, later taking over the Sabaean Kingdom, the Ḥimyarites spoke a Semitic language but not a South Arabic language, nevertheless using Sabaean as a written language. Since Sabaean is written in an abjad script leaving vowels unmarked, however, based on other Semitic languages, it is generally presumed that it had at least the vowels a, i and u, which would have occurred both short and long ā, ī, ū. In Old Sabaean the long vowels ū and ī are sometimes indicated using the letters for w and y as matres lectionis, in the Old period this is used mainly in word final position, but in Middle and Late Sabaean it also commonly occurs medially. Long vowels ū and ī certainly seem to be indicated in forms such as the personal pronouns hmw, the verbal form ykwn, and in enclitic particles -mw, in the early days of Sabaean studies Old South Arabian was transcribed using Hebrew letters. F. L. Beeston proposed replacing this with the representation with s followed by the subscripts 1-3 and they were transcribed by Beeston as s1, s2, and s3. The difference between the three sounds is maintained throughout Old Sabaean and Middle Sabaean, but in the Late period s1, the subscript n did not start appearing until after the Early Sabaic period. Interestingly, the Middle Sabaean Haramitic dialect often shows the change s3 > s1, for example, ˀks1wt, normal Sabaean ks3wy. The exact nature of the emphatic consonants q, ṣ, ṭ, ẓ and ḑ also remains a matter for debate, were they pharyngealized as in Modern Arabic or were they glottalized as in Ethiopic, there are arguments to support both possibilities
27.
Theophrastus
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Theophrastus, a Greek native of Eresos in Lesbos, was the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He came to Athens at an age and initially studied in Platos school. After Platos death, he attached himself to Aristotle who took to Theophrastus his writings, when Aristotle fled Athens, Theophrastus took over as at the Lyceum. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for years, during which time the school flourished greatly. He is often considered the father of botany for his works on plants, after his death, the Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school was Strato of Lampsacus, the interests of Theophrastus were wide ranging, extending from biology and physics to ethics and metaphysics. His two surviving works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, were an important influence on Renaissance science. There are also surviving works On Moral Characters, On Sensation, On Stones, in philosophy, he studied grammar and language and continued Aristotles work on logic. He also regarded space as the arrangement and position of bodies, time as an accident of motion. In ethics, he regarded happiness as depending on external influences as well as on virtue and he was a native of Eresos in Lesbos. His given name was Tyrtamus, but he became known by the nickname Theophrastus, given to him, it is said. After receiving instruction in philosophy in Lesbos from one Alcippus, he moved to Athens and he became friends with Aristotle, and when Plato died Theophrastus may have joined Aristotle in his self-imposed exile from Athens. When Aristotle moved to Mytilene on Lesbos in 345/4, it is likely that he did so at the urging of Theophrastus. It seems that it was on Lesbos that Aristotle and Theophrastus began their research into science, with Aristotle studying animals. Theophrastus probably accompanied Aristotle to Macedonia when Aristotle was appointed tutor to Alexander the Great in 343/2, around 335 BC, Theophrastus moved with Aristotle to Athens where Aristotle began teaching in the Lyceum. Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, including Nicomachus with whom he was close, Aristotle likewise bequeathed to him his library and the originals of his works, and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum. Eudemus of Rhodes also had claims to this position. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for years, and died at the age of eighty-five according to Diogenes
28.
Semitic languages
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The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family originating in the Middle East. The terminology was first used in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen School of History, the most widely spoken Semitic languages today are Arabic, Amharic, Tigrinya, Hebrew, Aramaic and Maltese. Among them are the Ugaritic, Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Maltese is the only Semitic language written in the Latin script and the only Semitic language to be an official language of the European Union. The Semitic languages are notable for their nonconcatenative morphology and that is, word roots are not themselves syllables or words, but instead are isolated sets of consonants. Words are composed out of not so much by adding prefixes or suffixes. For example, in Arabic, the root meaning write has the form k-t-b, the similarity of the Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic languages was accepted by Jewish and Islamic scholars since medieval times. Almost two centuries later, Hiob Ludolf described the similarities between these three languages and the Ethiopian Semitic languages, however, neither scholar named this grouping as Semitic. Viewed from this too, with respect to the alphabet used. Previously these languages had been known as the Oriental languages in European literature. In the 19th century, Semitic became the name, however. There are several locations proposed as sites for prehistoric origins of Semitic-speaking peoples, Mesopotamia, The Levant, Mediterranean, the Arabian Peninsula. Both the Near East and North Africa saw an influx of Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, followed later by non-Semitic Muslim Iranian and Turkic peoples. The Arabs spread their Central Semitic language to North Africa where it gradually replaced Coptic and many Berber languages, with the patronage of the caliphs and the prestige of its liturgical status, Arabic rapidly became one of the worlds main literary languages. Its spread among the masses took much longer, however, as many of the populations outside the Arabian Peninsula only gradually abandoned their languages in favour of Arabic. As Bedouin tribes settled in conquered areas, it became the language of not only central Arabia, but also Yemen, the Fertile Crescent. Most of the Maghreb followed, particularly in the wake of the Banu Hilals incursion in the 11th century, and Arabic became the native language of many inhabitants of al-Andalus. After the collapse of the Nubian kingdom of Dongola in the 14th century, Arabic began to spread south of Egypt into modern Sudan, soon after, the Beni Ḥassān brought Arabization to Mauritania. Meanwhile, Semitic languages were diversifying in Ethiopia and Eritrea, where, under heavy Cushitic influence, they split into a number of languages, including Amharic, Arabic languages and dialects are currently the native languages of majorities from Mauritania to Oman, and from Iraq to the Sudan
29.
Kamal Salibi
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Kamal Suleiman Salibi was a Lebanese historian, professor of history at the American University of Beirut and the founding Director of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies in Amman, Jordan. He was a bachelor, who devoted his life to books. Born to a Protestant family in Beirut, Salibis family came from the Lebanese village of Bhamdoun in French Mandatory Lebanon and his dissertation was subsequently published under the title Maronite Historians of Mediaeval Lebanon. After his graduation from SOAS, Salibi joined AUB as bibliographer of the Arab Studies Program and he then became professor in the Department of History and Archaeology where he joined other prominent and already established historians such as Nicholas Ziadeh and Zein Zein. In 1965, he published The Modern History of Lebanon, which was translated into Arabic, Russian. Salibi eventually became one of the pillars of the history department, in 1982 Salibi finalised his book, The Bible Came from Arabia, during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon. It was translated into German at the time as the original English version was being published in London. Salibi wrote subsequent works on biblical issues using the same etymological, some of his books are today considered classics, notably A House of Many Mansions, The History of Lebanon Reconsidered and The Modern History of Jordan. In 1994, Salibi helped found the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies in Amman, Jordan and he was associated as a consultant with the Druze Heritage Foundation. He retired from the Department of History and Archeology at the American University of Beirut in 1998 and he moved to Amman in the early 1990s and became director of the Institute for Interfaith Studies there from 1994 to 2003. He pinned a copy of his new ID, which has I for his madhdhab outside his apartment in Ras Beirut, Kamal Salibi wrote three books advocating the controversial Israel in Arabia theory. C. In this new Israel, they switched from Hebrew to Aramaic and it was this switch in language that created the confusions which led to the distortion of the immigrants stories. The area of ancient Israel is then identified with the land on either side of the section of the escarpment that is. The theory has not been accepted anywhere, and, according to Itamar Rabinowitz, had embarrassed many of his colleagues. Rabinowitz discounts antisemitism as the impetus for the book because Salibi was not an enemy of Israel or Zionism. He speculates, however, that it mightve been an exercise for Salibi. Several academic reviewers criticised Cape for having accepted The Bible Came from Arabia for publication, Salibi argued that early epigraphic evidence used to vindicate the Biblical stories has been misread. The words translated many days actually meant south of Rabin and he shared the view of such scholars as Thomas L. Thompson that there is a severe mismatch between the Biblical narrative and the archaeological findings in Palestine
30.
Seiyun
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Sayun — — is a city in the Hadhramaut region, in the Hadhramaut Governorate, of Yemen. The most prominent landmark in the cityscape and surrounding plain is the tall and large Seiyun Palace of the Sultan of Kathiri, as of 2006 the citys population was 75,700. The town is served by Seiyun Airport, history Postage stamps from the former Sultanate of Kathiri, that was within the British Aden Protectorate, were sometimes inscribed Kathiri State of Seiyun. Kathiri State of Seiyun in Hadhramaut
31.
Griffin
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The griffin, griffon, or gryphon is a legendary creature with the body, tail, and back legs of a lion, the head and wings of an eagle, and an eagles talons as its front feet. Because the lion was considered the king of the beasts and the eagle the king of birds. The griffin was thought of as king of all creatures. Griffins are known for guarding treasure and priceless possessions, in Greek and Roman texts, griffins and Arimaspeans were associated with gold. Indeed, in later accounts, griffins were said to lay eggs in burrows on the grounds, in antiquity it was a symbol of divine power and a guardian of the divine. The derivation of this remains uncertain. It could be related to the Greek word γρυπός, meaning curved, also, this could have been an Anatolian loan word, compare Akkadian karūbu, and similar to Cherub. A related Hebrew word is כרוב, Most statuary representations of griffins depict them with bird-like talons, although in some older illustrations griffins have a lions forelimbs, they generally have a lions hindquarters. Its eagles head is given prominent ears, these are sometimes described as the lions ears, but are often elongated. Infrequently, a griffin is portrayed without wings, or a wingless eagle-headed lion is identified as a griffin, in 15th-century and later heraldry, such a beast may be called an alce or a keythong. In heraldry, a griffin always has forelegs like an eagles hind-legs, there is evidence of representations of griffins in Ancient Iranian and Ancient Egyptian art dating back to before 3000 BC. In Egypt, a griffin can be seen in a cosmetic palette from Hierakonpolis, known as the Two Dog Palette, which is dated to ca. In Iran, griffins appeared on seals from Susa as early as 3000 BC. Griffin depictions appear in the Levant, Syria. Early depictions of griffins in Ancient Greek art are found in the 15th century BC frescoes in the Throne Room of the Bronze Age Palace of Knossos and it continued being a favored decorative theme in Archaic and Classical Greek art. In Central Asia, the griffin appears about a years after Bronze Age Crete, in the 5th–4th centuries BC. The Achaemenids considered the griffin a protector from evil, witchcraft, the modern generalist calls it the lion-griffin, as for example, Robin Lane Fox, in Alexander the Great,1973,31 and notes p. The Pisa Griffin is a bronze sculpture that has been in Pisa in Italy since the Middle Ages. It is the largest bronze medieval Islamic sculpture known, at three feet tall, and was probably created in the 11th century in Al-Andaluz
32.
Qu'aiti
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Quaiti, officially the Quaiti State in Hadhramaut or the Quaiti Sultanate of Shihr and Mukalla, was a sultanate in the Hadhramaut region of the southern Arabian Peninsula, in what is now Yemen. Covering approximately 70,000 square miles, roughly the size of England and Wales, Quaiti was the third largest kingdom in Arabia after the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Sultanate of Oman. Its capital was Mukalla and it was divided into six provinces including Mukalla, Ash Shihr, Shibam, Duan and they later conquered Ash Shihr in 1866 and Mukalla in 1881, largely replacing the Kathiris to control most of the Hadhramaut coast on the Gulf of Aden. They entered into treaty relations with the British in 1888 and created a unified sultanate in 1902 that would become a part of the Aden Protectorate, south Yemen united with North Yemen in 1990, again without a referendum, to become the Republic of Yemen. His Royal Highness Sultan Ghalib II bin Awadh bin Saleh Al-Quaiti born 7 January 1948 in London, hisham is the son of media mogul Mohammed Ali Hafez, founder of Asharq Al-Awsat, Arab News and Sayidaty, the Middle Easts leading weekly womens magazine. HRH Sultan Ghalib holds an MA from the University of Oxford in Oriental Studies and another in Arabian Studies from the University of Cambridge, the Sultan graduated from Millfield School. He has been a Saudi resident since 1968, currently residing in Jeddah, Sultan Ghalib is the author of The Holy Cities, The Pilgrimage and The World of Islam
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Kathiri
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The Kathiris once ruled much of Hadhramaut but their power was truncated by the rival Quaitis in the 19th century. The Kathiris were eventually restricted to a small portion of Hadhramaut with their capital at Seiyun. The sultanate entered into treaty relations with the British in the late 19th century, the Kathiri State declined to join the Federation of South Arabia but remained under British protection as part of the Protectorate of South Arabia. Al Husayn ibn Ali, Kathiri sultan since 1949, was overthrown in October 1967, South Yemen united with North Yemen in 1990 to become the Republic of Yemen, but local sheikhs in Yemen are reported to still wield large de facto authority. This is reflected in his name, the Indonesian human rights activist Munir Said Thalib is also a descendant of immigrants from Kathiri. Flag of Kathiri State Ba Wazir of the Hadhramaut - Lines in the sand – epilogue States of the Yemen Protectorate Royal Forums Hubert Herald - Yemen
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Sultan
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Sultan is a noble title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning strength, authority, rulership, derived from the verbal noun سلطة sulṭah, the dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are referred to as a sultanate. A feminine form of sultan, used by Westerners, is Sultana or Sultanah, but Turkish and Ottoman Turkish also uses sultan for imperial lady, because Turkish grammar uses the same words for women and men. However, this styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans, in a similar usage, the wife of a German field marshal might be styled Frau Feldmarschall. The female leaders in Muslim history are known as sultanas. Special case in Brunei, the Queen Consort is known as Raja Isteri with suffix Pengiran Anak if the queen consort is a royal princess. Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law and these are generally secondary titles, either lofty poetry or with a message, e. g. g. Sultan ul-Mujahidin as champion of jihad, ghaznavid Sultanate Sultans of Great Seljuk Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, the Osmanli Elisu Sultanate and a few others. A Sultan ranked below a Khan and this usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as sultan, but Ottomans themselves used padişah or hünkar to refer to their ruler, the emperors formal title consisted of sultan together with khan. In formal address, the children were also entitled sultan, with imperial princes carrying the title before their given name. Example, Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and Mihrimah Sultan, son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent, henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title sultan. In Kazakh Khanate a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty elected by clans, the best of sultans was elected as khan by people at Kurultai. See ru, Казахские султаны In a number of states under Mongol or Turkic rule. These administrations were often decimal, using originally princely titles such as khan, malik, in the Persian empire, the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day captain in the West, socially in the fifth-rank class, styled Ali Jah
35.
Aden Protectorate
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In 1940 it was divided for administrative purposes into the Western Protectorate and the Eastern Protectorate. Today the territory part of the Republic of Yemen. Aden with its harbour was the area under full British sovereignty and, together with some offshore islands, was known as Aden Settlement, Aden Province, Aden Colony. In exchange for British protection, the rulers of the constituent territories of the Protectorate agreed not to enter into treaties with or cede territory to any foreign power. For administrative purposes, the protectorate was divided into the Eastern Protectorate. In 1928, the British established Aden Command, under Royal Air Force leadership and it was renamed British Forces Aden in 1936 and was later known as British Forces Arabian Peninsula and then Middle East Command. The boundaries between the polities and even their number fluctuated over time, some such as the Mahra Sultanate barely had any functioning administration. Not included in the protectorate were Aden Colony and the areas of Perim, Kamaran. This rationalised and stabilised the rulers status and laws of succession but had the effect of ossifying the leadership, aerial bombardment and collective punishment were sometimes used against wayward tribes to enforce the rule of Britains clients. British protection came to be seen as an impediment to progress, in 1950, Kennedy Trevaskis, the Advisor for the Western Protectorate drew up a plan for the protectorate states to form two federations, corresponding to the two-halves of the protectorate. Although little progress was made in bringing the plan to fruition, in addition to his role as king, he also served as the imam of the ruling Zaidi branch of Shia Islam. He feared that a federation in the Shafii Sunnite protectorates would serve as a beacon for discontented Shafiites who inhabited the coastal regions of Yemen. To counter the threat, Ahmad stepped up Yemeni efforts to undermine British control and, in the mid-1950s and it had also been chosen as the new location for Middle East Command. In the next three years, they were joined by nine others and, on 18 January 1963, Aden Colony was merged with the creating the new Federation of South Arabia. At the same time, the states that had not joined the federation became the Protectorate of South Arabia, on 10 December 1963, a state of emergency was declared in the former protectorate and the newly created State of Aden. By 1965, the RAF station was operating 9 Squadrons and these included transport units with helicopters and a number of Hawker Hunter ground attack aircraft. These were called in by the army for strikes against positions when they would use 60 lb high explosive rockets, notable events include the Battle of Crater which brought Lt-Col Colin Campbell Mitchell to prominence. On 20 June 1967 there was a mutiny in the South Arabian Federation Army, order was restored by the British, mainly due to the efforts of the 1st Battalion Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, under the command of Lt-Col Mitchell
36.
Resident (title)
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A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are seen as a form of indirect rule. Residents could also be posted with shadowy governments, even after the Congress of Vienna restored the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1815, the British posted a mere Resident to Florence. Some official representatives of European colonial powers, while in theory diplomats, a trusted Resident could even become the de facto prime minister to a native ruler. In other respects they acted as an ambassador of their own government, instead of being a representative to a single ruler, a Resident could be posted to more than one native state, or to a grouping of states which the European power decided for its convenience. This could create a geographical unit, as in Residency X in some parts of the British Indian Empire. Similar positions could carry alternative titles, such as Political Agent and Resident Commissioner, a Residents real role varied enormously, depending upon the underlying relationship between the two parties and even upon the personalities of the Resident and the ruler. In French protectorates, such as those of Morocco and Tunisia, the Residents of the governments of the United Kingdom and the dominions to a variety of protectorates include, In the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the second homeland of the Omani dynasty, since 1913. From 1913 to 1961 the Residents were also the Sultans vizier, there were Consuls and Consuls-general until 1963. In present-day Kenya, in the Sultanate of Witu, after the British took over the protectorate from the German Empire, which had itself posted a Resident. In British Cameroon, since 1916, in 1949 restyled Special Resident for Edward John Gibbons, in kwaZulu, which since 1843 was under a British protectorate, after it became the Zulu Native Reserve or Zululand Province on 1 September 1879, two British Residents. In the Dutch East Indies, Dutch residents and lower ranks such as assistant residents were posted alongside a number of the native princes in present Indonesia. For example, on Sumatra, there were Dutch Residents at Palembang, at Medan in Deli sultanate, another was posted with the Sultan of and on Ternate, france also maintained Residents, the French word being Résident. However the Jacobine tradition of state authority didnt agree well with indirect rule. Many were part of a white colonial hierarchy, rather than truly posted with a ruler or chieftain. A single post of Resident was also created in Côte dIvoire, the Resident-Superior of Cambodia answered to the Governor-General of Indochina, however. In the German colonies, the title was also Resident, the post was called Residentur. e, such function could also be performed under another title, such as Commissioner or High Commissioner. John Bridger Philby August 1924 – March 1939 Henry Cox March 1939 –17 June 1946 Alec Seath Kirkbride Also after World War II, in the colony of Western Australia regional administration was conducted under instruction of the Governor in Council by Government Residents
37.
Aden
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Aden is a port city in Yemen, located by the eastern approach to the Red Sea, some 170 kilometres east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people, Adens ancient, natural harbour lies in the crater of a dormant volcano which now forms a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a low isthmus. This harbour, Front Bay, was first used by the ancient Kingdom of Awsan between the 5th and 7th centuries BC, the modern harbour is on the other side of the peninsula. Aden gives its name to the Gulf of Aden, Aden consists of a number of distinct sub-centres, Crater, the original port city, Maalla, the modern port, Tawahi, known as Steamer Point in the colonial period, and the resorts of Gold Mohur. Aden encloses the eastern side of a vast, natural harbour that comprises the modern port, the volcanic peninsula of Little Aden forms a near-mirror image, enclosing the harbour and port on the western side. Little Aden became the site of the oil refinery and tanker port, both were established and operated by British Petroleum until they were turned over to Yemeni government ownership and control in 1978. From March to July 2015, the Battle of Aden raged between Houthis and loyalists to President Hadi, water, food, and medical supplies ran short in the city. On 14 July, the Saudi Army launched an offensive to retake Aden for Hadis government, within three days the Houthis had been removed from the city. A local legend in Yemen states that Aden may be as old as human history itself, some also believe that Cain and Abel are buried somewhere in the city. The ports convenient position on the sea route between India and Europe has made Aden desirable to rulers who sought to possess it at times throughout history. The same work describes Aden as a village by the shore, there is no mention of fortification at this stage, Aden was more an island than a peninsula as the isthmus was not then so developed as it is today. Although the pre-Islamic Himyar civilization was capable of building large structures, fortifications at Mareb and other places in Yemen and the Hadhramaut make it clear that both the Himyar and the Sabean cultures were well capable of it. Thus, watch towers, since destroyed, are possible, however, the Arab historians Ibn al Mojawir and Abu Makhramah attribute the first fortification of Aden to Beni Zureea. Abu Makhramah has also included a biography of Muhammad Azim Sultan Qamarbandi Naqsh in his work. The aim seems to have been twofold, to hostile forces out and to maintain revenue by controlling the movement of goods. In its original form, some of work was relatively feeble. After 1175 AD, rebuilding in a solid form began. According to Muqaddasi, Persians formed the majority of Adens population in the 10th century, the envoys boarded three treasure ships and set sail from Sumatra to the port of Aden
38.
South Yemen
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The Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen, also referred to as South Yemen, Democratic Yemen or Yemen a. k. a. South Arabian Federation, was a socialist state in the southern and eastern provinces of the present-day Republic of Yemen and it united with the Yemen Arab Republic on 22 May 1990, to form the present-day Yemen. After four years, however, South Yemen declared its secession from the north, which resulted in the north occupying south Yemen, in 1838, Sultan Muhsin Bin Fadl of the nearby state of Lahej ceded 194 km² including Aden to the British. On 19 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to occupy the territory and stop attacks by pirates against British shipping to India. It then became an important trading hub between British India and the Red Sea, and following the opening of the Suez canal in 1869, Aden was ruled as part of British India until 1937, when the city of Aden became the Colony of Aden. Economic development was centered in Aden, and while the city flourished. Both of these polities were still tied to Britain with promises of independence in 1968. One faction, NLF, was invited to the Geneva Talks to sign the agreement with the British. the handover of the territory of South Arabia to the NLF. Southern Yemen became independent as the Peoples Republic of Southern Yemen on 30 November 1967, in June 1969, a radical Marxist wing of the NLF gained power and on 1 December 1970, reorganized the country into the Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen. Subsequently, all parties were amalgamated into the National Liberation Front, renamed the Yemeni Socialist Party. The Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen established close ties with the Soviet Union, the Peoples Republic of China, Cuba, East Germanys consititution of 1968 even served as a kind of blueprint for the PDRYs first constitution. The major communist powers assisted in the building of the PDRYs armed forces, strong support from Moscow resulted in Soviet naval forces gaining access to naval facilities in South Yemen. Fighting broke out in 1972, and a short-lived, small proxy border conflict was resolved with negotiations, however, these plans were put on hold in 1979, as the PDRY funded Red rebels in the YAR, and war was only prevented by an Arab League intervention. The goal of unity was reaffirmed by the northern and southern heads of state during a meeting in Kuwait in March 1979. In 1980, PDRY president Abdul Fattah Ismail resigned and went into exile in Moscow and his successor, Ali Nasir Muhammad, took a less interventionist stance toward both North Yemen and neighbouring Oman. On January 13,1986, a violent struggle began in Aden between Ali Nasirs supporters and supporters of the returned Ismail, who wanted power back. Fighting, known as the South Yemen Civil War, lasted for more than a month and resulted in thousands of casualties, Ali Nasirs ouster, some 60,000 people, including the deposed Ali Nasir, fled to the YAR. Ali Salim al-Beidh, an ally of Ismail who had succeeded in escaping the attack on members of the Politburo
39.
Escarpment
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An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that forms as an effect of faulting or erosion and separates two relatively level areas of differing elevations. Usually escarpment is used interchangeably with scarp, but some sources differentiate the two terms, where escarpment refers to the margin between two landforms, while scarp is synonymous with a cliff or steep slope. The surface of the slope is called a scarp face. This is a ridge which has a gentle slope on one side. Scarps are generally formed by one of two processes, either by differential erosion of rocks, or by vertical movement of the Earths crust along a geologic fault. Most commonly, an escarpment is a transition from one series of rocks to another series of a different age. Escarpments are also formed by faults. When a fault displaces the ground surface so that one side is higher than the other and this can occur in dip-slip faults, or when a strike-slip fault brings a piece of high ground adjacent to an area of lower ground. More loosely, the term describes the zone between coastal lowlands and continental plateaus which have a marked, abrupt change in elevation caused by coastal erosion at the base of the plateau. Earth is not the planet where escarpments occur. They are believed to occur on other planets when the crust contracts, on other Solar System bodies such as Mercury, Mars, and the Moon, the Latin term rupes is used for an escarpment. When sedimentary beds are tilted and exposed to the surface, erosion, escarpments erode gradually and over geological time. The mélange tendencies of escarpments results in varying contacts between a multitude of rock types and these varying levels of erosion can lead to strange features forming in the exposed rock. Kinver Edge The Lincoln Edge Stanage Edge Wenlock Edge France La Côte dOr is famous for its wines and has given its name to a département, le Pays de Bray, a clay vale enclosed by chalk escarpments
