1.
Fra Angelico
–
Fra Angelico was an Early Italian Renaissance painter described by Vasari in his Lives of the Artists as having a rare and perfect talent. He was known to contemporaries as Fra Giovanni da Fiesole and Fra Giovanni Angelico, in modern Italian he is called il Beato Angelico, the common English name Fra Angelico means the Angelic friar. In 1982 Pope John Paul II proclaimed his beatification in recognition of the holiness of his life and he is listed in the Roman Martyrology as Beatus Ioannes Faesulanus, cognomento Angelicus—Blessed Giovanni of Fiesole, surnamed the Angelic. Fra Angelico was born Guido di Pietro at Rupecanina in the Tuscan area of Mugello near Fiesole towards the end of the 14th century, nothing is known of his parents. He was baptized Guido or Guidolino, the earliest recorded document concerning Fra Angelico dates from October 17,1417 when he joined a religious confraternity or guild at the Carmine Church, still under the name of Guido di Pietro. The first record of Angelico as a friar dates from 1423, Fra, a contraction of frater, is a conventional title for a mendicant friar. According to Vasari, Fra Angelico initially received training as an illuminator, possibly working with his older brother Benedetto who was also a Dominican and an illuminator. The former Dominican convent of San Marco in Florence, now a state museum, the painter Lorenzo Monaco may have contributed to his art training, and the influence of the Sienese school is discernible in his work. He had several important charges in the convents he lived in, but this did not limit his art, according to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist were an altarpiece and a painted screen for the Charterhouse of Florence, none such exist there now. Between 1418 and 1436 he was at the convent of Fiesole, where he executed a number of frescoes for the church and the Altarpiece. A predella of the Altarpiece remains intact and is conserved in the National Gallery, London and it shows Christ in Glory surrounded by more than 250 figures, including beatified Dominicans. In 1436, Fra Angelico was one of a number of the friars from Fiesole who moved to the newly built convent or friary of San Marco in Florence, in 1439 Fra Angelico completed one of his most famous works, the San Marco Altarpiece at Florence. The result was unusual for its time, but in this instance, the saints stand squarely within the space, grouped in a natural way as if they were able to converse about the shared experience of witnessing the Virgin in glory. Paintings such as this, known as Sacred Conversations, were to become the major commissions of Giovanni Bellini, Perugino and Raphael. In 1445 Pope Eugene IV summoned him to Rome to paint the frescoes of the Chapel of the Holy Sacrament at St Peters, later demolished by Pope Paul III. Vasari claims that at this time Fra Angelico was offered the Archbishopric of Florence by Pope Nicholas V, the story seems possible and even likely. However, if Vasaris date is correct, then the pope must have been Eugene IV and not Nicholas, moreover, the Archbishop in 1446–1459 was the Dominican Antoninus of Florence, canonized by Pope Adrian VI in 1523. In 1447 Fra Angelico was in Orvieto with his pupil, Benozzo Gozzoli, among his other pupils were Zanobi Strozzi
2.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
3.
Intercession of saints
–
Intercession of the saints is a doctrine held by the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. The practice of praying to saints can be found in Christian writings from the 3rd century onwards, the 4th-century Apostles Creed states belief in the communion of saints, which certain Christian churches interpret as supporting the intercession of saints. As in Christianity, this practice is controversial in Judaism and Islam, advocates of the doctrine say that Jesus parable of The Rich Man and Lazarus in Luke 16, 19–31 indicates the ability of the dead to pray for the living. Aquinas quotes Revelation 8,4, And the smoke of the incense of the prayers of the saints ascended up before God from the hand of the angel, both those for and against the intercession of saints quote Job 5,1. Roman Catholic Church doctrine supports intercessory prayer to saints, intercessory prayer to saints also plays an important role in the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches. Also some Anglo-Catholics believe in saintly intercession and this practice is an application of the Catholic doctrine of the Communion of Saints. It is understood that some of the basis for this was the belief that martyrs passed immediately into the presence of God. A further reinforcement, of the idea, was derived from the cult of the angels. The Catholic doctrine of intercession and invocation is set forth by the Council of Trent, with the exception of a few early Protestant churches, most modern Protestant churches strongly reject all saintly intercession, which they believe is contrary to biblical teaching. However, the Thirty-Nine Articles condemn the invocation of saints as a thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture. The bishop William Forbes termed the Anglican practice advocation of the saints, meaning asking for the saints to pray with them and on their behalf, however, they strongly reject invoking or asking help of saints. The Augsburg Confession emphasizes that Christ is the mediator between God and man, and that he is the one to address prayers to. Like the Lutheran churches, the Calvinist and other Reformed churches understand the communion of saints mentioned in the Apostles Creed to comprise all believers, invocation of saints is considered to be a transgression of the First Commandment. The Methodist Articles of Religion from 1784, in their XIV, in ancient Judaism, it was also popular to pray for intercession from Michael in spite of the rabbinical prohibition against appealing to angels as intermediaries between God and his people. There were two prayers written beseeching him as the prince of mercy to intercede in favor of Israel, one composed by Eliezer ha-Kalir, and those who oppose this practice feel that to God alone may prayers be offered. In modern times one of the greatest divisions in Jewish theology is over the issue of one can beseech the help of a tzadik – an extremely righteous individual. The main conflict is over a practice of beseeching a tzadik who has died to make intercession before the Almighty. This practice is mainly among Chasidic Jews, but also found in varying degrees among other usually Chareidi communities
4.
Mary, mother of Jesus
–
Mary, also known by various titles, styles and honorifics, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth and the mother of Jesus, according to the New Testament and the Quran. The gospels of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin, the miraculous birth took place when she was already betrothed to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony. She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, the Gospel of Luke begins its account of Marys life with the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to canonical gospel accounts, Mary was present at the crucifixion and is depicted as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem. According to the Catholic and Orthodox teaching, at the end of her life her body was assumed directly into Heaven. Mary has been venerated since Early Christianity, and is considered by millions to be the most meritorious saint of the religion and she is claimed to have miraculously appeared to believers many times over the centuries. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, there is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Roman Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her status as the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her perpetual virginity, many Protestants minimize Marys role within Christianity, based on the argued brevity of biblical references. Mary also has a position in Islam, where one of the longer chapters of the Quran is devoted to her. Marys name in the manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name ܡܪܝܡ. The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία, which is a form of Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament, in Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that she conceived Jesus miraculously through the Holy Spirit without her husbands involvement. The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos, Aeiparthenos as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. For example, the title Our Lady of Sorrows has inspired such masterpieces as Michelangelos Pietà, the title Theotokos was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, this phrase in Greek, in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God, some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title Queen Mother has been given to Mary since she was the mother of Jesus, the scriptural basis for the term Queen can be seen in Luke 1,32 and the Isaiah 9,6. Queen Mother can be found in 1 Kings 2, 19-20 and Jeremiah 13, other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for calling on Mary
5.
Roman Catholicism
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
6.
Rosary
–
The Rosary, usually in the form of the Dominican Rosary, is a form of prayer used especially in the Catholic Church named for the string of knots or beads used to count the component prayers. When used of the form of prayer, the word is capitalized, as is customary for other names of prayers, such as the Lords Prayer, the Hail Mary. When referring to the beads, it is written with a lower-case initial. The prayers that essentially compose the Rosary are arranged in sets of ten Hail Marys with each set preceded by one Lords Prayer and followed by one Glory Be. During recitation of each set, known as a decade, thought is given to one of the Mysteries of the Rosary, normally, five decades are recited in a session. Other prayers are added after each decade and before. The rosary as an object is an aid towards saying these prayers in the proper sequence. In 2002 Pope John Paul II said that it is fitting that a new set of five be added, called the Luminous Mysteries, for over four centuries, the rosary has been promoted by several popes as part of the veneration of Mary in Roman Catholicism. The rosary is part of Catholic veneration of Mary, which has been promoted by numerous popes, in the 16th century, Pope Pius V associated the rosary with the General Roman Calendar by instituting the Feast of Our Lady of Victory, which is celebrated on 7 October. Pope Leo XIII, known as The Rosary Pope, issued twelve encyclicals and five apostolic letters on the rosary and added the invocation Queen of the most Holy Rosary to the Litany of Loreto. Pope Pius XII and his successors actively promoted veneration of the Virgin in Lourdes and Fatima, Pope John Paul II issued the Apostolic Letter Rosarium Virginis Mariae which built on the total Marian devotion. On 3 May 2008, Pope Benedict XVI stated that the Rosary was experiencing a new springtime, It is one of the most eloquent signs of love that the young generation nourish for Jesus and his Mother. To Benedict XVI, the rosary is a meditation on all important moments of salvation history, the Congregation for Divine Worship also emphasizes the importance of the rosary as a formative component of spiritual life. The theologian Romano Guardini thus defined the Roman Catholic emphasis on the rosary as participation in the life of Mary and this view had been endorsed by Leo XIII who viewed the rosary as a vital means to participate in the life of Mary and to find the way to Christ. Devotion to the rosary is one of the most notable features of popular Catholic spirituality, Pope John Paul II placed the rosary at the very center of Christian spirituality and called it among the finest and most praiseworthy traditions of Christian contemplation. From the sixteenth century onwards, rosary recitations often involved picture texts that assisted meditation, such imagery continues to be used to depict the mysteries of the rosary. Saints have stressed the importance of meditation and contemplation, scriptural meditations on the rosary build on the Christian tradition of Lectio Divina, as a way of using the Gospel to start a conversation between the soul and Christ. Padre Pio, who was devoted to the rosary, said, Through the study of books one seeks God, references to the rosary have been part of a number of reported Marian Apparitions spanning two centuries
7.
Angelus
–
The Angelus is a Catholic devotion commemorating the Incarnation. The Angelus exemplifies a species of prayers called the prayer of the devotee, the devotion was traditionally recited in Roman Catholic churches, convents, and monasteries three times daily,6,00 am, noon, and 6,00 pm. The devotion is also used by some Anglican and Lutheran churches, the Angelus is usually accompanied by the ringing of the Angelus bell, which is a call to prayer and to spread good-will to everyone. The angel referred to in the prayer is Gabriel, a messenger of God who revealed to Mary that she would conceive a child to be born the Son of God and this is an old devotion that was already well established 700 years ago. The Angelus originated with the 11th-century monastic custom of reciting three Hail Marys during the evening, or Compline, bell, the first written documentation stems from Italian Franciscan monk Sinigardi di Arezzo. Franciscan monasteries in Italy document the use in 1263 and 1295, the current form of the Angelus prayer is included in a Venetian Catechism from 1560. The older usages seem to have commemorated the resurrection of Christ in the morning, his suffering at noon, in 1269, St Bonaventure urged the faithful to adopt the custom of the Franciscans of saying three Hail Marys as the Compline bell was rung. The Angelus is not identical to the Noon Bell ordered by Pope Calixtus III in 1456 and he again asks the faithful throughout the World, to pray for the persecuted Church in the East during the mid-day Angelus. The custom of reciting it in the morning apparently grew from the custom of saying three Hail Marys while a bell rang at Prime. The noon time custom apparently arose from the noon time commemoration of the Passion on Fridays, the institution of the Angelus is by some ascribed to Pope Urban II, by some to Pope John XXII for the year 1317. The triple recitation is ascribed to Louis XI of France, who in 1472 ordered it to be recited three times daily, the form of the prayer was standardized by the 17th century. The manner of ringing the Angelus—the triple stroke repeated three times, with a pause between each set of three, sometimes followed by a peal as at curfew—seems to have been long established. The 15th-century constitutions of Syon monastery dictate that the lay brother shall toll the Ave bell nine strokes at three times, keeping the space of one Pater and Ave between each three tollings. The pattern of ringing on Irish radio and television consists of three groups of three peals, each separated by a pause, followed by a group of nine peals. It is common practice that during the recital of the Angelus prayer, for the lines And the Word was made flesh/And dwelt among us, either of these actions draws attention to the moment of the Incarnation of Christ into human flesh. During Paschaltide, the Marian antiphon Regina Cœli with versicle and prayer, in most Franciscan and contemplative monasteries, the Angelus continues to be prayed three times a day. In Germany, particular dioceses and their radio stations ring the Angelus, in addition, Roman Catholic churches ring the Angelus bell thrice daily. Although this decision was reversed and the Angelus is still played twice a day
8.
Oriental Orthodoxy
–
Oriental Orthodoxy has approximately 84 million adherents worldwide. Oriental Orthodox Churches uphold their own ancient ecclesiastic traditions of apostolic succession and these Churches rejected the definition of the two natures of Christ, known as the Chalcedonian Definition, which was issued by the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Eastern Orthodox maintain numerous theological and ecclesiological similarities with the Oriental Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox Churches are in full communion with each other, but not with the Eastern Orthodox Church, despite the similar name. The schism between Oriental Orthodoxy and the Great Church was based on differences in Christology, the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, declared that Jesus Christ is God, that is to say, consubstantial with the Father. Later, the ecumenical council, the Council of Ephesus, declared that Jesus Christ, though divine as well as human, is only one being. Thus, the Council of Ephesus explicitly rejected Nestorianism, the Christological doctrine that Christ was two distinct beings, one divine and one human, who happened to inhabit the same body. The Churches that later became Oriental Orthodoxy were firmly anti-Nestorian, and those who opposed Chalcedon saw this as a concession to Nestorianism, or even as a conspiracy to convert the Church to Nestorianism by stealth. As a result, over the decades, they gradually separated from communion with the Great Church. Monophysitism was condemned as heretical alongside Nestorianism, and to accuse a church of being Monophysite is to accuse it of falling into the opposite extreme from Nestorianism, however, the Oriental Orthodox themselves reject this description as inaccurate, having officially condemned the teachings of both Nestorius and Eutyches. They define themselves as Miaphysite instead, holding that Christ has one nature, the schism between the Oriental Orthodox and the rest of Christendom occurred in the 5th century. They would accept only of or from two natures but not in two natures and it is not entirely clear that Nestorius himself was a Nestorian. The Oriental Orthodox churches were often called Monophysite, although they reject this label, as it is associated with Eutychian Monophysitism. It was not until 518 that the new Byzantine Emperor, Justin I, Justin ordered the replacement of all non-Chalcedonian bishops, including the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria. The extent of the influence of the Bishop of Rome in this demand has been a matter of debate, Justinian I also attempted to bring those monks who still rejected the decision of the Council of Chalcedon into communion with the greater church. The exact time of event is unknown, but it is believed to have been between 535 and 548. St Abraham of Farshut was summoned to Constantinople and he chose to bring with him four monks, upon arrival, Justinian summoned them and informed them that they would either accept the decision of the Council or lose their positions. Abraham refused to entertain the idea, theodora tried to persuade Justinian to change his mind, seemingly to no avail. Abraham himself stated in a letter to his monks that he preferred to remain in exile rather than subscribe to a faith which he believed to be contrary to that of Athanasius of Alexandria
9.
Eastern Orthodox Church
–
The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
10.
Catholic
–
The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
11.
Anglicanism
–
Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
12.
Independent Catholicism
–
Independent Catholic bishops who were originally Roman Catholic but left the Church are sometimes referred to as episcopi vagantes because of their lack of communion with the Roman Catholic Church. Their decisions to enter into Independent Catholic Churches tend to stem from various disagreements with, the term Independent Catholic is not usually applied to Anglo-Catholics, the Church of England or to the other denominations within the Anglican Communion. In the case of Continuing Anglicanism outside the Anglican Communion, denominations that self-identify as Catholic may sometimes be considered as Independent Catholic, various Independent Catholic groups have attracted a significant amount of criticism. Representatives of the Catholic Church consistently warn about the dangers of associating with these institutions, although the term Old Catholic was first used in 1853 to describe those Catholics in Utrecht in the Netherlands, most scholars date the modern Old Catholic movement to the 1870s. The churches were supported by the Old Catholic Archbishop of Utrecht, later, they united more formally, as the Utrecht Union of Churches. The independent Catholic movement came to Great Britain in 1908, when Arnold Harris Mathew was consecrated by Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands Archbishop Gerardus Gul, Mathew believed that Old Catholicism would provide a home for those disaffected clergy, but the mass conversions failed to occur. Joseph René Vilatte, an Old Catholic priest, is credited with being the first person to bring the independent Catholic movement to North America, in 1892, Vilatte traveled to India, where he obtained ordination to the episcopacy by the Oriental Orthodox bishops in India. Over the following 28 years, Vilatte consecrated a number of men to the episcopacy and those bishops and their successors went on to found many different jurisdictions in North America. Most of these schismatic Traditionalist Catholics belong to the Latin Rite, some of them are grouped along sedevacantism. The Old Catholic Church holds close to ideas of ecclesiastical liberalism, the Church is not in communion with the Holy See, though the Union of Utrecht of Old Catholic Churches is in full communion with the Anglican Communion. Ethnic grievances still play a role in the today as in the case of St. Stanislaus Kostka Parish in St. Louis. Many but not all independent Catholic clergy claim descent from the Union of Utrecht member churches, like Orthodoxy, Utrecht holds that ordinations cannot be done except within the church as a whole and with appropriate authority. Since the orders of the EOC were not regarded as valid by the Orthodox bishops, Duarte Costa went on to consecrate other bishops in Europe as well as North and South America. Several independent Catholic bodies trace their apostolic succession through Duarte Costa, including the Catholic Apostolic Church in North America, a number of liturgical churches are sometimes regarded as independent Catholics but do not fit neatly in the category. The Polish National Catholic Church is occasionally referred to as an independent Catholic church, however, the PNCC derives its orders from the Old Catholic Union of Utrecht but is no longer in communion with Utrecht or the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. The relationships ended because the PNCC rejects the ordination of women and sexually active homosexuals. Whilst no longer in communion with any body, the PNCC remains a relatively substantial denomination, maintaining active dialogue with the Roman Catholic. It is also a member of the World Council of Churches, in numerous cases, bishops have been consecrated without having any priests under their jurisdiction
13.
Protestantism
–
Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
14.
Lutheranism
–
Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
15.
Gabriel
–
Gabriel, in the Abrahamic religions, is an angel who typically serves as Gods messenger. Gabriel is mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, in the Old Testament, he appears to the prophet Daniel, explaining Daniels visions. In the Gospel of Luke, Gabriel appeared to Zechariah and the Virgin Mary, foretelling the births of John the Baptist and Jesus, respectively. In the Book of Daniel, he is referred to as the man Gabriel, while in the Gospel of Luke, Gabriel is not called an archangel in the Bible, but is so called in Intertestamental period sources like the Book of Enoch. In the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Anglican churches, the archangels Michael, Raphael, in Islam, Gabriel is considered an archangel whom God is believed to have sent with revelation to various prophets, including Muhammad. The 96th chapter of the Quran, The Clot, is believed by Muslims to have been the first chapter revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad, in the LDS Faith, The Angel Gabriel was The Prophet Noah, and Michael the Archangel was the Prophet Adam in their Mortal Ministries. Jewish rabbis interpreted the man in linen as Gabriel in the Book of Daniel, in the Book of Daniel, Gabriel is responsible for interpreting Daniels visions. Gabriels main function in Daniel is that of revealer, a role he continues in later literature, in the Book of Ezekiel, Gabriel is understood to be the angel that was sent to destroy Jerusalem. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, Gabriel takes the form of a man, shimon ben Lakish concluded that the angelic names of Michael, Raphael, and Gabriel came out of the Babylonian exile. In Kabbalah, Gabriel is identified with the sephirot of Yesod, Gabriel also has a prominent role as one of Gods archangels in the Kabbalah literature. There, Gabriel is portrayed as working in concert with Michael as part of Gods court, Gabriel is not to be prayed to because only God can answer prayers and sends Gabriel as his agent. According to Jewish mythology, in the Garden of Eden there is a tree of life or the tree of souls that blossoms and produces new souls, which fall into the Guf, Gabriel reaches into the treasury and takes out the first soul that comes into his hand. Then Lailah, the Angel of Conception, watches over the embryo until it is born, the intertestamental period produced a wealth of literature, much of it having an apocalyptic orientation. The names and ranks of angels and devils were greatly expanded, and each had particular duties and status before God. In 1 Enoch 9, 1–3, Gabriel, along with Michael, Uriel and Suriel, saw much blood being shed upon the earth and heard the souls of men cry, Bring our cause before the Most High. —1 Enoch 10,9 Gabriel is the fifth of the five angels who watch, Gabriel, one of the holy angels, who is over Paradise and the serpents. And these are the four angels of the Lord of Spirits, the angel Gabriel is mentioned in Daniel 8, 16-26 and 9, 20-27. Gabriel, one who looked like a man, interprets Daniels visions, Gabriel speaks to Daniel while he is in a deep sleep, and Daniel is tired and sick for days after being with Gabriel
16.
Gospel of Luke
–
The Gospel According to Luke, also called the Gospel of Luke, or simply Luke, is the third of the four canonical Gospels. It tells of the origins, birth, ministry, death, resurrection, Luke is the second-longest of the four gospels, and together with Acts of the Apostles, the pair make up a two-volume work from the same pen, called Luke–Acts. The cornerstone of Luke-Acts theology is salvation history, the understanding that Gods purpose is seen in the way he has acted. The gospels sources are the Gospel of Mark, the collection called the Q source, and a collection of material called the L source. Luke-Acts does not name its author, the most probable date for its composition is around 80–100 AD, and there is evidence that it was still being revised well into the 2nd century. Autographs of Luke and the other Gospels have not been preserved, as is typical for ancient documents, the gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts. The author is not named in either volume and he admired Paul, but his theology was significantly different from Pauls on key points and he does not represent Pauls views accurately. The eclipse of the attribution to Luke the companion of Paul has meant that an early date for the gospel is now rarely put forward. Luke-Acts is a history of the Founder of the church and his successors. All three authors anchor the histories of their respective peoples by dating the births of the founders and narrate the stories of the founders births from God, each founder taught authoritatively, appeared to witnesses after death, and ascended to heaven. Crucial aspects of the teaching of all three concerned the relationship between rich and poor and the question of whether foreigners were to be received into the people. The author used as his sources the gospel of Mark, the collection called the Q source. Mark, written around 70 AD, provided the narrative outline, for these Luke turned to Q, which consisted mostly, although not exclusively, of sayings. Mark and Q account for about 64% of Luke, the remaining material, known as the L source, is of unknown origin and date. Most Q and L-source material is grouped in two clusters, Luke 6, 17-8,3 and 9, 51-18,14, Luke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus-followers gathered in a house to share the Lords supper. The author assumes an educated Greek-speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco-Roman world at large. He begins his gospel with a preface addressed to Theophilus, the name means Lover of God, here he informs Theophilus of his intention, which is to lead his reader to certainty through an orderly account of the events that have been fulfilled among us. He did not, however, intend to provide Theophilus with a justification of the Christian faith – did it happen
17.
Thomas Aquinas
–
Saint Thomas Aquinas O. P. was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus. The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio and he was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, of which he argued that reason is found in God. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, the works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologiae and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Scripture and on Aristotle form an important part of his body of work, furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Churchs liturgy. Thomas Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Churchs greatest theologians, Pope Benedict XV declared, This Order. Acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the praises of the Pontiffs. The English philosopher Anthony Kenny considers Aquinas to be one of the dozen greatest philosophers of the western world, Thomas was most probably born in the castle of Roccasecca, located in Aquino, old county of the Kingdom of Sicily, c.1225. According to some authors, he was born in the castle of his father, though he did not belong to the most powerful branch of the family, Landulf of Aquino was a man of means. As a knight in the service of King Roger II, he held the title miles, Thomass mother, Theodora, belonged to the Rossi branch of the Neapolitan Caracciolo family. Landulfs brother Sinibald was abbot of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino and it was here that Thomas was probably introduced to Aristotle, Averroes and Maimonides, all of whom would influence his theological philosophy. There his teacher in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music was Petrus de Ibernia, at the age of nineteen Thomas resolved to join the recently founded Dominican Order. Thomass change of heart did not please his family, in an attempt to prevent Theodoras interference in Thomass choice, the Dominicans arranged to move Thomas to Rome, and from Rome, to Paris. Political concerns prevented the Pope from ordering Thomass release, which had the effect of extending Thomass detention, Thomas passed this time of trial tutoring his sisters and communicating with members of the Dominican Order. Family members became desperate to dissuade Thomas, who remained determined to join the Dominicans, at one point, two of his brothers resorted to the measure of hiring a prostitute to seduce him. According to legend Thomas drove her away wielding a fire iron and that night two angels appeared to him as he slept and strengthened his determination to remain celibate. By 1244, seeing all of her attempts to dissuade Thomas had failed, Theodora sought to save the familys dignity. In her mind, an escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans
18.
Koine Greek
–
It was based mainly on Attic and related Ionic speech forms, with various admixtures brought about through dialect levelling with other varieties. Koine Greek displayed a wide spectrum of different styles, ranging from more conservative literary forms to the vernaculars of the time. As the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire, it developed further into Medieval Greek, Koine Greek remained the court language of the Byzantine Empire until its dissolution in 1453, while Medieval and eventually Modern Greek were the everyday language. Literary Koine was the medium of much of post-classical Greek literary and scholarly writing, such as the works of Plutarch, Koine is also the language of the Christian New Testament, of the Septuagint, and of most early Christian theological writing by the Church Fathers. In this context, Koine Greek is also known as Biblical, New Testament and it continues to be used as the liturgical language of services in the Greek Orthodox Church. The word koinē is the Greek word for common, and is understood as referring to the common dialect. The word is pronounced /kɔɪˈneɪ/, /ˈkɔɪneɪ/ or /kiːˈniː/ in US English, the pronunciation of the word in Koine gradually changed from Greek pronunciation, to Greek pronunciation. Its pronunciation in Modern Greek is, the term was applied in several different senses by ancient scholars. Others chose to refer to Koine as the Alexandrian dialect or the dialect of Alexandria, the former was often used by modern classicists. Koine Greek arose as a dialect within the armies of Alexander the Great. Under the leadership of Macedon, their newly formed common variety was spoken from the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Seleucid Empire of Mesopotamia and it replaced existing ancient Greek dialects with an everyday form that people anywhere could understand. The passage into the period, known as Medieval Greek. The post-Classical period of Greek thus refers to the creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire Hellenistic, the linguistic roots of the Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the Hellenistic period, most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main Ancient Greek dialects, ἡ ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων συνεστῶσα. The view accepted by most scholars today was given by the Greek linguist Georgios Hatzidakis, who showed that, despite the composition of the Four, the stable nucleus of Koine Greek is Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as Attic with the admixture of elements especially from Ionic, the degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on the region of the Hellenistic World. The literary Koine of the Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it is mentioned as Common Attic. Koine Greek was therefore considered a form of Greek which was not worthy of attention
19.
Modern Greek
–
Modern Greek refers to the dialects and varieties of the Greek language spoken in the modern era. Varieties of Modern Greek include several varieties, including Demotic, Katharevousa, Pontic, Cappadocian, Mariupolitan, Southern Italian, Yevanic, Demotic Greek comprises various regional varieties with minor linguistic differences, mainly in phonology and vocabulary. Due to the degree of mutual intelligibility of these varieties, Greek linguists refer to them as idioms of a wider Demotic dialect. Most English-speaking linguists however refer to them as dialects, emphasising degrees of variation only when necessary, Demotic Greek varieties are divided into two main groups, Northern and Southern. The main distinguishing feature common to Northern variants is a set of standard phonological shifts in unaccented vowel phonemes, becomes, becomes, and and are dropped. The dropped vowels existence is implicit, and may affect surrounding phonemes, for example, Southern variants do not exhibit these phonological shifts. Examples of Northern dialects are Rumelian, Epirote, Thessalian, Macedonian, Thracian, Demotic Greek has officially been taught in monotonic Greek script since 1982. Polytonic script remains popular in intellectual circles, Katharevousa is a semi-artificial sociolect promoted in the 19th century at the foundation of the modern Greek state, as a compromise between Classical Greek and modern Demotic. It was the language of modern Greece until 1976. Katharevousa is written in polytonic Greek script, also, while Demotic Greek contains loanwords from Turkish, Italian, Latin, and other languages, these have for the most part been purged from Katharevousa. It hails from Hellenistic and Medieval Koine and preserves characteristics of Ionic due to ancient colonizations of the region, Pontic evolved as a separate dialect from Demotic Greek as a result of the regions isolation from the Greek mainstream after the Fourth Crusade fragmented the Byzantine Empire into separate kingdoms. Rumeíka or Mariupolitan Greek is a dialect spoken in about 17 villages around the northern coast of the Sea of Azov in southern Ukraine, thereafter, the Crimean Greek state continued to exist as the independent Greek Principality of Theodoro. The Greek-speaking inhabitants of Crimea were invited by Catherine the Great to resettle in the new city of Mariupol after the Russo-Turkish War to escape the then Muslim-dominated Crimea, mariupolitans main features have certain similarities with both Pontic and the northern varieties of the core dialects. Southern Italian or Italiot comprises both Calabrian and Griko varieties, spoken by around 15 villages in the regions of Calabria and Apulia, the Southern Italian dialect is the last living trace of Hellenic elements in Southern Italy that once formed Magna Graecia. Its origins can be traced to the Dorian Greek settlers who colonised the area from Sparta, Griko and Demotic are mutually intelligible to some extent, but the former shares some common characteristics with Tsakonian. Yevanic is an extinct language of Romaniote Jews. The language was already in decline for centuries until most of its speakers were killed in the Holocaust, afterward, the language was mostly kept by remaining Romaniote emigrants to Israel, where it was displaced by modern Hebrew. Tsakonian evolved directly from Laconian and therefore descends from the Doric branch of the Greek language and it has limited input from Hellenistic Koine and is significantly different from and not mutually intelligible with other Greek varieties
20.
Perfection
–
Perfection is, broadly, a state of completeness and flawlessness. The term perfection is used to designate a range of diverse, if often kindred and these concepts have historically been addressed in a number of discrete disciplines, notably mathematics, physics, chemistry, ethics, aesthetics, ontology, and theology. The form of the word long fluctuated in various languages, the English language had the alternates, perfection and the Biblical perfectness. The word perfection derives from the Latin perfectio, and perfect — from perfectus and these expressions in turn come from perficio — to finish, to bring to an end. Perfectio thus literally means a finishing, and perfect — finished, the genealogy of the concept of perfection reaches back beyond Latin, to Greek. The Greek equivalent of the Latin perfectus was teleos, the latter Greek expression generally had concrete referents, such as a perfect physician or flutist, a perfect comedy or a perfect social system. Hence the Greek teleiotes was not yet so fraught with abstract, to avoid the latter associations, the Greek term has generally been translated as completeness rather than perfection. The oldest definition of perfection, fairly precise and distinguishing the shades of the concept, in Book Delta of the Metaphysics, he distinguishes three meanings of the term, or rather three shades of one meaning, but in any case three different concepts. Which is complete — which contains all the parts,2. Which is so good that nothing of the kind could be better,3, the first of these concepts is fairly well subsumed within the second. Between those two and the third, however, there arises a duality in concept, the variants on the concept of perfection would have been quite of a piece for two thousand years, had they not been confused with other, kindred concepts. The chief of these was the concept of that which is the best, in Latin, in antiquity, excellentia and perfectio made a pair, thus, for example, dignitaries were called perfectissime, just as they are now called excellency. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who thought much about perfection and held the world to be the best of possible worlds and this was formulated by Lucilio Vanini, who had a precursor in the 16th-century writer Joseph Juste Scaliger, and they in turn referred to the ancient philosopher Empedocles. Their argument, as given by the first two, was if the world were perfect, it could not improve and so would lack true perfection. To Empedocles, according to Vanini, perfection depends on incompleteness, since the latter possesses a potential for development, the paradox of perfection—that imperfection is perfect—applies not only to human affairs, but to technology. Thus, irregularity in semiconductor crystals is requisite for the production of semiconductors, the solution to the apparent paradox lies in a distinction between two concepts of perfection, that of regularity, and that of utility. Imperfection is perfect in technology, in the sense that irregularity is useful, perfect numbers have been distinguished ever since the ancient Greeks called them teleioi. There was, however, no consensus among the Greeks as to which numbers were perfect or why, a view that was shared by Plato held that 10 was a perfect number
21.
Elizabeth (biblical figure)
–
Elizabeth, also spelled Elisabeth or Elisheba, was the mother of John the Baptist and the wife of Zechariah, according to the Gospel of Luke. According to the Gospel of Luke, Elizabeth was of the daughters of Aaron and she and her husband Zacharias were righteous before God, walking in all the commandments and ordinances of the Lord blameless, but childless. While he was in the temple of the Lord, Zacharias was visited by the angel Gabriel, But the angel said to him, “Do not be afraid, Zechariah and your wife Elizabeth will bear you a son, and you are to call him John. He will be a joy and delight to you, and many will rejoice because of his birth and he is never to take wine or other fermented drink, and he will be filled with the Holy Spirit even before he is born. Zacharias doubted whereby he could know this since both he and his wife were old, the angel identified himself as Gabriel and told Zacharias that he would be dumb, and not able to speak until the words were fulfilled, because he did not believe. When the days of his ministry were complete, he returned to his house, after this his wife Elizabeth became pregnant and for five months remained in seclusion. “The Lord has done this for me, ” she said, “In these days he has shown his favor and taken away my disgrace among the people. After she was informed that her relative Elizabeth had begun her sixth month of pregnancy, she travelled to Hebron, in the hill country of Judah. When Elizabeth heard Mary’s greeting, the baby leaped in her womb, in a loud voice she exclaimed, “Blessed are you among women, and blessed is the child you will bear. But why am I so favored, that the mother of my Lord should come to me, as soon as the sound of your greeting reached my ears, the baby in my womb leaped for joy. Blessed is she who has believed that the Lord would fulfill his promises to her, after Mary heard Elizabeths blessing, she spoke the words now known as the Magnificat. Again, Henry notes that it was here, in Hebron, that circumcision was first instituted, Mary stayed with Elizabeth for about three months and then returned home. When it was time for Elizabeth to have her baby, she gave birth to a son and her neighbors and relatives heard that the Lord had shown her great mercy, and they shared her joy. On the eighth day they came to circumcise the child, and they were going to him after his father Zechariah. He is to be called John. ”They said to her, “There is no one among your relatives who has that name. ”Then they made signs to his father, to find out what he would like to name the child. He asked for a tablet, and to everyone’s astonishment he wrote, “His name is John. ”Immediately his mouth was opened and his tongue set free. That is the last mention of Elizabeth, who is not mentioned in any other chapter in the Bible. Elizabeth is mentioned in books of the Apocrypha, most prominently in the Protevangelion of James, in which the birth of her son
22.
Immaculate Conception
–
The Catholic Church teaches that Mary was conceived by normal biological means in the womb of her mother, Saint Anne, but God acted upon her soul, keeping it immaculate. The Immaculate Conception is commonly confused with the Virgin Birth of Jesus, jesuss birth is covered by the Doctrine of Incarnation, while the Immaculate Conception deals with the conception of Mary, not that of her son. The defined dogma of the Immaculate Conception regards original sin only, therefore, being always free from original sin, the doctrine teaches that from her conception Mary received the sanctifying grace that would normally come with baptism after birth. The definition makes no declaration about the Churchs belief that the Blessed Virgin was sinless in the sense of freedom from actual or personal sin, however, the Church holds that Mary was also sinless personally, free from all sin, original or personal. The doctrine of the conception is not to be confused with the virginal conception of her son Jesus. This misunderstanding of the immaculate conception is frequently met in the mass media. Catholics believe that Mary was not the product of a virginal conception herself but was the daughter of a father and mother, traditionally known by the names of Saint Joachim. In 1677, the Holy See condemned the belief that Mary was virginally conceived, the Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December, exactly nine months before celebrating the Nativity of Mary. The feast of the Annunciation is celebrated on 25 March, nine months before Christmas Day, another misunderstanding is that, by her immaculate conception, Mary did not need a saviour. When defining the dogma in Ineffabilis Deus, Pope Pius IX explicitly affirmed that Mary was redeemed in a more sublime. He stated that Mary, rather than being cleansed after sin, was prevented from contracting Original Sin in view of the foreseen merits of Jesus Christ. In Luke 1,47, Mary proclaims, My spirit has rejoiced in God my Saviour and this is referred to as Marys pre-redemption by Christ. A feast of the Conception of the Most Holy and All Pure Mother of God was celebrated in Syria on 8 December perhaps as early as the 5th century, note that the title of achrantos refers to the holiness of Mary, not specifically to the holiness of her conception. Marys complete sinlessness and concomitant exemption from any taint from the first moment of her existence was a familiar to Greek theologians of Byzantium. Beginning with St. St. Gregory Nazianzen designated Mary as prokathartheisa, gregorys doctrines surrounding Marys purification were likely related to the burgeoning commemoration of the Mother of God in and around Constantinople very close to the date of Christmas. Nazianzens title of Mary at the Annunciation as prepurified was subsequently adopted by all interested in his Mariology to justify the Byzantine equivalent of the Immaculate Conception. This is especially apparent in the Fathers St. Sophronios of Jerusalem and St. John Damascene, about the time of Damascene, the public celebration of the Conception of St. Ann was becoming popular. It is admitted that the doctrine as defined by Pius IX was not explicitly mooted before the 12th century and it is also agreed that no direct or categorical and stringent proof of the dogma can be brought forward from Scripture
23.
Marian devotions
–
A Marian devotion in Christianity is directed to the person of Mary, mother of Jesus consisting of external pious practices expressed by the believer. Such devotional prayers or acts may be accompanied by requests for Marys intercession with God. In 787 the Second Council of Nicaea affirmed a three-level hierarchy of latria, hyperdulia and dulia that applies to God and they believe this devotion may distract attention from Christ. There is significant diversity of form and structure in Marian devotions practiced by different groups of Christians, Orthodox Marian devotions are well-defined and closely linked to liturgy, while Roman Catholic practices are wide-ranging. There is no single church with universal authority within the Anglican Communion, within the Anglican Communion and the Continuing Anglican movement, devotions to the Virgin Mary have more emphasis within High Church and Broad Church parishes than others. The emphasis placed on Mary and Marian devotions changed over the history of Anglicanism, however, in the 17th century, there was a gradual return to Marianism and by 1662 there were five Marian feasts. Anglican devotion for the Virgin Mary was revived during the 19th century Oxford Movement of Anglo-Catholicism, british theologians such as Father Frederick Faber took an enthusiastic approach to the promotion of Marian devotions towards the end of the 19th century. In the liturgical renewal of the 20th century, Mary gained new prominence, the gradual increase in Marian devotions among Anglicans has also been manifested within the higher levels of the clergy in the Anglican Communion. Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams wrote a book on how to pray with the icons of the Virgin Mary, Anglican devotions to Mary include the Anglican Rosary, votive candles, and pilgrimages to Walsingham and Lourdes. Some Anglicans and Anglo-Catholics also pray the rosary itself, for centuries, Our Lady of Walsingham has been a centerpiece in Anglican devotions to the Virgin Mary and its feast is celebrated on October 15, as well as a Catholic feast on September 24. Also common in Anglican cathedrals, Anglo-Catholic parishes, and certain Anglican shrines are chapels or side altars dedicated to the Virgin Mary called Lady chapels, a deep devotion to the Aeipartenos Mary is one of the key themes of Orthodox liturgy and spirituality. Devotion to the Virgin Mary is taken for granted in Eastern Orthodoxy and it permeates the entire life of the Church and historically required no academic development as in the Western Church. In the Orthodox view, devotion to Mary is considered an important element of Christian spirituality, Orthodox theologian Sergei Bulgakov called denominations that do not venerate the Virgin Mary another type of Christianity. The Theotokos title for Mary is very important in Eastern Orthodoxy and is seen as an affirmation of the fullness of Gods incarnation, Marian devotions thus form the nucleolus of Orthodox Mariology. Feasts, icons and hymns are often combined, e. g. the Theotokos Iverskaya wonder-working icon is used on its own feast day, devotions to the Theotokos are often combined with the veneration of icons depicting her with the Child Jesus. For instance, in the Sunday of Orthodoxy the singing of Marian hymns, the Eastern Orthodox Church considers Mary to have been elevated by God to the highest status, above all other creatures, though still only a human being. The Orthodox hymn Axion Estin speaks of Mary as being More honorable than the cherubim, although most Orthodox consider Mary sinless, they do not accept the Roman Catholic definition of the Immaculate Conception of Mary. Mary is mentioned numerous times in all of the Divine Services, the final petition of each ektenia ends with an invocation of the Virgin Mary
24.
Antiphon
–
An antiphon in Christian music and ritual is a responsory by a choir or congregation, usually in the form of a Gregorian chant, to a psalm or other text in a religious service or musical work. Antiphony is now used for any call and response style of singing, such as the kirtan. Antiphonal music is music that is performed by two semi-independent choirs in interaction, often singing alternate musical phrases, antiphonal psalmody is the singing or musical playing of psalms by alternating groups of performers. An antiphony is also a choir-book containing antiphons, the mirror structure of Hebrew psalms renders it probable that the antiphonal method was present in the services of the ancient Israelites. According to the historian Socrates of Constantinople, antiphony was introduced into Christian worship by Ignatius of Antioch, Antiphons have remained an integral part of the worship in the Byzantine and Armenian Rite. The practice was not found in the Latin Church until more than two centuries later, Polyphonic Marian antiphons emerged in England in the 14th century as settings of texts honouring the Virgin Mary separately from the mass and office, often after Compline. Towards the end of the 15th century, English composers produced expanded settings up to nine parts, with increasing complexity, the largest collection of such antiphons is the late 15th century Eton Choirbook. As a result, antiphony remains particularly common in the Anglican musical tradition, the Greater Advent or O Antiphons are antiphons used at daily prayer in the evenings of the last days of Advent in various liturgical Christian traditions. Each antiphon is a name of Christ, one of his attributes mentioned in Scripture, in the Roman Catholic tradition, they are sung or recited at Vespers from December 17 to December 23. In the Church of England they have traditionally used as antiphons to the Magnificat at Evening Prayer. More recently they have found a place in liturgical documents throughout the Anglican Communion. Use of the O Antiphons was preserved in Lutheranism at the German Reformation, when two or more groups of singers sing in alternation, the style of music can also be called polychoral. Specifically, this term is applied to music of the late Renaissance. Polychoral techniques are a characteristic of the music of the Venetian school, exemplified by the works of Giovanni Gabrieli. Polychoral music was not limited to Italy in the Renaissance and it was popular in Spain and Germany and there are examples from the 19th and 20th centuries, from composers as diverse as Hector Berlioz, Igor Stravinsky and Karlheinz Stockhausen. Marian antiphon Polyphony Polyphonic form Polyphonic singing Polychoral compositions Latin church music by George Frideric Handel — includes three antiphons, Antiphon O Sapientia quae ex ore Altissimi. Antiphon O Adonai II Great Advent Antiphon File, Schola Gregoriana-Antiphona et Magnificat. ogg
25.
Hymns to Mary
–
Marian hymns are Christian songs focused on the Virgin Mary. They are used in devotional and liturgical services, particularly by the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican. They are often used in the month of May devotions, some have also been adopted as Christmas hymns. Marian hymns are not popular among Protestants, as many Protestants see Marian veneration as idolatry, however, the practice is very common among Christians of Catholic traditions, and a key component of the Eastern Orthodox liturgy. There are many more hymns to Mary within the Eastern Orthodox yearly cycle of liturgy than in Roman Catholic liturgy, the Magnificat hymn is one of the eight most ancient Christian hymns and historian Marjorie Reeves states that it is perhaps the earliest Christian hymn. The Magnificat is named after the line in the 4th century Vulgate Bible, based on Luke 1, 46-55, and continues to be widely used to date by Roman Catholics, Anglicans. Marian hymns are at times shared among different groups of Christians, for instance, The second stanza of the Anglican hymn Ye Watchers and Ye Holy Ones is derived from the Eastern Orthodox hymn to the Theotokos. In the Eastern Church, the Theotokia are a part of the Divine Liturgy. In the Theotokia people repeat the name Mary many times as a sign of their friendship with her. Parts of the Axion Estin hymn date back to the earliest days of Orthodoxy, in the Eastern Church, the Theotokia often include biblical references that emphasize the mystery of the Incarnation. These Marian hymns have been used in daily prayers since early Christianity as a way to people the Orthodox beliefs. Marian hymns remain a key element in the liturgy of the Coptic Church and are included in every hour, day. The widely used Akathist Hymn to the Theotokos is attributed to Saint Romanos the Melodist who composed many hymns to saints during the 6th century, in the Orthodox weekly liturgical cycle, Wednesday is dedicated to the Theotokos, and all daily services include numerous Marian hymns. These take precedence over the veneration of saints and angels. As of the 12th century a number of diataxeis, giving the order of the liturgy included Marian hymns. Centuries later, the Sunday of Orthodoxy continues to combine Marian hymns, hymns, feasts and miraculous Marian icons are now combined within Eastern church practices, e. g. the Akathistos to the wonder working Theotokos Iverskaya. Marian hymns, litanies and the veneration or Benediction of the icons of Mary are combined in the Maronite Churchs, here a hymn litany includes the repetition of the phrase, We petition you. This Marionite hymn litany has two parts, first the giving of praise to Mary, then the petitions, according to Saint Augustine, it was Saint Ambrose who, in the 4th century, introduced the use of hymns outside the liturgy of the Western Church
26.
Hail Mary of Gold
–
Hail Mary of Gold is a Roman Catholic Marian prayer attributed to Saint Gertrude the Great. Hail, Mary, White Lily of the Glorious and always-serene Trinity, hail brilliant Rose of the Garden of heavenly delights, O you, by whom God wanted to be born and by whose milk the King of Heaven wanted to be nourished. Nourish our souls with effusions of divine grace, queen of Heaven Catholic Devotions Roman Catholic Mariology The Glories of Mary
27.
Immaculata prayer
–
The Immaculata prayer is a Roman Catholic Marian prayer composed by Saint Maximillian Kolbe. It is a prayer of consecration to the Immaculata, i. e. the immaculately conceived Virgin Mary. The consecration prayer is as follows, O Immaculata, Queen of Heaven and earth, refuge of sinners and our most loving Mother, God has willed to entrust the entire order of mercy to you. I, a repentant sinner, cast myself at your feet, humbly imploring you to me with all that I am and have, wholly to yourself as your possession. Please make of me, of all my powers of soul and body, of my life, death and eternity. If it pleases you, use all that I am and have without reserve, wholly to accomplish what was said of you, She will crush your head, and You alone have destroyed all heresies in the whole world. For wherever you enter you obtain the grace of conversion and growth in holiness, allow me to praise you, O Sacred Virgin R. To this end I offer you all my prayers, actions, university of Dayton Marian prayers Consecration. com Women for Faith and Family
28.
Magnificat
–
It is one of the eight most ancient Christian hymns and perhaps the earliest Marian hymn. Its name comes from the incipit of the Latin version of the canticles text, the text of the canticle is taken directly from the Gospel of Luke where it is spoken by Mary upon the occasion of her Visitation to her cousin Elizabeth. In the narrative, after Mary greets Elizabeth, who is pregnant with John the Baptist, Elizabeth praises Mary for her faith, and Mary responds with what is now known as the Magnificat. Within the whole of Christianity, the Magnificat is most frequently recited within the Liturgy of the Hours, in Western Christianity, the Magnificat is most often sung or recited during the main evening prayer service, Vespers in the Catholic and Lutheran churches, and Evening Prayer in Anglicanism. In Eastern Christianity, the Magnificat is usually sung at Sunday Matins, among Protestant groups, the Magnificat may also be sung during worship services, especially in the Advent season during which these verses are traditionally read. These songs are Marys Magnificat, Zechariahs Benedictus, the angels Gloria in Excelsis Deo, in form and content, these four canticles are patterned on the hymns of praise in Israels Psalter. In structure, these reflect the compositions of pre-Christian contemporary Jewish hymnology. The balance of the two lines bursts out into a dual Magnificat of declaring the greatness of and finding delight in God. Mary symbolizes both ancient Israel and the Lucan faith-community as the author/singer of the Magnificat, the canticle echoes several biblical passages, but the most pronounced allusions are to the Song of Hannah, from the Books of Samuel. Scriptural echoes from the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings complement the main allusions to Hannahs magnificat of rejoicing. Along with the Benedictus, as well as several Old Testament canticles, the Magnificat is included in the Book of Odes, the original language of the Magnificat is Koine Greek, the language of the New Testament. However, in the liturgical and devotional use in Western Christianity, Μεγαλύνει ἡ ψυχή μου τὸν Κύριον καὶ ἠγαλλίασεν τὸ πνεῦμά μου ἐπὶ τῷ Θεῷ τῷ σωτῆρί μου, ὅτι ἐπέβλεψεν ἐπὶ τὴν ταπείνωσιν τῆς δούλης αὐτοῦ. ἰδοὺ γὰρ ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν μακαριοῦσίν με πᾶσαι αἱ γενεαί, ὅτι ἐποίησέν μοι μεγάλα ὁ δυνατός, καὶ ἅγιον τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ, Ἐποίησεν κράτος ἐν βραχίονι αὐτοῦ, διεσκόρπισεν ὑπερηφάνους διανοίᾳ καρδίας αὐτῶν· καθεῖλεν δυνάστας ἀπὸ θρόνων καὶ ὕψωσεν ταπεινούς, πεινῶντας ἐνέπλησεν ἀγαθῶν καὶ πλουτοῦντας ἐξαπέστειλεν κενούς. ἀντελάβετο Ἰσραὴλ παιδὸς αὐτοῦ, μνησθῆναι ἐλέους, καθὼς ἐλάλησεν πρὸς τοὺς πατέρας ἡμῶν τῷ Αβραὰμ καὶ τῷ σπέρματι αὐτοῦ εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα. The translation of the hymn into Church Slavonic is as follows, Transcription in modern Cyrillic alphabet, Вели́чит душа́ Моя́ Го́спода, Честне́йшую херуви́м и сла́внейшую без сравне́ния серафи́м, без истле́ния Бо́га Сло́ва ро́ждшую, су́щую Богоро́дицу, Тя велича́ем. Я́ко призре́ на смире́ние рабы́ Своея́, се бо от ны́не ублажа́т Мя вси ро́ди, Честне́йшую херуви́м… Я́ко сотвори́ Мне вели́чие Си́льный, и свя́то и́мя Его́, и ми́лость Его́ в ро́ды родо́в боя́щимся Его́. Честне́йшую херуви́м… Сотвори́ держа́ву мы́шцею Свое́ю, расточи́ го́рдыя мы́слию се́рдца их, Честне́йшую херуви́м… Низложи́ си́льныя со престо́л, и вознесе́ смире́нныя, а́лчущия испо́лни благ, и богатя́щияся отпусти́ тщи. Честне́йшую херуви́м… Восприя́т Изра́иля о́трока Своего́, помяну́ти ми́лости, я́коже глаго́ла ко отце́м на́шим, Честне́йшую херуви́м…, Magnificat anima mea Dominum, et exultavit spiritus meus in Deo salvatore meo, quia respexit humilitatem ancillae suae
29.
Mary, Mother of Grace
–
Mary, Mother of Grace is a Roman Catholic prayer to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Mary, Mother of grace, Mother of mercy, Shield me from the enemy And receive me at the hour of my death and this prayer is a fragment from within the DEVOTION IN MEMORY OF THE AGONY OF JESUS found in Section VI of the Raccolta. It was originally declared by Pope Pius VII as part of a Rescript dated August 26,1814, since the Mary, Mother of Grace prayer is only a partial recitation of the Devotion, only a partial indulgence is granted the prayer. The original Rescript is preserved amongst the acts of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, the title, Mary, Mother of Grace is actually a misnomer. Maria mater gratiae, Mater misericordiae, Tu nos ab hoste protege, Roman Catholic Mariology Raccolta Marian devotions Blessed Virgin Mary
30.
Mary Our Queen
–
Mary Our Queen is a Roman Catholic Marian prayer. It is attributed to Saint Anthony of Padua in the 13th century, Mary, our Queen, Holy Mother of God, we beg you to hear our prayer. Make our hearts overflow with Divine grace and resplendent with heavenly wisdom, render them strong with your might and rich in virtue. Pour down upon us the gift of mercy so that we may obtain the pardon of our sins, help us to live in such a way as to merit the glory and bliss of heaven. May this be granted us by your Son Jesus Who has exalted you above the angels, has crowned you as Queen, amen The Glories of Mary Queen of Heaven University of Dayton Catholic Doors
31.
Memorare
–
Memorare is a Roman Catholic prayer seeking the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary. It first appears as part of a longer 15th-century prayer, Ad sanctitatis tuae pedes, the modern version is taken from that indulgenced by Pope Pius IX in 1846, Raccolta, #339 Encr. #32, This prayer is originally from a prayer of the 15th century, Ad sanctitatis tuae pedes. The de Sales family were members of the nobility and staunch Catholics. The question of predestination, the hottest point of contention between Catholic and Calvinist theologians, tormented him while he was a student in Paris. In his distress over the fate of his soul he cried out to God, Whatever happens, Lord. This delusion took such possession of his soul that he lost his appetite, was unable to sleep, for one whole month he suffered this mental torture, this agony of soul. He had lost all the sweetness of love, but not, happily. He looked back with tears to the happy time when he was, as it were, inebriated with that sweetness. In late December, at last, led by a divine inspiration, on his knees before a statue of the Blessed Virgin he implored the assistance of the Mother of Mercy with tears and sighs, and the most fervent devotion. Francis credited the Blessed Virgin with saving him from falling into despair or heresy, he recited the Memorare day after day and it was popularized in the 17th century by Fr. Claude Bernard, who learned it from his father, bernards devotion to Our Lady under the title Consolatrix Afflictorum led him to promote recourse to her intercession among the poor and condemned prisoners. According to the book Familiar Prayers, Their Origin and History written by Fr, Herbert Thurston S. J. in 1953, Fr. Claude Bernard, known as the Poor Priest, zealously dedicated himself to the preaching and aiding of prisoners, trusting his charges to the care and intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Fr. Bernard employed the Memorare extensively in his work of evangelization to great effect, many a criminal was reconciled to God through his efforts. At one time he had more than 200,000 leaflets printed with the Memorare in various languages so he could distribute the leaflets wherever he felt they would do some good. Claude Bernard held the prayer in such high regard was because he felt that he had been miraculously cured by its use. In a letter to Queen Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII, in fear of his life he recited the Memorare and immediately began to get well again
32.
Sub tuum praesidium
–
Beneath Thy Protection is the oldest preserved extant hymn to the Blessed Virgin Mary as Theotokos. The hymn is known in many Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox countries. The earliest text of this hymn was found in a Coptic Orthodox Christmas liturgy, the papyrus records the hymn in Greek, dated by scholar C. H. Roberts to the fourth Century, while his colleague Edgar Lobel favored a date ranging from AD 250-280 and this divergence in dates is explained by Roberts doubt that the term Theotokos was already in use by the third Century. We find it, however, in the writings of third Century theologians Origen, the hymn is used in the Coptic liturgy to this day, as well as in the Armenian, Byzantine, Ambrosian, and Roman Rite liturgies. It was part of Sulpician custom that all ended with a recitation of this prayer. Besides the Greek text, ancient versions can be found in Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, henri de Villiers finds in the term blessed a reference to the salutation by Elizabeth in Luke 1,42. Praesidium is translated as a given in time of war by fresh troops in a strong manner. In the Byzantine Rite used by the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, in Greek practice it is usually sung in Neo-Byzantine chant. In the Armenian Rite, the hymn is sung on the Eve of Theophany and is used as an acclamation in the daily compline service known as the Rest Hour. A slightly different version of the hymn is appended to the Trisagion when the latter is chanted in the daily Morning and Evening Hours of the Daily Office. The Slavonic version of the hymn is often used outside of Great Lent. Other than the traditional and modern chant settings, which are the most commonly used, the Latin version has also been set to music in the West many times, notably by Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Antonio Salieri and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In 2010 the text was set as a motet in Latin, Slavonic. The prayer has a significance for Marists. and it is often heard in Marist schools. It is also used by the Salesians in honor of Mary Help of Christians. The earliest Church Slavonic manuscripts have the prayer in the following form, in the 17th century, under the liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, the Russian Orthodox Church adopted a new translation, This second version continues in use today. The Latin translation, likely derived from the Greek, dates from the 11th century, photograph of papyrus, dated to 250 AD, the earliest example of this hymn
33.
Alma Redemptoris Mater
–
Alma Redemptoris Mater is a Marian hymn, written in Latin hexameter, and one of four seasonal liturgical Marian antiphons sung at the end of the office of Compline. Hermannus Contractus is said to have authored the hymn based on the writings of Saints Fulgentius, Epiphanius and it is mentioned in The Prioresss Tale, one of Geoffrey Chaucers Canterbury Tales. Formerly it was recited at compline only from the first Sunday in Advent until the Feast of the Purification, depending on the period, the following combinations of a versicle, response, and collect are added. Hear thou thy peoples cry, Star of the deep, and portal of the sky. Mother of Him Who thee from nothing made, Sinking we strive and call to thee for aid, Oh, by that joy which Gabriel brought to thee, Thou Virgin first and last, the Angel of the LORD brought tidings unto Mary ℟. And she conceived by the Holy Ghost, through the same Christ, our Lord. After childbirth, O Virgin, thou didst remain inviolate, intercede for us, O Mother of God
34.
Ave Maris Stella
–
Ave Maris Stella is a plainsong Vespers hymn to Mary from about the eighth century. It was especially popular in the Middle Ages and has been used by composers as the basis of other compositions. The creation of the hymn has been attributed to several people, including Bernard of Clairvaux. The text is found in 9th-century manuscripts, kept in Vienna, the melody is found in the Irish plainsong Gabhaim Molta Bríde, a piece in praise of St. Bridget. The popular modern hymn Hail Queen of Heaven, the Ocean Star, is based on this plainsong original. These plainchant tones have been used as the cantus firmus for some settings of the mass, including those by Josquin. Renaissance settings include those by Felice Anerio, Palestrina, Dufay, baroque settings include Monteverdis Vespro della Beata Vergine 1610 and one by Emperor Leopold I. Romantic settings include those by Dvorak, Grieg, and Liszt, ave Maris Stella is the anthem of the Acadians, a francophone community in the Canadian Maritimes distinct from the French-Canadians of Quebec. The Acadians were highly devout, and had and still have a degree of devotion to the Virgin Mary. As such, Acadias symbols reflect its peoples beliefs and this is particularly evident in their anthem which instead of being written in French is written in Latin. It was adopted as the anthem of the Acadian people at the Second Acadian National Convention, held in Miscouche, to this day, it remains a source of Acadian patriotism. The hymn was sung in its original version until French lyrics were composed in 1994. Out of respect for the hymn, the first verse in the Acadian national anthem remains in Latin. These are the lyrics, in French, the first verse is in Latin, and is repeated at the end of the hymn
35.
Ave Regina Caelorum
–
Ave Regina Caelorum is one of four Marian antiphons, with following versicles and prayers, traditionally said or sung after each of the canonical hours of the Liturgy of the Hours. The prayer is used especially after Compline, the canonical hour of prayer before going to sleep. It is said from the Feast of the Presentation through Wednesday of Holy Week, the origins of the prayer are unknown but it can be found included in a twelfth-century manuscript. The prayer is associated with indulgences and is listed as Ave Regina Coelorum in the Raccolta book of indulgenced prayers. Ave, Regina Caelorum, Ave, Domina Angelorum, Salve, radix, salve, porta Ex qua mundo lux est orta, Gaude, Virgo gloriosa, Super omnes speciosa, Vale, o valde decora, V. Dignare me laudare te, Virgo sacrata. Da mihi virtutem contra hostes tuos, oremus, Concede, misericors Deus, fragilitati nostrae praesidium, ut, qui sanctae Dei Genitricis memoriam agimus, intercessionis eius auxilio, a nostris iniquitatibus resurgamus. Hail, O Queen of Heaven enthroned, V. Vouchsafe that I may praise thee, O sacred Virgin. Give me strength against thine enemies, through the same Christ our Lord. An alternate version, Hail, O Queen of Heaven, Hail, O Lady of Angels Hail. Thou gate From whom unto the world, a light has arisen, Rejoice, O glorious Virgin, Lovely beyond all others, Farewell, most beautiful maiden, allow me to praise thee, O sacred Virgin. Against thy enemies give me strength, the Glories of Mary Queen of Heaven Regina Caeli Ave Regina Caelorum Gregorian Chant Palestrina Ave regina Coelorum Maitrise de Colmar on YouTube
36.
Salve Regina
–
The Salve Regina, also known as the Hail Holy Queen, is a Marian hymn and one of four Marian antiphons sung at different seasons within the Christian liturgical calendar of the Catholic Church. The Salve Regina is traditionally sung at Compline in the time from the Saturday before Trinity Sunday until the Friday before the first Sunday of Advent, the Hail Holy Queen is also the final prayer of the Rosary. The work was composed during the Middle Ages and originally appeared in Latin, though traditionally ascribed to the eleventh-century German monk Hermann of Reichenau, it is regarded as anonymous by most musicologists. Traditionally it has sung in Latin, though many translations exist. These are often used as spoken prayers, Marian antiphons have been sung, since the thirteenth century, at the close of Compline, the last Office of the day. Peter Canisius noted that one praises God in Mary when one turns to her in song, liturgically, the Salve Regina is the best known of four prescribed Marian Anthems recited after Compline, and, in some uses, after Lauds or other Hours. Its use after Compline is likely traceable to the practice of intoning it in chapel. It was set down in its current form at the Abbey of Cluny in the 12th century, the Cistercians chanted the Salve Regina daily from 1218. It was popular at universities as evening song, and according to Fr. Juniper Carol, it came to be part of the ritual for the blessing of a ship, while the anthem figured largely in liturgical and in general popular Catholic devotion, it was especially dear to sailors. In the 18th century, the Salve Regina served as the outline for the classic Roman Catholic Mariology book The Glories of Mary by Alphonsus Liguori. In the first part of the book Alphonsus, a Doctor of the Church, discusses the Salve Regina and it was added to the series of prayers said at the end of Low Mass by Pope Leo XIII. The Salve Regina is traditionally sung at the end of a priests funeral Mass by the decedents fellow priests in attendance, as a prayer, it is commonly said at the end of the rosary. Salve, Regina, Mater misericordiæ, vita, dulcedo, et spes nostra, Ad te clamamus exsules filii Hevæ, Ad te suspiramus, gementes et flentes in hac lacrimarum valle. Eia, ergo, advocata nostra, illos tuos misericordes oculos ad nos converte, Et Jesum, benedictum fructum ventris tui, O clemens, O pia, O dulcis Virgo Maria. In some cases, the following versicle, response, and collect are added, ℣ Ora pro nobis, ℟ Ut digni efficiamur promissionibus Christi. Traditional English Translation, Hail, holy Queen, Mother of Mercy, Our life, our sweetness, to you do we cry, Poor banished children of Eve, To you do we send up our sighs, Mourning and weeping in this valley of tears. Turn then, most gracious advocate, Your eyes of mercy toward us, And after this our exile, Show us the blessed fruit of your womb, O clement, O loving, O sweet Virgin Mary
.jpg)
Catholicism portal
