1.
Hair coloring
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Hair coloring, or hair dyeing, is the practice of changing the hair color. Hair coloring can be done professionally by a hairdresser or independently at home, today, hair coloring is very popular, with over 75% of American women dyeing their hair. At home coloring in the United States reached $1.9 billion in 2011 and is expected to raise to $2.2 billion by 2016, the dyeing of hair is an ancient art that involves treatment of the hair with various chemical compounds. In ancient times, the dyes were obtained from plants, some of the most well known are henna, indigo, Cassia obovata, senna, turmeric and amla. Others include katam, black hulls, red ochre and leeks. In the 1661 book Eighteen Books of the Secrets of Art & Nature, various methods of coloring hair black, gold, green, red, yellow, the development of synthetic dyes for hair is traced to the 1860s discovery of the reactivity of para- phenylenediamine with air. Eugène Schueller, the founder of LOréal, is recognized for creating the first synthetic dye in 1907. In 1947 the German cosmetics firm Schwarzkopf launched the first home color product, Hair dyeing is now a multibillion-dollar industry that involves the use of both plant-derived and synthetic dyes. Hair color was applied to the hair as one overall color. The modern trend is to use colors to produce streaks or gradations. These are referred to as, Highlighting, where sections of hair are treated with lighteners, lowlighting, where sections of hair are treated with darker hair color. This keeps the only on the desired pieces of hair. Cap, when a plastic cap is placed tight on the head and this method is not frequently practiced anymore with the exception of short hair highlighting. Balayage, where color is painted directly onto sections of the hair with no foils used to keep the color contained. This method is growing in popularity because of its ability to more natural. Dipping or tip dyeing, similar to balayage in that the color is painted directly on the hair, all application techniques can be used with any type of color. For lightening, the hair will sometimes have to be bleached before coloring, Hair coloring can also be applied on the scalp for a more solid level of coverage Root Touch-Up, where color is applied only to the most recent section of re-growth. Usually the first inch of hair from the scalp, generally those getting root touch-ups get this service repeated every 4–6 weeks as the natural color grows in and becomes apparent
2.
Hairstyle
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A hairstyle, hairdo, or haircut refers to the styling of hair, usually on the human scalp. Sometimes, this could mean an editing of beard hair. The fashioning of hair can be considered an aspect of personal grooming, fashion, and cosmetics, although practical, cultural, the oldest known depiction of hair braiding dates back about 30,000 years. In ancient civilizations, womens hair was often elaborately and carefully dressed in special ways, in Imperial Rome, women wore their hair in complicated styles. From the time of the Roman Empire until the Middle Ages, during the Roman Empire as well as in the 16th century in the western world, women began to wear their hair in extremely ornate styles. In the later half of the 15th century and on into the 16th century a very high hairline on the forehead was considered attractive, during the 15th and 16th centuries, European men wore their hair cropped no longer than shoulder-length. In the early 17th century male hairstyles grew longer, with waves or curls being considered desirable, the male wig was pioneered by King Louis XIII of France in 1624. Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles in 1660, late 17th-century wigs were very long and wavy, but became shorter in the mid-18th century, by which time they were normally white. Short hair for men was a product of the Neoclassical movement. In the early 19th century the male beard, and also moustaches and sideburns, from the 16th to the 19th century, European womens hair became more visible while their hair coverings grew smaller. In the middle of the 18th century the style developed. During the First World War, women around the world started to shift to shorter hairstyles that were easier to manage, in the early 1950s womens hair was generally curled and worn in a variety of styles and lengths. In the 1960s, many began to wear their hair in short modern cuts such as the pixie cut, while in the 1970s. In both the 1960s and 1970s many men and women wore their hair long and straight. In the 1980s, women pulled back their hair with scrunchies, during the 1980s, punk hairstyles were adopted by some people. Throughout times, people have worn their hair in a variety of styles. Hairstyles are markers and signifiers of social class, age, marital status, racial identification, political beliefs, only since the end of World War I have women begun to wear their hair short and in fairly natural styles. The Venus of Brassempouy counts about 25,000 years old, in Bronze Age razors were known and in use by some men, but not on a daily basis since the procedure was rather unpleasant and required resharpening of the tool which reduced its endurance
3.
Barber
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A barber is a person whose occupation is mainly to cut, dress, groom, style and shave mens and boys hair. A barbers place of work is known as a shop or a barbers. Barber shops are also places of social interaction and public discourse, in some instances, barbershops are also public forums. They are the locations of open debates, voicing public concerns and they were also influential in helping shape male identity. In previous times, barbers performed surgery and dentistry. With the development of safety razors and the prevalence of beards, in English-speaking cultures. In modern times, the barber is used both as a professional title and to refer to hairdressers who specialize in mens hair. Historically, all hairdressers were considered barbers, in the 20th century, the profession of cosmetology branched off from barbering, and today hairdressers may be licensed as either barbers or cosmetologists. Barbers differ with respect to where they work, which services they are licensed to provide, part of this terminology difference depends on the regulations in a given location. Different states in the US vary on their labor and licensing laws, for example, in Maryland, a cosmetologist cannot use a straight razor, strictly reserved for barbers. In Australia, the term for a barber is hairdresser, barber is only a popular title for mens hairdressers. Most would work in a hairdressing salon, the barbers trade has a long history, razors have been found among relics of the Bronze Age in Egypt. In ancient Egyptian culture, barbers were highly respected individuals, priests and men of medicine are the earliest recorded examples of barbers. Men in Ancient Greece would have their beards, hair, and fingernails trimmed and styled by the κουρεύς, in an agora which also served as a gathering for debates. Barbering was introduced to Rome by the Greek colonies in Sicily in 296 BC, starting from the Middle Ages, barbers often served as surgeons and dentists. In addition to haircutting, hairdressing, and shaving, barbers performed surgery, bloodletting and leeching, fire cupping, enemas, the barber pole, featuring red and white spiraling stripes, symbolized different aspects of the craft. Barbers received higher pay than surgeons until surgeons were entered into British warships during naval wars, some of the duties of the barber included neck manipulation, cleansing of ears and scalp, draining of boils, fistula and lancing of cysts with wicks. Barbershops were influential at the turn of the 19th century as African American businesses that helped to develop African American culture and economy
4.
Cosmetologist
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Cosmetology is the study and application of beauty treatment. A cosmetologist is defined as a person who gives beauty treatments to skin, a cosmetologist is someone who is an expert in the care of hair and makeup as well as skincare and beauty products. They can also offer services such as coloring, extensions, perms. Cosmetologists help their clients improve on or acquire a certain look by applying advance trending aesthetic applications, Hair stylists often style hair for weddings, proms, and other special events in addition to routine hair styling. A hair color specialist, aka hair colorist, specializes in the modification of natural hair color utilizing various methods while using a colorant product from a professional company. In the US, some colorists are qualified through the American Board of Certified Hair Colorists and this designation is used to recognize colorists that have a greater level of competency in the industry through a written exam and a practical exam. A hair color specialist’s duties might include, but are not limited to, basic color applications like covering grey, a color specialist also has the ability to perform corrective color applications and create special effects using foiling techniques or any other advanced color application methods. A shampoo technician shampoos and conditions a clients hair in preparation for the hair stylist and this is generally an apprentice position and a first step for many just out of cosmetology school. Estheticians are licensed professionals who are experts in maintaining and improving skin, an estheticians general scope of practice is limited to the epidermis. Estheticians work in different environments such as salons, med spas, day spas, skin care clinics. Estheticians may also specialize in such as microdermabrasion, microcurrent, cosmetic electrotherapy treatments, LED treatments, ultrasound/ultrasonic. The esthetician may undergo training for treatments such as laser hair removal, permanent makeup application, light chemical peels, eyelash extensions. In the US, estheticians must be licensed in the state in which they are working and are governed by the cosmetology board requirements of that state. Estheticians must complete a minimum 300–1500 hours of training and pass both a written and hands-on exam in order to be licensed in a given state, utah, Virginia and Washington are the only states at this time to adopt the Master Esthetician License. Additional post graduate training is required when specializing in areas such as medical esthetics. Estheticians work under a dermatologist’s supervision only when employed by the dermatologists practice, the word esthetician is an alternative spelling of aesthetician, a derivation of the word aesthetic, beauty-related. Many chemicals in salon products pose potential health risks, examples of hazardous chemicals found in common treatments include dibutyl phthalate, formaldehyde, lye, ammonia, and coal tar. Allergies and dermatitis have forced approximately 20% of hairdressers to stop practicing their profession, dibutyl phthalate is used in some nail enamels and hardeners
5.
Ancient art
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The art of pre-literate societies is normally referred to as Prehistoric art and is not covered here. Due to the religious nature of ancient Ancient Egyptian civilization, many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and Pharaohs. Ancient Egyptian art is characterized by the idea of order, clear and simple lines combined with simple shapes and flat areas of color helped to create a sense of order and balance in the art of ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptian artists used vertical and horizontal lines to maintain the correct proportions in their work. Political and religious, as well as artistic, order was maintained in Egyptian art. To clearly define the social hierarchy of a situation, figures were drawn to sizes that were based not on their distance from the painters perspective but on relative importance. For instance, the Pharaoh would be drawn as the largest figure in a painting no matter where he was situated, symbolism also played an important role in establishing a sense of order. Symbolism, ranging from the Pharaohs regalia to the symbols of Egyptian gods. Animals were usually also highly symbolic figures in Egyptian art, color, as well, had extended meaning—blue and green represented the Nile and life, yellow stood for the sun god, and red represented power and vitality. The colors in Egyptian artifacts have survived extremely well over the centuries because of Egypts dry climate, despite the stilted form caused by a lack of perspective, ancient Egyptian art is often highly realistic. Ancient Egyptian artists often show a knowledge of anatomy and a close attention to detail. During the 18th Dynasty of Egypt a Pharaoh by the name of Akhenaton took the throne and he formed a monotheistic religion based on the worship of Aten, a sun god. A new style of art was introduced that was more naturalistic than the stylized frieze favored in Egyptian art for the previous 1700 years, after Akhenatons death, however, Egyptian artists reverted to their old styles. Faience that was produced in ancient Egyptian antiquity as early as 3500 BC was in superior to the tin-glazed earthenware of the European 15th century. Ancient Egyptian faience was not made of clay but instead actually of a ceramic composed primarily of quartz, Mesopotamia is often considered the cradle of civilization. Within its boundaries, some of the most ancient civilizations known first developed writing, many civilizations flourished there, leaving behind a rich legacy of ancient art. Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer, in the Iron Age, it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires. The indigenous Sumerians and Akkadians dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of history to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC
6.
Aristophanes
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Aristophanes, son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion, was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete and these, together with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, and are used to define it. Also known as the Father of Comedy and the Prince of Ancient Comedy and his second play, The Babylonians, was denounced by the demagogue Cleon as a slander against the Athenian polis. In my opinion, he says through the Chorus in that play, less is known about Aristophanes than about his plays. In fact, his plays are the source of information about him. It was conventional in Old Comedy for the Chorus to speak on behalf of the author during a called the parabasis. However, these facts relate almost entirely to his career as a dramatist, Aristophanes claimed to be writing for a clever and discerning audience, yet he also declared that other times would judge the audience according to its reception of his plays. He sometimes boasts of his originality as a dramatist yet his plays consistently espouse opposition to new influences in Athenian society. He caricatured leading figures in the arts, in politics, such caricatures seem to imply that Aristophanes was an old-fashioned conservative, yet that view of him leads to contradictions. It has been argued that Aristophanes produced plays mainly to entertain the audience, an elaborate series of lotteries, designed to prevent prejudice and corruption, reduced the voting judges at the City Dionysia to just five in number. These judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences yet there is uncertainty about the composition of those audiences. The theatres were certainly huge, with seating for at least 10000 at the Theatre of Dionysus, the conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of the dominant group in an unrepresentative audience. The production process might also have influenced the views expressed in the plays, throughout most of Aristophanes career, the Chorus was essential to a plays success and it was recruited and funded by a choregus, a wealthy citizen appointed to the task by one of the archons. Thus the political conservatism of the plays may reflect the views of the wealthiest section of Athenian society, when Aristophanes first play The Banqueters was produced, Athens was an ambitious, imperial power and the Peloponnesian War was only in its fourth year. His plays often express pride in the achievement of the older generation yet they are not jingoistic, the plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war profiteers, among whom populists such as Cleon figure prominently. However it is whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations. Aristophanes won second prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BC with his first play The Banqueters and he won first prize there with his next play, The Babylonians. Some influential citizens, notably Cleon, reviled the play as slander against the polis, Cleon also seems to have had no real power to limit or control Aristophanes, the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death
7.
Homer
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Homer is the name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the semi-legendary author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems which are the central works of Greek literature. The Odyssey focuses on the home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca. Many accounts of Homers life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a bard from Ionia. The modern scholarly consensus is that these traditions do not have any historical value, the Homeric question - by whom, when, where and under what circumstances were the Iliad and Odyssey composed - continues to be debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion on the authorship question falls into two camps, one group holds that most of the Iliad and the Odyssey is the work of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to be the crystallization of a process of working and re-working by many contributors and it is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century B. C. Most researchers believe that the poems were transmitted orally. The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education, to Plato, the chronological period of Homer depends on the meaning to be assigned to the word Homer. Was Homer a single person, an imaginary person representing a group of poets and this information is often called the world of Homer. The Homeric period would in that cover a number of historical periods, especially the Mycenaean Age. Considered word-for-word, the texts as we know them are the product of the scholars of the last three centuries. Each edition of the Iliad or Odyssey is a different, as the editors rely on different manuscripts and fragments. The term accuracy reveals a belief in an original uniform text. The manuscripts of the work currently available date to no earlier than the 10th century. These are at the end of a missing thousand-year chain of copies made as each generation of manuscripts disintegrated or were lost or destroyed and these numerous manuscripts are so similar that a single original can be postulated. The time gap in the chain is bridged by the scholia, or notes, on the existing manuscripts, librarian of the Library of Alexandria, he had noticed a wide divergence in the works attributed to Homer, and was trying to restore a more authentic copy. He had collected several manuscripts, which he named, the Sinopic, the one he selected for correction was the koine, which Murray translates as the Vulgate. Aristarchus was known for his selection of material
8.
Spirit
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The English word spirit, from Latin spiritus breath, has many different meanings and connotations, most of them relating to a non-corporeal substance contrasted with the material body. It can also refer to a subtle as opposed to gross material substance, the word spirit is often used metaphysically to refer to the consciousness or personality. e. A manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person, the term may also refer to any incorporeal or immaterial being, such as demons or deities. In the Bible, the Spirit, specifically denotes the Holy Spirit, the English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning breath, but also spirit, soul, courage, vigor, ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European *peis. It is distinguished from Latin anima, soul, in Greek, this distinction exists between pneuma, breath, motile air, spirit, and psykhē, soul. The word spirit came into Middle English via Old French, the distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the Abrahamic religions, Arabic nafs opposite rūħ, Hebrew neshama or nephesh נֶ֫פֶשׁ nép̄eš opposite ruach. In a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, October 20,1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit, the mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. Spirit and Life are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have pushed back. It can scarcely be an accident onomatopoeic words like ruach, ruch, roho mean ‘spirit’ no less clearly than the Greek πνεύμα and the Latin spiritus”. In spiritual and metaphysical terms, spirit has acquired a number of meanings, An incorporeal but ubiquitous, unlike the concept of souls a spirit develops and grows as an integral aspect of a living being. This concept of the individual spirit occurs commonly in animism, note the distinction between this concept of spirit and that of the pre-existing or eternal soul, belief in souls occurs specifically and far less commonly, particularly in traditional societies. One might more properly term this type/aspect of spirit life or aether rather than spirit, people usually conceive of a ghost as a wandering spirit from a being no longer living, having survived the death of the body yet maintaining at least vestiges of mind and consciousness. In religion and spirituality, the respiration of a human has for obvious reasons become seen as linked with the very occurrence of life. A similar significance has become attached to human blood, Spirit, in this sense, means the thing that separates a living body from a corpse—and usually implies intelligence, consciousness, and sentience. Latter-day Saint prophet Joseph Smith Jr. taught that the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance was incorrect, all spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes. In some Native American spiritual traditions the Great Spirit or Wakan Tanka is a term for the Supreme Being, individual spirits envisaged as interconnected with all other spirits and with The Spirit. This concept relates to theories of a unified spirituality, to universal consciousness, the experience of such a connection can become a primary basis for spiritual belief. Christian spiritual theology can use the term Spirit to describe God, or aspects of God — as in the Holy Spirit, Spirit forms a central concept in pneumatology
9.
Hair washing
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Hair washing is the cosmetic act of keeping hair clean by washing it with shampoo or other detergent products and water. Hair conditioner may also be used to improve texture and manageability. Two-in-one shampoos, which have both detergent and conditioning components, are now also used as a replacement for shampoo. To remove the sebum from the hair, some people apply a surfactant, most usually shampoo, the surfactant is rinsed out with water along with the freed dirt and dust it bonds to. There are also dry shampoos, which are powders which remove sebum from the hair by soaking it up prior to being combed out. Most hairdressers, in such as Canada, the U. S. and European and Latin American countries. This is usually done to make hair more manageable for the hairdresser who will be performing the hair cut, after a hair cut, it can help remove any loose strands of hair that may be bothersome to the client. It is also quite a relaxing practice, and many enjoy a hair wash as their favourite part of a hair cut. Hairdressers use specialized basins to perform a wash, and these can be either forward or backward style. In the backward version, the client sits down in a chair, in the forward version, the client leans forwards over a sink, and the hairdresser stands over them to wash their hair. In some parts of the world, such as China, it is not uncommon to see what is referred to as an upright shampoo. In this style, the client simply sits in a chair as they normally would, while a hairdresser applies shampoo to their hair and they then rinse out in a basin
10.
Comb
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A comb is a toothed device used for styling, cleaning and managing hair and scalp. Combs are among the oldest tools found by archaeologists, having discovered in very refined forms from settlements dating back to 5,000 years ago in Persia. Combs consist of a shaft and teeth that are placed at an angle to the shaft. Combs can be out of a number of materials, most commonly plastic. Combs made from ivory and tortoiseshell were once common but concerns for the animals that produce them have reduced their usage, when made from wood, combs are largely made of boxwood, cherry wood or other fine-grained wood. Good quality wooden combs are usually handmade and polished, combs can vary in shape according to function. A hairdressing comb may have a thin, tapered handle for parting hair, common hair combs usually have wider teeth halfway and finer teeth for the rest of the comb. Hot combs were used solely for straightening hair during the era in North America. A hairbrush comes in manual and electric models. It is larger than a comb, and is commonly used for shaping, styling and cleaning hair. A combination comb and hairbrush was patented in the 19th century, combs can be used for many purposes. Historically, their purpose was securing long hair in place, decorating the hair, matting sections of hair for dreadlocks. In Spain, a peineta is a decorative comb used to keep a mantilla in place. In industry and craft, combs are used in separating cotton fibres from seeds, a comb is used to distribute colours in paper marbling to make the swirling colour patterns in comb-marbled paper. This was the inspiration for the kazoo, moreover, the comb is also a lamellophone. Comb teeth have harmonic qualities of their own, determined by their shape, length, a comb with teeth of unequal length, capable of producing different notes when picked, eventually evolved into the thumb piano and musical box. This type of comb has loose, thick teeth and is used on kinky or Afro-textured hair. It is longer and thinner than the typical comb, and it is worn in the hair
11.
Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
12.
Scissors
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They consist of a pair of metal blades pivoted so that the sharpened edges slide against each other when the handles opposite to the pivot are closed. Scissors are used for cutting various materials, such as paper, cardboard, metal foil, cloth, rope. A large variety of scissors and shears all exist for specialized purposes, hair-cutting shears and kitchen shears are functionally equivalent to scissors, but the larger implements tend to be called shears. Hair-cutting shears have specific blade angles ideal for cutting hair, using the incorrect scissors to cut hair will result in increased damage or split ends, or both, by breaking the hair. Kitchen shears, also known as scissors, are intended for cutting and trimming foods such as meats. Modern scissors are often designed ergonomically with composite thermoplastic and rubber handles which enable the user to either a power grip or a precision grip. The noun scissors is treated as a noun, and therefore takes a plural verb. Alternatively, it is referred to as a pair of scissors. In American English, a pair is singular and therefore takes a singular verb, in other forms of English, a pair does not take the singular. The word shears is used to similar instruments that are larger in size. Opinions vary geographically as to the size at which scissors become shears and it is most likely that scissors were invented around 1500 BC in ancient Egypt. The earliest known scissors appeared in Mesopotamia 3,000 to 4,000 years ago, spring scissors continued to be used in Europe until the 16th century. They entered common use in not only ancient Rome, but also China, Japan, and Korea, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, spring scissors were made by heating a bar of iron or steel, then flattening and shaping its ends into blades on an anvil. The center of the bar was heated, bent to form the spring, the Hangzhou Zhang Xiaoquan Company in Hangzhou, China, has been manufacturing scissors since 1663. William Whiteley & Sons Ltd. was producing scissors by 1760, the first trade-mark,332, was granted in 1791. The company is still manufacturing today, and is the oldest company in the West to do so. Pivoted scissors were not manufactured in large numbers until 1761, when Robert Hinchliffe produced the first pair of modern-day scissors made of hardened and polished cast steel. He lived in Cheney Square, London, and was reputed to be the first person who put out a signboard proclaiming himself fine scissor manufacturer, during the 19th century, scissors were hand-forged with elaborately decorated handles
13.
Wig
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A wig is a head covering made from human hair, animal hair, or synthetic fiber. The word wig is short for periwig and first appeared in the English language around 1675, some people wear wigs to disguise baldness, a wig may be used as a less intrusive and less expensive alternative to medical therapies for restoring hair. In Egyptian society men and women commonly had clean shaven or close cropped hair, the ancient Egyptians created the wig to shield shaved, hairless heads from the sun. They also wore the wigs on top of their hair using beeswax, wealthy Egyptian would wear elaborate wigs and scented cones of animal fat on top of their wigs. Other ancient cultures, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Jews in ancient Israel, Greeks and Romans, in Korea, gache were popular among women until it was banned in the late 18th century, while wigs were rarely used in China and Japan except in the traditional theatre. Fur hoods were used in a similar preventative fashion. Royal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig and this fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor Louis XIV of France that contributed to its spread in European and European-influenced countries. Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 and these wigs were shoulder-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s. Their use soon became popular in the English court, and it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any haire for fear of the infection. That it had cut off the heads of people dead of the plague. With wigs virtually obligatory garb for men with social rank, wigmakers gained considerable prestige, a wigmakers guild was established in France in 1665, a development soon copied elsewhere in Europe. Such wigs were expensive to produce, the best examples were made from natural human hair. The hair of horses and goats was often used as a cheaper alternative, in the 18th century, mens wigs were powdered in order to give them their distinctive white or off-white color. Women in the 18th century did not wear wigs, but wore a coiffure supplemented by artificial hair or hair from other sources, women mainly powdered their hair grey, or blue-ish grey, and from the 1770s onwards never bright white like men. Wig powder was made from finely ground starch that was scented with orange flower, lavender, wig powder was occasionally colored violet, blue, pink or yellow, but was most often used as off-white. Powdered wigs and powdered natural hair with supplemental hairpieces became essential for full dress occasions, the elaborate form of wigs worn at the coronation of George III in 1761 was lampooned by William Hogarth in his engraving Five Orders of Periwigs. By the 1780s, young men were setting a trend by lightly powdering their natural hair. After 1790, both wigs and powder were reserved for older, more men, and were in use by ladies being presented at court
14.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
15.
Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
16.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
17.
Domestic worker
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A domestic worker or domestic helper or domestic servant is a person who works within the employers household. Other responsibilities may include cooking, laundry and ironing, shopping for food, such work has always needed to be done but before the Industrial Revolution and the advent of labour saving devices, it was physically much harder. Some domestic helpers live within their employers household, in some cases, the contribution and skill of servants whose work encompassed complex management tasks in large households have been highly valued. However, for the most part, domestic work, while necessary, is demanding, although legislation protecting domestic workers is in place in many countries, it is often not extensively enforced. In many jurisdictions, domestic work is regulated and domestic workers are subject to serious abuses. Servant is an older English word for domestic worker, though not all servants worked inside the home, Domestic service, or the employment of people for wages in their employers residence, was sometimes simply called service and has often been part of a hierarchical system. The United Kingdoms Master and Servant Act 1823 was the first of its kind and influenced the creation of domestic laws in other nations. However, before the passing of such Acts servants, and workers in general, had no protection in law, the only real advantage that domestic service provided was the provision of meals, accommodation, and sometimes clothes, in addition to a modest wage. Service was normally an apprentice system with room for advancement through the ranks, the conditions faced by domestic workers have varied considerably throughout history and in the contemporary world. In 2011, the International Labour Organization adopted the Convention Concerning Decent Work for Domestic Workers. In July 2011, at the annual International Labour Conference, held by the ILO, conference delegates adopted the Convention on Domestic Workers by a vote of 396 to 16, the Convention recognized domestic workers as workers with the same rights as other workers. On 26 April 2012, Uruguay was the first country to ratify the convention, many domestic workers are live-in domestics. Though they often have their own quarters, their accommodations are not usually as comfortable as those reserved for the family members, in some cases, they sleep in the kitchen or small rooms, such as a box room, sometimes located in the basement or attic. Domestic workers may live in their own home, though often they are live-in domestics, meaning that they receive their room. The majority of workers in China, Mexico, India. Employers may require their domestic workers to wear a uniform, livery or other domestic workers clothes when in their employers residence, the uniform is usually simple, though aristocratic employers sometimes provided elaborate decorative liveries, especially for use on formal occasions. In traditional portrayals, the attire of domestic workers especially was typically more formal, on 30 March 2009, Peru adopted a law banning employers from requiring domestic workers to wear uniform at public places. However, it’s not explained which punishments will be given to employers violating the law, chile adopted a similar law in 2014, also banning employers to require domestic workers to wear uniform at public places
18.
Shaving
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Shaving is the removal of hair, by using a razor or any other kind of bladed implement, to slice it down—to the level of the skin or otherwise. Shaving is most commonly practiced by men to remove their hair and by women to remove their leg. A man is called if he has had his beard entirely removed. Both men and women shave their chest hair, abdominal hair, leg hair, underarm hair, pubic hair. Head shaving is much more common among men and it is often associated with religious practice, the armed forces and some competitive sports such as swimming, running and extreme sports. The shaving of hair is also sometimes done by cancer patients when their treatment may result in partial hair loss. Before the advent of razors, hair was removed using two shells to pull the hair out or using water and a sharp tool. Around 3000 BC when copper tools were developed, copper razors were invented, the idea of an aesthetic approach to personal hygiene may have begun at this time, though Egyptian priests may have practiced something similar to this earlier. Alexander the Great strongly promoted shaving during his reign in the 4th century BC because he believed it looked tidier, in some Native American tribes, at the time of contact with British colonists, it was customary for men and women to remove all bodily hair using these methods. Shaving can be done with a razor or safety razor or an electric razor or beard trimmer. The removal of a full beard often requires the use of scissors or an electric trimmer to reduce the mass of hair, there are two types of manual razors, straight razor and safety razors. Safety razors are further subdivided into double-edged razors, single edge, injector razors, cartridge razors, double-edge razors are named so because the blade that they use has two sharp edges on opposite sides of the blade. Before wet shaving, the area to be shaved is usually doused in warm to hot water by showering or bathing or covered for several minutes with a hot wet towel to soften the skin and hair. A lathering or lubricating agent such as cream, shaving soap, gel, lubricating and moisturizing the skin to be shaved helps to prevent a painful razor burn. Many razor cartridges include a strip, made of polyethylene glycol. It also lifts and softens the hairs, causing them to swell and this enhances the cutting action and sometimes permits cutting the hairs slightly below the surface of the skin. Additionally, during shaving, the lather indicates areas that have not been addressed, when soap is used, it is generally applied with a shaving brush, which has long, soft bristles. It is worked up into a usable lather by the brush, either against the face, in a mug, bowl, scuttle
19.
Papal bull
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A Papal bull is a specific kind of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by a pope of the Roman Catholic Church. It is named after the seal that was traditionally appended to the end in order to authenticate it. Papal bulls have been in use at least since the 6th century, but the phrase was not used until around the end of the 13th century, and then only internally for unofficial administrative purposes. However, it had become official by the 15th century, when one of the offices of the Apostolic Chancery was named the register of bulls, by the accession of Pope Leo IX in 1048, a clear distinction developed between two classes of bulls of greater and less solemnity. The majority of the bulls now in existence are in the nature of confirmations of property or charters of protection accorded to monasteries. In an epoch when there was much fabrication of such documents, a Papal confirmation, under certain conditions, could be pleaded as itself constituting sufficient evidence of title in cases where the original deed had been lost or destroyed. Since the 12th century, Papal bulls have carried a seal with the heads of the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul on one side. Papal bulls were issued by the Pope for many kinds of communication of a public nature. Papyrus seems to have used almost uniformly as the material for these documents until the early years of the eleventh century. Popularly, the name is used for any Papal document that contains a metal seal, today, the bull is the only written communication in which the Pope will refer to himself as Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei. For example, when Pope Benedict XVI issued a decree in bull form, while Papal bulls always used to bear a metal seal, they now do so only on the most solemn occasions. A Papal bull is today the most formal type of public decree or letters patent issued by the Vatican Chancery in the name of the Pope, the body of the text had no specific conventions for its formatting, it was often very simple in layout. For the most solemn bulls, the Pope signed the document himself, following the signature in this case would be an elaborate monogram, the signatures of any witnesses, and then the seal. Nowadays, a member of the Roman Curia signs the document on behalf of the Pope, usually the Cardinal Secretary of State, and thus the monogram is omitted. The most distinctive characteristic of a bull was the seal, which was usually made of lead. On the obverse it depicted, originally somewhat crudely, the early Fathers of the Church of Rome, the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul, identified by the letters Sanctus PAulus and Sanctus PEtrus. Each head was surrounded by a circle of globetti, and the rim of the seal was surrounded by a ring of such beads. On the reverse was the name of the issuing Pope in the nominative Latin form, with the letters PP, for Pastor Pastorum
20.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
21.
Clergy
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Clergy are some of the main and important formal leaders within certain religions. The roles and functions of clergy vary in different religious traditions but these usually involve presiding over specific rituals, some of the terms used for individual clergy are cleric, clergyman, clergywoman, clergyperson and churchman. In Islam, a leader is often known formally or informally as an imam, mufti. In Jewish tradition, a leader is often a rabbi or hazzan. Cleric comes from the ecclesiastical Latin clericus, for belonging to the priestly class. This is from the Ecclesiastical Greek clericus, meaning appertaining to an inheritance, Clergy is from two Old French words, clergié and clergie, which refer to those with learning and derive from Medieval Latin clericatus, from Late Latin clericus. Clerk, which used to mean one ordained to the ministry, in the Middle Ages, reading and writing were almost exclusively the domain of the priestly class, and this is the reason for the close relationship of these words. Now, the state is tied to reception of the diaconate. Minor Orders are still given in the Eastern Catholic Churches, and it is in this sense that the word entered the Arabic language, most commonly in Lebanon from the French, as kleriki meaning seminarian. This is all in keeping with Eastern Orthodox concepts of clergy, which include those who have not yet received, or do not plan to receive. A priesthood is a body of priests, shamans, or oracles who have religious authority or function. Buddhist clergy are often referred to as the Sangha. This diversity of monastic orders and styles was originally one community founded by Gautama Buddha during the 5th century BC living under a set of rules. The interaction between Buddhism and Tibetan Bon led to a uniquely Tibetan Buddhism, within which various sects, similarly, the interaction between Indian Buddhist monks and Chinese Confucian and Taoist monks from c200-c900AD produced the distinctive Chan Buddhism. In these ways, manual labour was introduced to a practice where monks originally survived on alms, layers of garments were added where originally a single thin robe sufficed and this adaptation of form and roles of Buddhist monastic practice continued after the transmission to Japan. For example, monks took on administrative functions for the Emperor in particular secular communities, again, in response to various historic attempts to suppress Buddhism, the practice of celibacy was relaxed and Japanese monks allowed to marry. This form was then transmitted to Korea, during later Japanese occupation, as these varied styles of Buddhist monasticism are transmitted to Western cultures, still more new forms are being created. This broad difference in approach led to a schism among Buddhist monastics in about the 4th century BCE
22.
Facial hair
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Facial hair is a secondary sex characteristic of human males, referring to the growth of hair on or around the chin, jowls, and philtrum. This varies, as boys may first develop facial hair between fourteen and sixteen years of age, and boys as young as eleven have been known to develop facial hair, women are also capable of developing facial hair, especially after menopause, though typically significantly less than men. Men may style their hair into beards, moustaches, goatees or sideburns. The term whiskers, when used to refer to human hair, indicates the hair on the chin. The moustache forms its own stage in the development of hair in adolescent males. It then spreads to form a moustache over the upper lip. This is followed by the appearance of hair on the part of the cheeks. It eventually spreads to the sides and lower border of the chin, although this order is commonly seen, it can vary widely, with some facial hair starting from the chin and up towards the sideburns. As with most human biological processes, this order may vary among some individuals depending on ones genetic heritage or environment. Depending on the periods and countries, facial hair was prohibited in the army or, on the contrary, many religious male figures are recorded to have had facial hair, for example, all the prophets mentioned in the Abrahamic religions were known to grow their beards. Other religions, such as Sikhism, encourage growing beards, amish men grow beards after marriage, but continue to shave their moustaches in order to avoid historical associations with military facial hair due to their pacifistic beliefs. There are various hadiths that describe the necessary beard as its entirety, such as Sunan Abu Dawood 33,4183 and he forbade them to do that, saying, Shave it all or leave it all. Therefore, most non-taqlid Muslims such as the ghair muqallids, Salafis and Ahle Hadith view its growing as wajib, the reasoning for the command was reportedly to differ the Muslims from non-Muslims deriving from Sahih Bukhari, Do otherwise than those who ascribe partners to Allah. Women typically have hair on the face, apart from eyebrows. However, in cases, women have noticeable facial hair growth. Excessive hairiness is known as hirsutism and is usually an indication of atypical hormonal variation, many women globally choose to totally remove their facial hair by professional laser treatment. Eyebrow Whiskers Jack Passion, The Facial Hair Handbook, Jack Passion, LLC, First edition
23.
Valet
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Valet and varlet are terms for male servants who serve as personal attendants to their employer. In the United States, the term most often refers to a parking valet, in English, valet as personal man-servant is recorded since 1567, though use of the term in the French-speaking English medieval court is older, and the variant form varlet is cited from 1456. See yeoman, possibly derived from man, a related term. The modern use is usually short for the valet de chambre, since the 16th century, the word has traditionally been pronounced as rhyming with pallet, though an alternative pronunciation, rhyming with chalet, as in French, is now common. The Oxford English Dictionary lists both pronunciations as valid, a valet or gentlemans gentleman is a gentlemans male servant, the closest female equivalent is a ladys maid. The valet performs personal services such as maintaining his employers clothes, running his bath and perhaps shaving his employer. In a great house, the master of the house had his own valet, in a bachelors household the valet might perform light housekeeping duties as well. Valets learned the skills for their role in various ways, others started out as soldier-servants to army officers or stewards to naval officers. Traditionally, a valet did much more than lay out clothes. He was also responsible for making travel arrangements, dealing with any bills, Alexandre Bontemps, the most senior of the thirty-six valets to Louis XIV of France, was a powerful figure, who ran the Château de Versailles. In courts, valet de chambre was a position of status, often given to artists, musicians, poets and others. The role was also, at least during the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, valets, like butlers and most specialized domestic staff, have become relatively rare. A more common, though infrequent, arrangement is the general servant performing combined roles. Alfred Pennyworth, valet to Bruce Wayne, created by Bob Kane, hobson, from the comedy film Arthur. Kato, Inspector Clouseaus valet and martial arts partner in the Pink Panther movies, passepartout, in the 1872 novel Around the World in Eighty Days by Jules Verne. George, created by Agatha Christie in the Hercule Poirot novels, edward Henry Masterman, the victims valet and a suspect in Agatha Christies Murder on the Orient Express. Figaro, the Count of Almavivas valet from Beaumarchais play The Marriage of Figaro, as well as the Mozart, leporello, valet of Don Giovanni in the opera by Mozart. Giles French in the sitcom Family Affair, probert, valet to Sir William McCordle, and Robert Parks, valet to Lord Stockbridge, in the 2001 film Gosford Park, directed by Robert Altman
24.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
25.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
26.
Beauty salon
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A beauty salon or beauty parlor is an establishment dealing with cosmetic treatments for men and women. Other variations of this type of business include hair salons and spas, massage for the body is a popular beauty treatment, with various techniques offering benefits to the skin and for increasing mental well-being. Hair removal is offered at some beauty salons through treatments such as waxing and threading, some beauty salons style hair instead of going to a separate hair salon, and some also offer sun tanning. Other treatments of the face are known as facials, specialized beauty salons known as nail salons offer treatments such as manicures and pedicures for the nails. Beauty salons have proven to be an industry in the United States. Although sales had declined from 2008 highs, they remain robust with long term positive forecast, the market is distributed widely across America, with a concentration in the Northeast and Midwest. The US Labor Department estimates employment in the United States will increase 20% between 2008–2014, with greatest employment growth from skin care specialists
27.
Pomade
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Pomade is a greasy, waxy, or a water-based substance that is used to style hair. Pomade gives the hair a shiny, slick appearance. It lasts longer than most hair care products, often requiring multiple washes to completely remove, the original pomade of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries consisted mainly of bear fat or lard. Lanolin, beeswax, and petroleum jelly have been used extensively in the manufacture of modern pomades, the English word pomade is derived from French pommade meaning ointment, itself arising from the Latin pomum via the Italian pomata or pomo. Modern pomades may contain fragrances, but they are not particularly fruity. During the Roman era, soap was used as a pomade by some European tribes, in the 19th century, bear fat was usually the main pomade ingredient. By the early 20th century, petroleum jelly, beeswax, early 20th century examples of pomades include Murrays Superior Pomade, Brylcreem, and Royal Crown Hair Dressing. Dixie Peach Hair Pomade was popular with boys in the U. S. from World War II through the 1960s. Modern hairstyles involving the use of pomade include the ducktail, pompadour, in 2001, a water-based pomade was produced by Layrite. Unlike the petroleum and oil based pomade, water-based pomade washes out easily, unlike hair spray and hair gel, pomade does not dry, and can last much longer. Pomade is used to style hair, giving it a darker, slicker, shinier look, applying common olive oil and rinsing with warm water will also remove pomade. Because of the difficulty of washing out of the hair, many brands of pomade are now primarily water based. These products are more easily washable but often do not give the same versatility, some pomade products, such as mustache wax, are marketed for a specific use, while products such as Ultra Sheen, are marketed for specific consumers. Pomade is often used with Afro-textured hair to keep it from drying out, all these products come in various textures and consistencies, and essentially achieve the same effect as either hair wax or pomade. Traditionally, the difference between hair wax and pomade was that gave the hair a slicker, shinier appearance. Today the difference between pomade and hair wax is becoming somewhat ambiguous especially since many heavier pomades contain beeswax, Hair wax and pomade are often not marketed by those names, being labelled instead as paste, putty, glue, or whip among others. Hair wax and pomade are closely related, however, with pliability their main common property and this differentiates both wax and pomade from gel and hairspray, both of which are not designed to be restyled once the product is applied
28.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
29.
Marie Antoinette
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Marie Antoinette (/ˈmæriˌæntwəˈnɛt/, /ˌɑ̃ːntwə-/, /ˌɑ̃ːtwə-/, US /məˈriː-/, French, born Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna, was the last Queen of France and Navarre before the French Revolution. She was born an Archduchess of Austria, and was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I, in April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, heir apparent to the French throne, she became Dauphine of France. After eight years of marriage, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the family to take refuge at the Assembly. On 21 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, after a two-day trial begun on 14 October 1793, Marie Antoinette was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason, and executed by guillotine on Place de la Révolution on 16 October 1793. Maria Antonia was born on 2 November 1755, at the Hofburg Palace and she was the youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg Empire, and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria, King and Queen of Portugal, Archduke Joseph, shortly after her birth, she was placed under the care of the Governess of the Imperial children, Countess von Brandeis. Maria Antonia was raised with her older sister Maria Carolina. As to her relationship with her mother, it was difficult, despite the private tutoring she received, results of her schooling were less than satisfactory. At the age of ten she could not write correctly in German or in any language used at court, such as French. Under the teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Maria Antonia developed into a good musician and she learned to play the harp, the harpsichord and the flute. During the familys gatherings in the evenings, she would sing and she also excelled at dancing, had an exquisite poise, and loved dolls. Following the Seven Years War and the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy, on 14 May she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne. Upon her arrival in France, she adopted the French version of her name, a further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and, after the festivities, the day ended with the ritual bedding. The lack of consummation of the marriage plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for the seven years. The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was mixed, on the one hand, the Dauphine was beautiful, personable and well-liked by the common people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 was a resounding success, on the other hand, those opposed to the alliance with Austria, and others, for personal reasons, had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette. Madame du Barry, for example, was Louis XVs mistress and had political influence over him
30.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
31.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
32.
Marie Laveau
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Marie Catherine Laveau was a Louisiana Creole practitioner of Voodoo, who was renowned in New Orleans. Her daughter, Marie Laveau II, also practiced rootwork, conjure, Native American and she and her mother had great influence over their multiracial following. In 1874 as many as twelve thousand spectators, both black and white, swarmed to the shores of Lake Pontchartrain to catch a glimpse of Marie Laveau II performing her legendary rites on St. Johns Eve. Historical records surmise that Marie Laveau was born free in the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana, on August 4,1819, she married Jacques Paris, a French immigrant who had fled as a refugee from the black Haitian massacre in the former French territory Saint-Dominque. Their marriage certificate is preserved in the St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans, the wedding mass was performed by Father Antonio de Sedella, the Capuchin priest known as Pere Antoine. The death of Jacques Paris was recorded in 1820 and he was part of a large French immigration of refugees to New Orleans in 1809, after the Haitian Revolution of 1791-1804. They had two daughters, Felicite in 1817 and Angele in 1820, both disappear from the records in 1820s. Little is known with certainty about the life of Marie Catherine Laveau, Marie Catherine was approximately 1/3 each African, Native American and White. Laveaus only two children to survive into adulthood were daughters, the elder named Marie Euchariste Eloise Laveau went on to become Queen known as Marie II. She had 5 children who bore the surname Crocker, all but one died in childhood or early adulthood. There were no descendants from that line. The second daughter named Marie Philomene Glapion became placée to Emile Alexandre Legendre and she had 6 children with him 2 of which died in infancy. Records show that direct descendants of Marie & Christophe through Philomene Legendre moved to St. Louis, Mississippi Gulf Coast and she took a lover, Christophe Dominick Duminy de Glapion, with whom she lived until his death in 1855. They were reported to have had 15 children, including Marie Laveau II,1827, who sometimes used the surname Paris after her mothers first husband. Records show they had 7 children born and baptized, Christophe Duminy de Glapion had a second cousin named Alexis Celestin Glapion born 1834, son of furniture maker Celestin Glapion. He stayed in New Orleans where he and his wife Emma Vicknaire had 11 children, while it is difficult to determine the histories of the two Maries in tradition, it is believed that the elder Marie was a dedicated practitioner of Voodoo. The younger displayed more theatrical rubrics by holding public events, Laveau was said to have traveled the streets like she owned them said one New Orleans boy who attended an event at St. Johns. It is not known which had more to establish the voodoo queen reputation
33.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
34.
Louisiana Voodoo
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Louisiana Voodoo, also known as New Orleans Voodoo, describes a set of spiritual folkways developed from the traditions of the African diaspora. It is a form of the Afro-American religions developed by enslaved West. Voodoo is one of many incarnations of African-based spiritual folkways rooted in West African Dahomeyan Vodun and its liturgical language is Louisiana Creole French, the language of the Louisiana Creole people. Voodoo became syncretized with the Catholic and Francophone culture of New Orleans as a result of the African cultural oppression in the region resulting from the Atlantic slave trade, Louisiana Voodoo is often confused with—but is not completely separable from—Haitian Vodoo and Deep Southern Hoodoo. It differs from Haitian Vodoo in its emphasis upon gris-gris, Voodoo queens, use of Hoodoo paraphernalia and it was through Louisiana Voodoo that such terms as gris-gris and Voodoo dolls were introduced into the American lexicon. Voodoo was brought to French Louisiana during the period by enslaved Africans from West Africa. Many Fon were also taken as slaves to the French colony of Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean Sea, Louisiana vodoo has existed since the early 1700s. The enslaved community quickly outnumbered white European colonists, the French colony was not a stable society when the enslaved Africans arrived, and the newly arrived Africans dominated the slave community. According to a census of 1731-1732, the ratio of enslaved Africans to European settlers was more than two to one. As a relatively small number of colonists were planters and slaveholders, the Africans were held in large groups, under the French code and the influence of Catholicism, officials nominally recognized family groups, prohibiting the sale of slave children away from their families if younger than age fourteen. They promoted the legend of wake tuko of the enslaved population. The high mortality of the trade brought its survivors together with a sense of solidarity and initiation. ”The practice of making and wearing charms and amulets for protection, healing. The Ouanga, a used to poison an enemy, contained the toxic roots of the figuier maudit tree, brought from Africa. The ground-up root was combined with elements, such as bones, nails, roots, holy water, holy candles, holy incense, holy bread. The administrator of the ritual frequently evoked protection from Jehovah and Jesus Christ and this openness of African belief allowed for the adoption of Catholic practices into Louisiana Voodoo. Another component of Louisiana Voodoo brought from West Africa was the veneration of ancestors, for this reason, the rate of survival among elderly enslaved peoples was high, further Africanizing Louisiana Creole culture. Embargo Act of 1808 ended all importation of African slaves to the United States, Voodoo queens were known to exercise great power in their communities, and had the role of leading many of the ceremonial meetings and ritual dances. These drew crowds of hundreds and thousands of people and their power and influence were widespread and largely incontestable, recognized by journalists, judges, criminals, and citizens alike
35.
Marcelling
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Marcelling is a hair styling technique in which hot curling tongs are used to induce a curl into the hair. Its appearance was similar to that of a wave. Accounts vary about the invention of the style, some reports ascribe the invention of the technique to Marcel Grateau, who invented it in 1872. There is also a 1936 obituary for Francois Marcel Grateau, with dates matching those of the first-named Marcel Grateau, given the dates, and the coincidence of names, it is quite possible that they were all the same man. One famous wearer was Josephine Baker, the doo-wop group the Marcels were named after the hairstyle
36.
Hair iron
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A hair iron or hair tong is a tool used to change the structure of the hair using heat. Most models have electric heating, cordless curling irons or flat irons typically use butane, overuse of these tools can cause severe damage to hair. Curling irons, also known as curling tongs, create waves or curls in hair using a variety of different methods, there are many different types of modern curling irons, which can vary by diameter, material, and shape of barrel and the type of handle. The barrels diameter can be anywhere from.5 in to 2 in, smaller barrels typically create spiral curls or ringlets, and larger barrels are used to give shape and volume to a hairstyle. Curling irons are typically made of Teflon, ceramic, tourmaline, metal, or titanium, each of which has its pros, the barrels shape can either be a cylinder, cone, or reverse cone, and the iron can have brush attachments or double and triple barrels. The curling iron can also have either a spring-loaded, Marcel, spring-loaded handles are the most popular and use a spring to work the barrels clamp. When using a Marcel handle, one applies his or her own pressure to the clamp, clipless wands have no clamp, and the user simply wraps hair around a rod. Most clipless curling irons come with a Kevlar glove to avoid burns, straightening irons, straighteners, or flat irons work by breaking down the positive hydrogen bonds found in the hairs cortex, which cause hair to open, bend and become curly. Once the bonds are broken, hair is prevented from holding its original, natural form, straightening irons use mainly ceramic material for their plates. Low-end straighteners use a single layer of coating on the plates. Some straightening irons are fitted with an automatic shut off feature to prevent fire accidents, early hair straightening systems relied on harsh chemicals that tended to damage the hair. In the 1870s, the French hairdresser Marcel Grateau introduced heated metal hair care implements such as hot combs to straighten hair, madame C. J. Walker used combs with wider teeth and popularized their use together with her system of chemical scalp preparation and straightening lotions. Her mentor Annie Malone is sometimes said to have patented the hot comb, heated metal implements slide more easily through the hair, reducing damage and dryness. Women in the 1960s sometimes used clothing irons to straighten their hair, in 1909 Isaac K. Shero patented the first hair straightener composed of two flat irons that are heated and pressed together. Ceramic and electrical straighteners were introduced later, allowing adjustment of heat settings, crimping irons or crimpers work by crimping hair in sawtooth style. The look is similar to the left after taking out small braids. Crimping irons come in different sizes with different sized ridges on the paddles, larger ridges produce larger crimps in the hair and smaller ridges produce smaller crimps. Crimped hair was popular in the 1980s and 1990s
37.
Martha Matilda Harper
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Martha Matilda Harper was a Canadian-American businesswoman, entrepreneur, and inventor who built an international network of franchised hair salons that emphasized healthy hair care. Born in Canada, Harper was sent away by her father when she was seven to work as a domestic servant and she worked in that profession for 25 years before she saved enough money to start working full-time producing a hair tonic she invented. The product, and the creation of hair salons that utilized it, was successful. Harper began franchising the salon model to women, and by its peak the company included more than 500 franchises. Born in Oakville, Ontario, Canada, Harpers father sent her away at age seven to become a servant for relatives in Orno. She worked in that profession for 22 years before moving to the United States to work as a servant in Rochester and her last Canadian employer, a physician, had imparted his knowledge of hair health to her, and bequeathed her his hair tonic formula when he died. While a servant, Harper developed her own hair tonic after becoming concerned that the products on the market did more harm than good. Her salon opened in 1888 in Rochester using her savings of $360. Harper’s salon The Harper Hair Parlour, and many of her innovations, including the Harper Method and her floor-length hair also served as an effective marketing tool and appeared in many advertisements for her products. In 1891, she one of the first businesspeople in America to start franchising, allowing franchisees to open salons under the Harper name. She would train the franchisees and inspect their salons to ensure quality, emphasizing customer service and comfort, Harper invented reclining shampoo chairs, which became a common feature of salons worldwide. The salons offered scalp massage and child care, and they provided evening hours, the hair products her company produced were intended to be healthier than those widely available at the time and were made largely with natural products. Harper salons did not carry synthetic dyes or do chemical perms, at the height of its success, her company had 500 franchises and produced a full line of hair care and beauty products. Among the Harper customers were Susan B, anthony, Woodrow Wilson, Grace Coolidge, and Jacqueline Kennedy. The Harper Method Inc. has operated under a variety of different owners, in June 1956, Robert McBain, Harpers husband, sold the enterprise to Earl Freese and Gerald Wunderlich who then made three different attempts to sell the business throughout the 1960s and 70s. On March 10,1972, other Harper Method Inc. assets were bought by PEJ Beauty Corporation, at the time, PEJ was one of the largest operators of trade schools in America. According to Philip Jakeway, then President of the Wilfred Academy, he hoped to expand his operation by marketing the Harper products and shops. An agreement was reached whereby Prentice would supply Harper products to Jakeway for U. S. distribution. Jakeway was unsuccessful. ”As for The Harper Method Founder’s Shop, it operated in Rochester, New York, as the country’s oldest, and longest running, beauty shop until the early 2000s
38.
Retail chain
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Chain store or retail chain are retail outlets that share a brand and central management, and usually have standardized business methods and practices. In retail, dining, and many categories, chain businesses have come to dominate the market in many parts of the world. A franchise retail establishment is one form of chain store, in 2004, the worlds largest retail chain, Wal-Mart, became the worlds largest corporation based on gross sales. In the U. S. chain stores began with the founding of The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company in 1859, by the early 1920s, the U. S. boasted three national chains, A&P, Woolworths, and United Cigar Stores. By the 1930s, chain stores had come of age, court decisions against the chains price-cutting appeared as early as 1906, and laws against chain stores began in the 1920s, along with legal countermeasures by chain-store groups. A restaurant chain is a set of related restaurants in different locations that are either under shared corporate ownership or franchising agreements. Typically, the restaurants within a chain are built to a standard format through architectural prototype development, fast food restaurants are the most common, but sit-down restaurant chains also exist. Restaurant chains are found near highways, shopping malls and tourist areas. The displacement of independent businesses by chains has sparked increased collaboration among independent businesses and communities to prevent chain proliferation and these efforts include community-based organizing through Independent Business Alliances and buy local campaigns. In the U. S. trade organizations such as the American Booksellers Association and American Specialty Toy Retailers do national promotion and they dont exclude the chain itself, only the standardized formula the chain uses. The reason these towns regulate chain stores is to protect independent businesses from competition, restaurant Organizational Forms and Community in the US in 2005. Store Wars, The Enactment and Repeal of Anti‐Chain‐Store Legislation in America, American Journal of Sociology 110#2, 446-487. Lebhar, Godfrey Montague, and W. C, matsunaga, Louella. The changing face of Japanese retail, Working in a chain store. Newman, Benjamin J. and John V. Kane, backlash against the Big Box, Local Small Business and Public Opinion toward Business Corporations. The Chain Store in the United States and Canada, American Economic Review 27#1, pp. 87-95 in JSTOR Schragger, the Anti-Chain Store Movement, Localist Ideology, and the Remnants of the Progressive Constitution, 1920-1940. The anti-chain store movement and the politics of consumption, culture of restraint, the British chain store 1920–39. Commercial Cultures, Economies, Practices, Spaces 31
39.
Facials
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A facial is a family of skin care treatments for the face, including steam, exfoliation, extraction, creams, lotions, facial masks, peels, and massage. They are normally performed in beauty salons, but are also a spa treatment. They are used for skin health as well as for specific skin conditions. Types of facials include European facial, LED light therapy facials, some masks are designed to dry or solidify on the face, almost like plaster, others just remain wet. The perceived effects of a facial mask treatment include revitalizing, healing, or refreshing, masks are removed by either rinsing the face with water, wiping off with a damp cloth, or peeling off of the face. Duration for wearing a mask varies with the type of mask, the time can range from a few minutes to overnight. Those with sensitive skin are advised to first test out the mask on a portion of the skin, in order to check for any irritations. Some facial masks are not suited to frequent use, a glycolic mask can only be used once a month without the risk of burning the skin. Masks can be anywhere from drugstores to department stores, and can vary in consistency. Non-setting facial masks include warm oil and paraffin wax masks and these different forms are made to suit different skin types, and different skincare goals or needs. Clay and mud masks suit oily and some combination skin types, while cream-based masks tend to suit dry and sensitive skin types
40.
Elizabeth Arden
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By 1929 she owned 150 upscale salons across the United States and Europe. Her 1000 products were found in the market in 22 countries. She was the owner, and at the peak of her career. Arden was born in 1878 in Woodbridge, Ontario, Canada and her parents had emigrated to Canada from Cornwall, United Kingdom in the 1870s. Her father, William Graham, was Scottish and her mother, Arden dropped out of nursing school in Toronto. She then joined her brother in Manhattan, working briefly as a bookkeeper for the E. R. Squibb Pharmaceuticals Company. While there, Arden spent hours in their lab, learning about skincare and she then worked—again briefly—for Eleanor Adair, an early beauty culturist, as a treatment girl. She targeted middle age and plain women for whom beauty products promised a youthful, beautiful image, in politics, Elizabeth Arden was a strong conservative who supported Republicans. In 1909, Arden formed a partnership with Elizabeth Hubbard, another culturist, the business relationship dissolved after six months. Graham, who desired a name, used Elizabeth to save money on her salon signage. She chose the last name, Arden, from a nearby farm, so the trade name Elizabeth Arden was formed. From there, Arden founded, in 1910, the Red Door salon in New York, in 1912, Arden traveled to France to learn beauty and facial massage techniques used in the Paris beauty salons. She returned with a collection of rouges and tinted powders she had created and she began expanding her international operations in 1915, and started opening salons across the world. In 1934, she opened the Maine Chance residential spa in Rome, Maine, in 1962, the French government awarded Arden the Légion dHonneur, in recognition of her contribution to the cosmetics industry. In 1966, Arden died at Lenox Hill Hospital in Manhattan and she was interred in the Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York, under the name Elizabeth N. Graham. War Paint by Lindy Woodhead page 94 Haag, Karin Loewen, women in World History, A biographical encyclopedia. Waterford, CT, Yorkin Publications, Gale Group, great Breeders and Their Methods Russell Meerdink Co. Ltd. Hope in a jar, The making of Americas beauty culture
41.
Electricity
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Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence of electric charge. Although initially considered a separate to magnetism, since the development of Maxwells Equations both are recognized as part of a single phenomenon, electromagnetism. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges, in addition, electricity is at the heart of many modern technologies. The presence of a charge, which can be either positive or negative. On the other hand, the movement of charges, which is known as electric current. When a charge is placed in a location with non-zero electric field, the magnitude of this force is given by Coulombs Law. Thus, if that charge were to move, the field would be doing work on the electric charge. Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would not be until the nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry, electricitys extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society, long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the Thunderer of the Nile, Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Patients suffering from such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. He coined the New Latin word electricus to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed and this association gave rise to the English words electric and electricity, which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Brownes Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646. Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray, in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a key to the bottom of a dampened kite string. A succession of jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature
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Perm (hairstyle)
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A permanent wave, commonly called a perm or permanent, involves the use of heat and/or chemicals to break and reform the cross-linking bonds of the hair structure. The hair is washed and wrapped on a form and waving lotion or reagent is applied and this solution reacts chemically softening the inner structure of the hair by breaking some of the cross links within and between the protein chains of the hair. The hair swells, stretches and softens, then molds around the shape of the form, in addition, the process is often used for the chemical hair straightening, or relaxing. This process makes use of the chemical reactions as that of the permanent wave. The first person to produce a practical method was Marcel Grateau in 1872. He devised a pair of specially manufactured tongs, in one of the arms had a circular cross-section. The tongs were generally heated over a gas or alcohol flame, the waving itself was safe if care was taken to keep the tongs away from the scalp. Each time the tongs were applied, they were moved slightly in a normal to the lock of hair. Skill using the wrist could produce slight variations of the wave, thus, Marcel waving produced a two-dimensional wave, by thermal means only and the change was produced by plastic flow of the hair, rather than by any chemical means. Because of the temperature used, the process tended to degrade the hair. However, in spite of its drawbacks, forms of Marcel waving have persisted until today, as the demand for self-determination grew among women, hair was shortened so that it did not pass the lower end of the neck. This was not only a political gesture but a practical one, as shorter hair was improved in appearance by waving even more than long hair, it was only a matter of time before an improved form of waving appeared. An early alternative method for curling hair that was suitable for use on people was invented in 1905 by German hairdresser Karl Nessler and he used a mixture of cow urine and water. The first public demonstration took place on 8 October 1905, previously, wigs had been set with caustic chemicals to form curls, but these recipes were too harsh to use next to human skin. His method, called the spiral method, was only useful for long hair. The hair was wrapped in a spiral around rods connected to a machine with a heating device. Sodium hydroxide was applied and the hair was heated to 212 °F or more for a period of time. The process used about twelve 2-pound brass rollers and took six hours to complete and these hot rollers were kept from touching the scalp by a complex system of countering weights which were suspended from an overhead chandelier and mounted on a stand
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Hair dryer
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A hair dryer, hairdryer or blow dryer is an electromechanical device designed to blow normal or hot air over damp hair to accelerate the evaporation of water particles and dry the hair. Blow dryers allow better control over the shape and style of hair and these hydrogen bonds are powerful but are temporary and extremely vulnerable to humidity. They disappear with a washing of the hair. Hairstyles using blow dryers usually have volume and discipline, which can be improved by the use of styling products and hairbrushes during drying to add tension, hold. Blow dryers were invented around the end of the 19th century, the first model was created by Alexander F. Beau Godefroy in his salon in France in 1890. The handheld, household hair dryer first appeared in 1920, blow dryers are used in beauty salons by professional stylists and in the household by consumers. Most hair dryers consist of heating coils and a fan. The heating element in most dryers is a bare, coiled nichrome wire that is wrapped around mica insulators, nichrome wire is used in heating elements because of two important properties, It is a poor conductor of electricity and it does not oxidize when heated. In modern models, a survey of stores in 2007 showed that most hair dryers have ceramic heating elements —because of their “instant heat” capability. This means that it less time for the dryers to heat up. Many of these dryers have “normal mode” buttons that turn off the heater and this function helps to maintain the hairstyle by setting it. The colder air reduces frizz and can help to bolster shine in the hair, many feature “ionic” operation, to reduce the amount of static electricity build-up in the hair, though the efficacy of ionic technology is of some debate. Manufacturers claim this makes the hair “smoother. ”Some stylists consider the introduction of technology to be one of the most important advances in the beauty industry. Hair dryers are available with attachments, such as diffusers, airflow concentrators, a diffuser is an attachment that is used on hair that is fine, colored, permed or naturally curly. It diffuses the jet of air, so that the hair is not blown around while it dries, the hair dries more slowly, at a cooler temperature, and with less physical disturbance. This makes it so that the hair is likely to frizz. An airflow concentrator does the opposite of a diffuser and it makes the end of the blowdryer narrower and thus helps to concentrate the heat into one spot o make it dry rapidly. The comb nozzle attachment is the same as the airflow concentrator, hair dryers have been cited as an effective treatment for head lice
