1.
Manufacturing
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Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
2.
Polyphony and monophony in instruments
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Polyphony is a property of musical instruments that means that they can play multiple notes simultaneously. Instruments featuring polyphony are said to be polyphonic, instruments that are not capable of polyphony are monophonic or paraphonic. A monophonic synthesizer or monosynth is a synthesizer that produces one note at a time. Well-known monosynths include the Minimoog, the Roland TB-303, and the Korg Prophecy, duophonic synthesizers, such as the ARP Odyssey and Formanta Polivoks built in the 1970s and 1980s respectively, have a capability to independently play two pitches at a time. These synthesizers have at least two oscillators that are controllable, and a duophonic keyboard that can generate two control voltage signals for the lowest- and highest-note. When two or more keys are pressed simultaneously, the lowest- and highest-note will be heard, when only one key is pressed, both oscillators are assigned to one note, possibly with a more complex sound. The earliest polyphonic synthesizers were built in the late-1930s, but the concept did not become popular until the mid-1970s, harald Bodes Warbo Formant Orguel, developed in 1937, was an archetype of a voice allocation polyphonic synthesizer. Novachord by Hammond Organ Company, released in 1939, is a product of frequency divider organs. It uses octave divider technology to generate polyphony, and about 1,000 Novachords were manufactured until 1942, using an octave divider a synthesizer needs only 12 oscillators - one for each note in the musical scale. The additional notes are generated by dividing down the outputs of these oscillators, to produce a note one octave lower, the frequency of the oscillator is divided by two. Polyphony is achieved so long as one of each note in the scale is played simultaneously. One notable early polyphonic synthesizer was the Sequential Circuits Prophet 5, six-voice polyphony was standard by the middle 1980s. With the advent of synthesizers, 16-voice polyphony became standard by the late 1980s. 64-voice polyphony was common by the middle 1990s and 128-note polyphony arrived shortly after, there are several reasons for providing such large numbers of simultaneous notes, Even with only ten fingers, it is possible to play more than ten notes at once. Notes may continue to sound even after a key is released, the synthesizers resources may still be in use to produce the sound of the previously struck notes tapering off, especially when a sustain pedal is used. A sound may be generated by more than one oscillator or sound-source to allow more complicated sounds to be produced, a synthesizer with 16 oscillators may be capable of 16-note polyphony only when simple, single-oscillator sounds are produced. If a particular patch requires four oscillators, then the synthesizer is only capable of four-note polyphony, synthesizers may be configured to produce multiple timbres, particularly necessary when sounds are layered or sequenced. Multitimbral instruments are always polyphonic but polyphonic instruments are not necessarily multitimbral, some multitimbral instruments have a feature which allows the user to specify the amount of polyphony reserved or allowed for each timbre
3.
Electronic oscillator
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An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. Oscillators convert direct current from a supply to an alternating current signal. They are widely used in electronic devices. Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal and this term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator. An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the range, about 16 Hz to 20 kHz. An RF oscillator produces signals in the frequency range of about 100 kHz to 100 GHz. Oscillators designed to produce a high-power AC output from a DC supply are usually called inverters, there are two main types of electronic oscillator, the linear or harmonic oscillator and the nonlinear or relaxation oscillator. The harmonic, or linear, oscillator produces a sinusoidal output, when the power supply to the amplifier is first switched on, electronic noise in the circuit provides a non-zero signal to get oscillations started. The noise travels around the loop and is amplified and filtered until very quickly it converges on a wave at a single frequency. RC oscillators are used to generate lower frequencies, for example in the audio range. Common types of RC oscillator circuits are the phase shift oscillator, in an LC oscillator circuit, the filter is a tuned circuit consisting of an inductor and capacitor connected together. Charge flows back and forth between the plates through the inductor, so the tuned circuit can store electrical energy oscillating at its resonant frequency. There are small losses in the circuit, but the amplifier compensates for those losses and supplies the power for the output signal. Typical LC oscillator circuits are the Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp circuits, in a crystal oscillator circuit the filter is a piezoelectric crystal. The crystal mechanically vibrates as a resonator, and its frequency of vibration determines the oscillation frequency, crystals have very high Q-factor and also better temperature stability than tuned circuits, so crystal oscillators have much better frequency stability than LC or RC oscillators. Crystal oscillators are the most common type of linear oscillator, used to stabilize the frequency of most radio transmitters, crystal oscillators often use the same circuits as LC oscillators, with the crystal replacing the tuned circuit, the Pierce oscillator circuit is also commonly used. Quartz crystals are generally limited to frequencies of 30 MHz or below, other types of resonator, dielectric resonators and surface acoustic wave devices, are used to control higher frequency oscillators, up into the microwave range. For example, SAW oscillators are used to generate the signal in cell phones
4.
Tonewheel
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A tonewheel or tone wheel is a simple electromechanical apparatus for generating electric musical notes in electromechanical organ instruments such as the Hammond Organ. It was invented around 1910 by Rudolph Goldschmidt and was first used in pre vacuum tube radio receivers as a beat frequency oscillator to make continuous wave radiotelegraphy signals audible, the tonewheel assembly consists of a synchronous AC motor and an associated gearbox that drives a series of rotating disks. Each disk has a number of smooth bumps at the rim. As the bump moves past, this effect is reduced again, the magnetic field weakens slightly. Thus, the frequency of the current in the coil depends on the speed of rotation of the disk, a single fundamental frequency can thus be combined with one or more harmonics to produce complex sounds. Tonewheels were first developed for and used in the Telharmonium circa 1896, tonewheel leakage occurs in the Hammond organ and in similar situations, where the large number of tonewheels causes pickups to overhear tonewheels other than their own. This causes the organ to add chromatics to played notes, in some kinds of music this is undesirable, but in others it has become an important part of the Hammond sound. On some digital simulations of Hammond organs tonewheel leakage is a user-set parameter, the tonewheel was invented in 1910 by Rudolph Goldschmidt as a beat frequency oscillator in early radio receivers to make continuous wave radiotelegraphy signals audible. Alexanderson alternator The history of tonewheel
5.
Synthesizer
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A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate instruments like piano, Hammond organ, flute, vocals, natural sounds like ocean waves, etc. or generate new electronic timbres. Synthesizers without built-in controllers are called sound modules, and are controlled via USB, MIDI or CV/gate using a controller device. Synthesizers use various methods to generate electronic signals, synthesizers were first used in pop music in the 1960s. In the 1970s, synths were used in disco, especially in the late 1970s, in the 1980s, the invention of the relatively inexpensive, mass market Yamaha DX7 synth made synthesizers widely available. 1980s pop and dance music often made use of synthesizers. In the 2010s, synthesizers are used in genres of pop, rock. Contemporary classical music composers from the 20th and 21st century write compositions for synthesizer, the beginnings of the synthesizer are difficult to trace, as it is difficult to draw a distinction between synthesizers and some early electric or electronic musical instruments. One of the earliest electric musical instruments, the telegraph, was invented in 1876 by American electrical engineer Elisha Gray. He accidentally discovered the sound generation from a self-vibrating electromechanical circuit and this musical telegraph used steel reeds with oscillations created by electromagnets transmitted over a telegraph line. Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later models, consisting of a diaphragm in a magnetic field. This instrument was a remote electromechanical musical instrument that used telegraphy, though it lacked an arbitrary sound-synthesis function, some have erroneously called it the first synthesizer. In 1897, Thaddeus Cahill invented the Teleharmonium, which used dynamos, and was capable of additive synthesis like the Hammond organ, however, Cahills business was unsuccessful for various reasons, and similar but more compact instruments were subsequently developed, such as electronic and tonewheel organs. In 1906, American engineer, Lee De Forest ushered in the electronics age and he invented the first amplifying vacuum tube, called the Audion tube. This led to new entertainment technologies, including radio and sound films, ondes Martenot and Trautonium were continuously developed for several decades, finally developing qualities similar to later synthesizers. In the 1920s, Arseny Avraamov developed various systems of graphic sonic art, in 1938, USSR engineer Yevgeny Murzin designed a compositional tool called ANS, one of the earliest real-time additive synthesizers using optoelectronics. The earliest polyphonic synthesizers were developed in Germany and the United States, during the three years that Hammond manufactured this model,1,069 units were shipped, but production was discontinued at the start of World War II. Both instruments were the forerunners of the electronic organs and polyphonic synthesizers
6.
Additive synthesis
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Additive synthesis is a sound synthesis technique that creates timbre by adding sine waves together. The timbre of instruments can be considered in the light of Fourier theory to consist of multiple harmonic or inharmonic partials or overtones. Each partial is a wave of different frequency and amplitude that swells. Additive synthesis most directly generates sound by adding the output of multiple sine wave generators, alternative implementations may use pre-computed wavetables or the inverse Fast Fourier transform. These sinusoids are called harmonics, overtones, or generally, partials, in general, a Fourier series contains an infinite number of sinusoidal components, with no upper limit to the frequency of the sinusoidal functions and includes a DC component. Frequencies outside of the audible range can be omitted in additive synthesis. As a result, only a number of sinusoidal terms with frequencies that lie within the audible range are modeled in additive synthesis. A waveform or function is said to be periodic if y = y for all t, the bandwidth of r k should be significantly less than f 0. Additive synthesis can also produce sounds in which the individual overtones need not have frequencies that are integer multiples of some common fundamental frequency. While many conventional musical instruments have harmonic partials, some have inharmonic partials, inharmonic additive synthesis can be described as y = ∑ k =1 K r k cos , where f k is the constant frequency of k th partial. In the general case, the frequency of a sinusoid is the derivative of the argument of the sine or cosine function. If this frequency is represented in hertz, rather than in angular frequency form and this is the case whether the partial is harmonic or inharmonic and whether its frequency is constant or time-varying. For example, F. Richard Moore listed additive synthesis as one of the four categories of sound synthesis alongside subtractive synthesis, nonlinear synthesis. In this broad sense, pipe organs, which also have pipes producing non-sinusoidal waveforms, summation of principal components and Walsh functions have also been classified as additive synthesis. Modern-day implementations of additive synthesis are mainly digital, Additive synthesis can be implemented using a bank of sinusoidal oscillators, one for each partial. Group additive synthesis is a method to group partials into harmonic groups, an inverse Fast Fourier transform can be used to efficiently synthesize frequencies that evenly divide the transform period or frame. It is possible to analyze the components of a recorded sound giving a sum of sinusoids representation. This representation can be re-synthesized using additive synthesis, one method of decomposing a sound into time varying sinusoidal partials is short-time Fourier transform -based McAulay-Quatieri Analysis
7.
Sound effect
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In motion picture and television production, a sound effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point without the use of dialogue or music. The term often refers to a process applied to a recording, in professional motion picture and television production, dialogue, music, and sound effects recordings are treated as separate elements. Dialogue and music recordings are never referred to as sound effects, even though the processes applied to such as reverberation or flanging effects, the term sound effect ranges back to the early days of radio. In its Year Book 1931 the BBC published an article about The Use of Sound Effects. It considers sounds effect deeply linked with broadcasting and states, It would be a mistake to think of them as anologous to punctuation marks. They should never be inserted into an already existing. The author of a broadcast play or broadcast construction ought to have used Sound Effects as bricks with which to build, treating them as of value with speech. If it fails to do so its presence could not be justified, the sound of people talking in the background is also considered a BG, but only if the speaker is unintelligible and the language is unrecognizable. These background noises are also called ambience or atmos, Foley sound effects are sounds that synchronize on screen, and require the expertise of a foley artist to record properly. Footsteps, the movement of hand props, and the rustling of cloth are common foley units, design sound effects are sounds that do not normally occur in nature, or are impossible to record in nature. These sounds are used to suggest futuristic technology in a fiction film. Each of these sound effect categories is specialized, with sound editors known as specialists in an area of sound effects, Foley is another method of adding sound effects. With this technique the action onscreen is essentially recreated to try to match it as closely as possible, if done correctly it is very hard for audiences to tell what sounds were added and what sounds were originally recorded. In the early days of film and radio, foley artists would add sounds in realtime or pre-recorded sound effects would be played back from analogue discs in realtime. Today, with effects held in digital format, it is easy to any required sequence to be played in any desired timeline. In the days of silent film, sound effects were added by the operator of an organ or photoplayer. Theater organ sound effects are usually electric or electro-pneumatic, and activated by a button pressed with the hand or foot, photoplayer operators activate sound effects either by flipping switches on the machine or pulling cow-tail pull-strings, which hang above. Sounds like bells and drums are made mechanically, sirens and horns electronically, due to its smaller size, a photoplayer usually has less special effects than a theater organ, or less complex ones
8.
Musical keyboard
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A musical keyboard is the set of adjacent depressible levers or keys on a musical instrument. Depressing a key on the causes the instrument to produce sounds, either by mechanically striking a string or tine, plucking a string, causing air to flow through a pipe. On electric and electronic keyboards, depressing a key connects a circuit, since the most commonly encountered keyboard instrument is the piano, the keyboard layout is often referred to as the piano keyboard. The twelve notes of the Western musical scale are laid out with the lowest note on the left, because these keys were traditionally covered in ivory they are often called the white notes or white keys. The keys for the remaining five notes—which are not part of the C major scale— are raised, because these keys receive less wear, they are often made of black colored wood and called the black notes or black keys. The pattern repeats at the interval of an octave, the arrangement of longer keys for C major with intervening, shorter keys for the intermediate semitones dates to the 15th century. The break was between middle C and C-sharp, or outside of Iberia between B and C, broken keyboards reappeared in 1842 with the harmonium, the split occurring at E4/F4. The reverse-colored keys on Hammond organs such as the B3, C3, the chromatic compass of keyboard instruments has tended to increase. Harpsichords often extended over five octaves in the 18th century, while most pianos manufactured since about 1870 have 88 keys, some modern pianos have even more notes. While modern synthesizer keyboards commonly have either 61,76 or 88 keys, organs normally have 61 keys per manual, though some spinet models have 44 or 49. An organ pedalboard is a keyboard with long pedals that are played by the organists feet, pedalboards vary in size from 12 to 32 notes. In a typical layout, black note keys have uniform width. In the larger gaps between the keys, the width of the natural notes C, D and E differ slightly from the width of keys F, G, A and B. This allows close to uniform spacing of 12 keys per octave while maintaining uniformity of seven natural keys per octave, over the last three hundred years, the octave span distance found on historical keyboard instruments has ranged from as little as 125 mm to as much as 170 mm. Several reduced-size standards have been proposed and marketed, a 15/16 size and the 7/8 DS Standard keyboard developed by Christopher Donison in the 1970s and developed and marketed by Steinbuhler & Company. There have been variations in the design of the keyboard to address technical and musical issues, thus, an octave would have eight white keys and only four black keys. During the sixteenth century, when instruments were tuned in meantone temperament, some harpsichords were constructed with the G♯. The broken octave, a variation of the short octave
9.
Leslie speaker
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The Leslie speaker is a combined amplifier and two-way loudspeaker that projects the signal from an electric or electronic instrument, while modifying the sound by rotating the loudspeakers. It is most commonly associated with the Hammond organ, though it was used for the guitar. A typical Leslie speaker contains an amplifier, and a treble, a musician controls the Leslie speaker by either an external switch or pedal that alternates between a slow and fast speed setting, known as chorale and tremolo. The speaker is named after its inventor, Donald Leslie, Leslie began working in the late 1930s to get a speaker for a Hammond organ that had a closer emulation of a pipe or theatre organ, and discovered that rotating sound gave the best effect. Hammond was not interested in marketing or selling the speakers, so Leslie sold them himself as an add-on, Leslie made the first speaker in 1941. The sound of the organ being played through his speakers received national radio exposure across the US and it soon became an essential tool for most jazz organists. In 1965, Leslie sold his business to CBS who, in 1980, Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation subsequently acquired the Hammond and Leslie brands. Because the Leslie is a sound device in its own right. Many musicians have used the Univox Uni-Vibe, the Neo Ventilator, or Hammond-Suzukis own simulator in a box, Leslie worked as a radio service engineer at Barker Brothers Department Store in Los Angeles, which sold and repaired Hammond organs. He bought one in 1937, hoping it would be a substitute for a pipe organ. He was disappointed, however, with the sound in his home compared to the large showroom where he heard it. Consequently, he attempted to design a speaker to overcome this and he initially tried making a cabinet similar to Hammonds, but soon concluded that pipe organs produced a spacially varied sound because of the different location of each pipe. He set out to emulate this by making a moving speaker and he tried various combinations of speakers and speeds, and discovered that a single one running at whats now known as the tremolo speed worked best. After further experimentation, he decided that splitting the signal into a drum and horn helped accentuate bass. By 1940, Leslie decided his prototype was ready to market, laurens Hammond, however, was not impressed with Leslies attempt to better his own organ design, and declined to market it. The company even changed the interface on their organs to make them Leslie-proof. Leslie began manufacturing the speaker in 1941—initially under a variety of names, including Vibratone, Brittain Speakers, Hollywood Speakers and he returned to the name Leslie Vibratone in 1947. To counteract Hammonds slogan Musics Most Glorious Voice, Leslie added a similar slogan and he eventually owned nearly 50 patents on the speaker
10.
Electric organ
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An electronic organ is an electronic keyboard instrument which was derived from the harmonium, pipe organ and theatre organ. Originally, it was designed to imitate the sound of pipe organs, theatre organs, band sounds, or orchestral sounds. In a fashion not totally unlike that of organs, reed organs generated sound by forcing air over a set of reeds by means of a bellows. While reed organs had limited tonal quality, they were small, inexpensive, self-powered, the reed organ was thus able to bring an organlike sound to venues that were incapable of housing or affording pipe organs. This concept was to play an important role in the development of the electric organ, pipe organ In the 1930s, several manufacturers developed electronic organs designed to imitate the function and sound of pipe organs. At the time, some thought that emulation of the pipe organ was the most promising route to take in the development of an electronic organ. Various types of organs have been brought to market over the years. Electricity arrived on the scene in the first decades of the 20th century. Electrically powered reed organs appeared during the first decades of electricity, cahills techniques were later used by Laurens Hammond in his organ design, and the 200-ton Telharmonium served as the worlds first demonstration of electrically produced music on a grand scale. Meanwhile, some experimentation with producing sound by electric impulses was taking place. Built in Belleville, Ontario, the Robb Wave Organ predates its much more successful competitor Hammond by patent and manufacture, the first widespread success in this field was a product of the Hammond Corporation in 1934. The Hammond organ quickly became the successor of the reed organ, from the start, electronic organs operated on a radically different principle from all previous organs. The organ was electrically powered, replacing the reed organs twin bellows pedals with a swell pedal more like that of a pipe organ. Instead of having to pump at a constant rate, as had been the case with the reed organ, from the beginning, the electronic organ had a second manual, also rare among reed organs. The most revolutionary difference in the Hammond, however, was its number of tonewheel settings. By using the drawbars, the organist could combine a variety of tones and harmonics in varying proportions. In all, the Hammond was capable of producing more than 250 million tones, the classic Hammond sound benefitted from the use of free-standing loudspeakers called tone cabinets that produced a higher-quality sound than small built-in speakers. The sound was further enhanced by rotating speaker units, usually manufactured by Leslie
11.
Laurens Hammond
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Laurens Hammond, was an American engineer and inventor. His inventions include, most famously, the Hammond organ, the Hammond Clock, and the worlds first polyphonic musical synthesizer, Laurens Hammond was born in Evanston, Illinois, to William Andrew and Idea Louise Strong Hammond. Laurens showed his technical prowess from an early age. His father, William, took his own life in 1898, ostensibly due to the pressures of running the First National Bank, upon her husbands death, Idea, who was an artist, relocated to France with Laurens to further her studies. It was during their stay in France that Laurens began developing many of his early inventions, when the family returned to Evanston, Laurens, then 14, was as fluent in French and German as he was in his native tongue. By this time, he had designed a system for automatic transmission for automobiles. At his mothers suggestion, he submitted his designs to engineers at French automaker Renault, Hammond studied mechanical engineering at Cornell University, and was a member of the Delta Upsilon fraternity. He graduated with honors in 1916, following this, Hammond moved to Detroit, where he was fortunate to occupy the post of chief engineer for the Gray Motor Company, a manufacturer of marine engines. A partner in the company, Col. John H. Poole, with whom Hammond had served in France, knew of his engineering skills, in 1919, Hammond invented a silent spring-driven clock. This invention brought him money to leave Gray Motor Company. In 1922, Hammond invented the Teleview system of shutter glasses in association with 3-D films, one feature was made for the system, a film called Radio-Mania. Hammond premiered his show at the Selwyn Theatre in New York in December 1922 to critical acclaim, in 1928, Hammond founded the Hammond Clock Company, after designing a synchronous clock motor that was inspired by Henry Warrens Telechrons, but was not self-starting. These clocks were still popular in Britain in the 1960s, because they would not display a false time, the British generating stations also corrected the number of cycles at the end of the day so that Hammond clocks would be accurate. In 1933, he bought a piano, and proceeded to discard everything apart from the keyboard action. Using the keyboard as a controller, he was able to experiment with various sound-generating methods until he found the best one—the tonewheel generator. The companys assistant treasurer, W. L. Lahey, was the organist at the nearby St. Christophers Episcopal Church, thanks to Hammonds prior manufacturing and engineering experience, the tonewheel generator was extremely well-engineered by the time the organ finally went into production. The number of tonewheel organs still in use in the twenty-first century is a testament to the quality of the design. Hammond filed his patent application on January 19,1934, at that time, unemployment was a major problem due to the Great Depression, and with this in mind, the Patent Office rushed to grant Hammonds application, with the hope of creating jobs in the area
12.
Audio power amplifier
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This includes both amplifiers used in home audio systems and musical instrument amplifiers like guitar amplifiers. It is the electronic stage in a typical audio playback chain before the signal is sent to the loudspeakers. The inputs can also be any number of sources like record players, CD players, digital audio players. Most audio power amplifiers require these low-level inputs, which are line level, the audio amplifier was invented in 1909 by Lee De Forest when he invented the triode vacuum tube. The triode was a three terminal device with a grid that can modulate the flow of electrons from the filament to the plate. The triode vacuum amplifier was used to make the first AM radio, early audio power amplifiers were based on vacuum tubes and some of these achieved notably high audio quality. Audio power amplifiers based on transistors became practical with the availability of inexpensive transistors in the late 1960s. Since the 1970s, most modern audio amplifiers are based on solid state devices, transistor-based amplifiers are lighter in weight, more reliable and require less maintenance than tube amplifiers. In the 2010s, there are still audio enthusiasts, musicians, audio engineers and music producers who prefer tube-based amplifiers, key design parameters for audio power amplifiers are frequency response, gain, noise, and distortion. These are interdependent, increasing gain often leads to increases in noise. While negative feedback reduces the gain, it also reduces distortion. Most audio amplifiers are linear amplifiers operating in class AB, until the 1970s, most amplifiers were tube amplifiers which used vacuum tubes. During the 1970s, tube amps were increasingly replaced with transistor-based amplifiers, which were lighter in weight, more reliable, one alternative to a separate preamp is to simply use passive volume and switching controls, sometimes integrated into a power amplifier to form an integrated amplifier. The final stage of amplification, after preamplifiers, is the output stage, for this reason, the design choices made around the output device or devices, such as the Class of operation of the output devices is often taken as the description of the whole power amplifier. For example, a Class B amplifier will probably have just the power output devices operating cut off for half of each cycle, while the other devices operate in Class A. In a transformerless output stage, the devices are essentially in series with the supply and output load. For some years following the introduction of solid state amplifiers, their perceived sound did not have the excellent audio quality of the best valve amplifiers and this led audiophiles to believe that tube sound or valve sound had an intrinsic quality due to the vacuum tube technology itself. In 1970, Matti Otala published a paper on the origin of a previously unobserved form of distortion, transient intermodulation distortion, TIM distortion was found to occur during very rapid increases in amplifier output voltage
13.
Loudspeaker enclosure
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As such, a loudspeaker cannot be used without installing it in a cabinet of some type, or mounting it into a wall or ceiling. The enclosure also plays a role in managing vibration induced by the frame and moving airmass within the enclosure, as well as heat generated by driver voice coils. Sometimes considered part of the enclosure, the base, may include specially designed feet to decouple the speaker from the floor, enclosures designed for use in PA systems, sound reinforcement systems and for use by electric musical instrument players. Speaker enclosures are used in homes in stereo systems, home cinema systems, televisions, boom boxes, small speaker enclosures are used in car stereo systems. Speaker cabinets are key components of a number of applications, including sound reinforcement systems, movie theatre sound systems. Electric musical instruments invented in the 20th century, such as the guitar, electric bass and synthesizer, among others, are amplified using instrument amplifiers. Early on, radio loudspeakers consisted of horns, often separately from the radio itself. When paper cone loudspeaker drivers were introduced in the mid 1920s and these cabinets were made largely for the sake of appearance, with the loudspeaker simply mounted behind a round hole in the cabinet. It was observed that the enclosure had an effect on the bass response of the speaker. This results in a loss of bass and comb filtering, before the 1950s many manufacturers did not fully enclose their loudspeaker cabinets, the back of the cabinet was typically left open. This was done for reasons, not least because electronics could be placed inside. In some respects, the mounting for a low-frequency loudspeaker driver would be a rigid flat panel of infinite size with infinite space behind it. This would entirely prevent the sound waves from interfering with the sound waves from the front. An open baffle loudspeaker is an approximation of this, since the driver is mounted on a panel, a speaker driver mounted on a finite baffle will display a physical phenomenon known as interference which can result in a perceivable frequency-dependent sound attenuation. This phenomenon is particularly noticeable at low frequencies where the wavelengths are large enough that interference will affect the entire listening area, the box is typically made of wood, wood composite, or more recently plastic, for reasons of ease of construction and appearance. Stone, concrete, plaster, and even building structures have also been used, wharfedale, in some designs, reduced panel resonance by using two wooden cabinets with the space between filled with sand. Home experimenters have even designed speakers built from concrete, granite, many diffraction problems, above the lower frequencies, can be alleviated by the shape of the enclosure, such as by avoiding sharp corners on the front of the enclosure. Research experiments from the 1930s by Dr. Harry F. Olson showed that curved loudspeaker baffles reduce some response deviations due to sound wave diffraction and it was discovered later that careful placement of a speaker on a sharp-edged baffle can reduce diffraction-caused response problems
14.
Church (building)
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A church building, often simply called a church, is a building used for Christian religious activities, particularly worship services. The term in its sense is most often used by Christians to refer to their religious buildings. In traditional Christian architecture, the church is arranged in the shape of a Christian cross. When viewed from plan view the longest part of a cross is represented by the aisle, towers or domes are often added with the intention of directing the eye of the viewer towards the heavens and inspiring church visitors. The earliest identified Christian church was a church founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, a cathedral is a church, usually Roman Catholic, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Orthodox, housing the seat of a bishop. In standard Greek usage, the word ecclesia was retained to signify both a specific edifice of Christian worship, and the overall community of the faithful. This usage was retained in Latin and the languages derived from Latin, as well as in the Celtic languages. In the Germanic and some Slavic languages, the word kyriak-ós/-ē/-ón was adopted instead, in Old English the sequence of derivation started as cirice, then churche, and eventually church in its current pronunciation. German Kirche, Scottish kirk, Russian церковь, etc. are all similarly derived, according to the New Testament, the earliest Christians did not build church buildings. Instead, they gathered in homes or in Jewish worship places like the Second Temple or synagogues, the earliest archeologically identified Christian church is a house church, the Dura-Europos church, founded between 233 and 256. During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals, in addition to being a place of worship, the cathedral or parish church was used by the community in other ways. It could serve as a place for guilds or a hall for banquets. Mystery plays were performed in cathedrals, and cathedrals might also be used for fairs. The church could be used as a place to thresh and store grain, a common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross. These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the west end of the church or over the crossing. The Latin word basilica was used to describe a Roman public building
15.
Pipe organ
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The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air through organ pipes selected via a keyboard. Because each pipe produces a pitch, the pipes are provided in sets called ranks, each of which has a common timbre. Most organs have multiple ranks of pipes of differing timbre, pitch, a pipe organ has one or more keyboards played by the hands, and a pedalboard played by the feet, each keyboard has its own group of stops. The keyboard, pedalboard, and stops are housed in the organs console, the smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual, the largest may have over 20,000 pipes and seven manuals. A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs. The origins of the organ can be traced back to the water organ in Ancient Greece, in the 3rd century BC. By the 6th or 7th century AD, bellows were used to supply organs with wind, beginning in the 12th century, the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres. A pipe organ with great leaden pipes was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, in 757. Pepins son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, by the 17th century, most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed. From that time, the organ was the most complex man-made device - a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century. Pipe organs are installed in churches, synagogues, concert halls, schools and they are used in the performance of classical music, sacred music, secular music, and popular music. The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls, the organ boasts a substantial repertoire, which spans over 500 years. The organ is one of the oldest instruments used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece. Its earliest predecessors were built in Ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC. The word organ is derived from the Greek όργανον, a term for an instrument or a tool, via the Latin organum. The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC and he devised an instrument called the hydraulis, which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes. The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire, the 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih, in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the urghun as one of the typical instruments of the Eastern Roman Empire. It was often used in the Hippodrome in the capital of Constantinople
16.
Piano
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The piano is an acoustic, stringed musical instrument invented around the year 1700, in which the strings are struck by hammers. It is played using a keyboard, which is a row of keys that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands to cause the hammers to strike the strings. The word piano is a form of pianoforte, the Italian term for the early 1700s versions of the instrument. The first fortepianos in the 1700s had a sound and smaller dynamic range. An acoustic piano usually has a wooden case surrounding the soundboard and metal strings. Pressing one or more keys on the keyboard causes a padded hammer to strike the strings. The hammer rebounds from the strings, and the continue to vibrate at their resonant frequency. These vibrations are transmitted through a bridge to a soundboard that amplifies by more efficiently coupling the acoustic energy to the air, when the key is released, a damper stops the strings vibration, ending the sound. Notes can be sustained, even when the keys are released by the fingers and thumbs and this means that the piano can play 88 different pitches, going from the deepest bass range to the highest treble. The black keys are for the accidentals, which are needed to play in all twelve keys, more rarely, some pianos have additional keys. Most notes have three strings, except for the bass that graduates from one to two, the strings are sounded when keys are pressed or struck, and silenced by dampers when the hands are lifted from the keyboard. There are two types of piano, the grand piano and the upright piano. The grand piano is used for Classical solos, chamber music and art song and it is used in jazz. The upright piano, which is compact, is the most popular type, as they are a better size for use in private homes for domestic music-making. During the nineteenth century, music publishers produced many works in arrangements for piano, so that music lovers could play. The piano is widely employed in classical, jazz, traditional and popular music for solo and ensemble performances, accompaniment, with technological advances, amplified electric pianos, electronic pianos, and digital pianos have also been developed. The electric piano became an instrument in the 1960s and 1970s genres of jazz fusion, funk music. The piano was founded on earlier technological innovations in keyboard instruments, pipe organs have been used since Antiquity, and as such, the development of pipe organs enabled instrument builders to learn about creating keyboard mechanisms for sounding pitches
17.
Jazz
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Jazz is a music genre that originated amongst African Americans in New Orleans, United States, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in Blues and Ragtime. Since the 1920s jazz age, jazz has become recognized as a form of musical expression. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms, Jazz has roots in West African cultural and musical expression, and in African-American music traditions including blues and ragtime, as well as European military band music. Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the Black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience, intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as one of Americas original art forms. As jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz, bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging musicians music which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments. In the early 1980s, a form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as Latin, the question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a term dating back to 1860 meaning pep. The use of the word in a context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune. Its first documented use in a context in New Orleans was in a November 14,1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands. In an interview with NPR, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying, When Broadway picked it up. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, the American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century. Jazz has proved to be difficult to define, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, in the opinion of Robert Christgau, most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz. As Duke Ellington, one of jazzs most famous figures, said, although jazz is considered highly difficult to define, at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements
18.
Organ trio
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An organ trio, in a jazz context, is a group of three jazz musicians, typically consisting of a Hammond organ player, a drummer, and either a jazz guitarist or a saxophone player. In some cases the saxophonist will join a trio which consists of an organist, guitarist, Organ trios were a popular type of jazz ensemble for club and bar settings in the 1950s and 1960s, performing a blues-based style of jazz that incorporated elements of R&B. The organ trio format was characterized by long improvised solos and an exploration of different musical moods, in organ trios, the Hammond organist plays several roles, including playing the basslines, playing chords, and playing lead melodic lines and solos. In organ trios with a guitarist, the guitarist usually fills in the parts that the organist is not performing. For example, if the organist is soloing and playing a bassline, Organ trios of the 1950s and 1960s often played soul jazz, a groove-infused style that incorporated blues, gospel and rhythm and blues. 1970s-era organ trios such as Tony Williams band Lifetime played jazz-rock fusion, in the 1990s and 2000s, organ trios such as Medeski, Martin and Wood and Soulive became involved in the burgeoning jamband scene. In the 1950s and 1960s, the trio became a common musical ensemble in bars and taverns in the US. While bar owners liked this aspect of the organ trio. According to Tom Vicker, the. most famous of the early grinders was Philadelphias Bill Doggett, the next organists to come along were Hank Marr, Dave Baby Cortez, Jimmy McGriff, and then the bossest organ swinger yet, Jimmy Smith. After Smiths death in 2005, Variety magazine writer Phil Gallo eulogized Smith as a man who ingle-handedly reinvented the Hammond B3 organ for jazz, Hammond organ players such as Jimmy Smith and Jack McDuff often performed and recorded in organ trios. Guitarist Grant Green performed a blend of jazz, funk, and boogaloo, collaborating frequently with organists Big John Patton, Jack McDuff, and Earl Neal Creque and with drummer Idris Muhammad. In the late 1960s, as jazz musicians began to explore the new genre of jazz-rock fusion, ventured into more remote territory, expanding the harmonic palette of the organ trio form. Young pioneered a new approach to playing the Hammond B3, synthesizers allowed musicians to make new electronic sounds that were not possible on the electromechanical Hammond organs. Veteran Hammond players such as Emerson and Charles Earland began using synthesizers to update their sound to the styles of the late 1970s. There were a number of well-known organ trios during the 1970s. John Abercrombie had an organ trio with Jan Hammer on Hammond and Moog bass. Tony Williams fusion band Lifetime, which lasted from 1969 to 1975, was a trio with John McLaughlin on guitar. Lifetime was a band of the fusion movement, combining rock, R&B
19.
Big band
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A big band is a type of musical ensemble associated with playing jazz music and which became popular during the Swing Era from the early 1930s until the late 1940s. Big Bands evolved with the times and continue to this day, a big band typically consists of approximately 12 to 25 musicians and contains saxophones, trumpets, trombones, and a rhythm section. The terms jazz band, jazz ensemble, stage band, jazz orchestra and this does not, however, mean that each one of these names is technically correct for naming a big band specifically. The music is traditionally called charts, improvised solos may be played only when called for by the arranger. There are two periods in the history of popular bands. Beginning in the mid-1920s, big bands, then consisting of 10–25 pieces. At that time they played a form of jazz that involved very little improvisation, which included a string section with violins. A few bands also had violas and cellos, usually one or two along with them, the dance form of jazz was characterized by a sweet and romantic melody. Orchestras tended to stick to the melody as it was written and vocals would be sung, many of these artists changed styles or retired after the introduction of swing music. Although unashamedly commercial, these bands often featured front-rank jazz musicians - for example Paul Whiteman employed Bix Beiderbecke, there were also all-girl bands such as Helen Lewis and Her All-Girl Jazz Syncopators. Towards the end of the 1920s, a new form of Big Band emerged which was more authentically jazz and this form of music never gained the popularity of the sweet dance form of jazz. The few recordings made in form of jazz were labelled race records and were intended for a limited urban audience. Few white musicians were familiar with music, Johnny Mercer. The three major centres in this development were New York City, Chicago and Kansas City, some big ensembles, like the Joe King Oliver outfit played a kind of half arranged, half improvised jazz, often relying on head arrangements. Other great bands, like the one of Luis Russell became a vehicle for star instrumentalists, there the whole arrangement had to promote all the possibilities of the star, although they often contained very good musicians, like Henry Red Allen, J. C. Earl Hines became the star of Chicago with his Grand Terrace Cafe band, meanwhile, in Kansas City and across the Southwest, an earthier, bluesier style was developed by such bandleaders as Benny Moten and, later, by Jay McShann and Jesse Stone. Radio was a factor in gaining notice and fame for Benny Goodman. Soon, others challenged him, and the battles of the bands became a staple at theater performances featuring many groups on one bill
20.
Jimmy Smith (musician)
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James Oscar Jimmy Smith was an American jazz musician who achieved the rare distinction of releasing a series of instrumental jazz albums that often charted on Billboard. Smith helped popularize the Hammond B-3 electric organ, creating a link between 1960s soul and jazz improvisation. In 2005, Smith was awarded the NEA Jazz Masters Award from the National Endowment for the Arts, there is confusion about Smiths birth year, with various sources citing either 1925 or 1928. Born James Oscar Smith in Norristown, Pennsylvania, at the age of six he joined his father doing a routine in clubs. He began teaching himself to play the piano, when he was nine, Smith won a Philadelphia radio talent contest as a boogie-woogie pianist. After a stint in the navy, he began furthering his education in 1948, with a year at Royal Hamilton College of Music. He began exploring the Hammond organ in 1951, from 1951 to 1954 he played piano, then organ in Philly R&B bands like Don Gardner and the Sonotones. He switched to organ permanently in 1954 after hearing Wild Bill Davis and he purchased his first Hammond organ, rented a warehouse to practice in and emerged after little more than a year. Upon hearing him playing in a Philadelphia club, Blue Notes Alfred Lion immediately signed him to the label and his album, The Champ. He was a recording artist and, as a leader, dubbed The Incredible Jimmy Smith. Albums from this period include The Sermon, house Party, Home Cookin, Midnight Special, Back at the Chicken Shack and Prayer Meetin. Smith signed to the Verve label in 1962 and his first album, Bashin, sold well and for the first time set Smith with a big band, led by Oliver Nelson. Other notable albums from this period include Blue Bash and Organ Grinder Swing with Kenny Burrell, The Boss with George Benson, got My Mojo Working, and Root Down. The Jimmy Smith Trio performed When Johnny Comes Marching Home and The Sermon in the 1964 film Get Yourself a College Girl, phillips on saxophone, also included in the band was harmonica/flute player Stanley Behrens. The 1972 album Root Down, considered an influence on later generations of funk and hip-hop musicians, was recorded live at the club. Holle Thee Maxwell, then known as Holly Maxwell, was Smiths vocalist for two years in the late 1970s, during a South African tour, they recorded the album, Jimmy Smith Plays For The People in 1978. Smith had a revival in the 1980s and 1990s, again recording for Blue Note and Verve. Smith also recorded other artists including Quincy Jones, Frank Sinatra, Michael Jackson, Dee Dee Bridgewater
21.
Rhythm and blues
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Rhythm and blues, often abbreviated as R&B or RnB, is a genre of popular African-American music that originated in the 1940s. In the commercial rhythm and blues music typical of the 1950s through the 1970s, R&B lyrical themes often encapsulate the African-American experience of pain and the quest for freedom and joy. Lyrics focus heavily on the themes of triumphs and failures in terms of relationships, freedom, economics, aspirations, the term rhythm and blues has undergone a number of shifts in meaning. In the early 1950s it was applied to blues records. This tangent of RnB is now known as British rhythm and blues, by the 1970s, the term rhythm and blues changed again and was used as a blanket term for soul and funk. In the 1980s, a style of R&B developed, becoming known as Contemporary R&B. It combines elements of rhythm and blues, soul, funk, pop, hip hop, popular R&B vocalists at the end of the 20th century included Michael Jackson, R. Kelly, Stevie Wonder, Whitney Houston, and Mariah Carey. Although Jerry Wexler of Billboard magazine is credited with coining the term rhythm and blues as a term in the United States in 1948. It replaced the term race music, which came from within the black community. The term rhythm and blues was used by Billboard in its chart listings from June 1949 until August 1969, before the Rhythm and Blues name was instated, various record companies had already begun replacing the term race music with sepia series. In 2010 LaMont Robinson founded the Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame Museum, writer and producer Robert Palmer defined rhythm & blues as a catchall term referring to any music that was made by and for black Americans. He has used the term R&B as a synonym for jump blues, however, AllMusic separates it from jump blues because of its stronger, gospel-esque backbeat. Lawrence Cohn, author of Nothing but the Blues, writes that rhythm, according to him, the term embraced all black music except classical music and religious music, unless a gospel song sold enough to break into the charts. Well into the 21st century, the term R&B continues in use to music made by black musicians. In the commercial rhythm and blues music typical of the 1950s through the 1970s, arrangements were rehearsed to the point of effortlessness and were sometimes accompanied by background vocalists. Simple repetitive parts mesh, creating momentum and rhythmic interplay producing mellow, lilting, while singers are emotionally engaged with the lyrics, often intensely so, they remain cool, relaxed, and in control. The bands dressed in suits, and even uniforms, an associated with the modern popular music that rhythm. Lyrics often seemed fatalistic, and the music typically followed predictable patterns of chords, there was also increasing emphasis on the electric guitar as a lead instrument, as well as the piano and saxophone
22.
Rock music
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It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by blues, rhythm and blues and country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of genres such as electric blues and folk. Musically, rock has centered on the guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass guitar. Typically, rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse-chorus form, like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political in emphasis. Punk was an influence into the 1980s on the subsequent development of subgenres, including new wave, post-punk. From the 1990s alternative rock began to rock music and break through into the mainstream in the form of grunge, Britpop. Similarly, 1970s punk culture spawned the visually distinctive goth and emo subcultures and this trio of instruments has often been complemented by the inclusion of other instruments, particularly keyboards such as the piano, Hammond organ and synthesizers. The basic rock instrumentation was adapted from the blues band instrumentation. A group of musicians performing rock music is termed a rock band or rock group, Rock music is traditionally built on a foundation of simple unsyncopated rhythms in a 4/4 meter, with a repetitive snare drum back beat on beats two and four. Melodies are often derived from older musical modes, including the Dorian and Mixolydian, harmonies range from the common triad to parallel fourths and fifths and dissonant harmonic progressions. Critics have stressed the eclecticism and stylistic diversity of rock, because of its complex history and tendency to borrow from other musical and cultural forms, it has been argued that it is impossible to bind rock music to a rigidly delineated musical definition. These themes were inherited from a variety of sources, including the Tin Pan Alley pop tradition, folk music and rhythm, as a result, it has been seen as articulating the concerns of this group in both style and lyrics. Christgau, writing in 1972, said in spite of some exceptions, rock and roll usually implies an identification of male sexuality, according to Simon Frith rock was something more than pop, something more than rock and roll. Rock musicians combined an emphasis on skill and technique with the concept of art as artistic expression, original. The foundations of music are in rock and roll, which originated in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Its immediate origins lay in a melding of various musical genres of the time, including rhythm and blues and gospel music, with country. In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music for a multi-racial audience, debate surrounds which record should be considered the first rock and roll record. Other artists with rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis
23.
Reggae
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Reggae is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A1968 single by Toots and the Maytals Do the Reggay was the first popular song to use the word reggae, effectively naming the genre, Reggae usually relates news, social gossip, and political comment. Reggae spread into a commercialized jazz field, being known first as ‘Rudie Blues’, then ‘Ska’, later ‘Blue Beat’ and it is instantly recognizable from the counterpoint between the bass and drum downbeat, and the offbeat rhythm section. The immediate origins of reggae were in ska and rock steady, from the latter, stylistically, reggae incorporates some of the musical elements of rhythm and blues, jazz, mento, calypso, African music, as well as other genres. One of the most easily recognizable elements is offbeat rhythms, staccato chords played by a guitar or piano on the offbeats of the measure, the tempo of reggae is usually slower than ska but faster than rocksteady. The concept of call and response can be found throughout reggae music, the genre of reggae music is led by the drum and bass. The bass guitar often plays the dominant role in reggae, the bass sound in reggae is thick and heavy, and equalized so the upper frequencies are removed and the lower frequencies emphasized. The guitar in reggae usually plays on the off beat of the rhythm and it is common for reggae to be sung in Jamaican Patois, Jamaican English, and Iyaric dialects. Reggae is noted for its tradition of criticism and religion in its lyrics, although many reggae songs discuss lighter, more personal subjects, such as love. Reggae has spread to countries across the world, often incorporating local instruments. Reggae en Español spread from the mainland South America countries of Venezuela, Caribbean music in the United Kingdom, including reggae, has been popular since the late 1960s, and has evolved into several subgenres and fusions. Many reggae artists began their careers in the UK, and there have been a number of European artists and bands drawing their inspiration directly from Jamaica, Reggae in Africa was boosted by the visit of Bob Marley to Zimbabwe in 1980. In Jamaica, authentic reggae is one of the biggest sources of income, the 1967 edition of the Dictionary of Jamaican English lists reggae as a recently estab. Sp. for rege, as in rege-rege, a word that can mean either rags, ragged clothing or a quarrel, a row. Reggae as a term first appeared in print with the 1968 rocksteady hit Do the Reggay by The Maytals which named the genre of Reggae for the world. Reggae historian Steve Barrow credits Clancy Eccles with altering the Jamaican patois word streggae into reggae, however, Toots Hibbert said, Theres a word we used to use in Jamaica called streggae. If a girl is walking and the look at her and say Man, shes streggae it means she dont dress well
24.
Progressive rock
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Progressive rock is a broad subgenre of rock music that developed in the United Kingdom and United States throughout the mid to late 1960s. Prog is based on fusions of styles, approaches and genres, Prog saw a high level of popularity in the early-to-mid 1970s, but faded soon after. Conventional wisdom holds that the rise of rock caused this. Music critics, who labelled the concepts as pretentious and the sounds as pompous and overblown. Early groups who exhibited progressive features are described as proto-prog. In 1967, progressive rock constituted a diversity of loosely associated style codes, the Canterbury scene, originating in the late 1960s, denoted a subset of prog bands who emphasised the use of wind instruments, complex chord changes and long improvisations. Rock in Opposition, from the late 1970s, was more avant-garde, in the 1980s, a new subgenre, neo-progressive rock, enjoyed some commercial success, although it was also accused of being derivative and lacking in innovation. Post-progressive draws upon newer developments in music and the avant-garde since the mid 1970s. The term progressive rock is synonymous with art rock, classical rock, historically, art rock has been used to describe at least two related, but distinct, types of rock music. Similarities between the two terms are that they describe a mostly British attempt to elevate rock music to new levels of artistic credibility. However, art rock is likely to have experimental or avant-garde influences. Prog was devised in the 1990s as a term, but later became a transferable adjective. Although a unidirectional English progressive style emerged in the late 1960s, by 1967, critics of the genre often limit its scope to a stereotype of long solos, overlong albums, fantasy lyrics, grandiose stage sets and costumes, and an obsessive dedication to technical skill. Author Kevin Holm-Hudson believes that rock is a style far more diverse than what is heard from its mainstream groups. They each do so largely unconsciously, academic John S. Cotner contests Macans view that progressive rock cannot exist without the continuous and overt assimilation of classical music into rock. Debate about the criteria and scope of the genre continues in the 2010s. In early references to the music, progressive was partly related to progressive politics, Cotner also says that progressive rock incorporates both formal and eclectic elements, It consists of a combination of factors – some of them intramusical, others extramusical or social. One way of conceptualising rock and roll in relation to music is that progressive music pushed the genre into greater complexity while retracing the roots of romantic
25.
Integrated circuit
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An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece of semiconductor material, normally silicon. The ICs mass production capability, reliability and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of using discrete transistors. ICs are now used in all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the small size. These advances, roughly following Moores law, allow a computer chip of 2016 to have millions of times the capacity, ICs have two main advantages over discrete circuits, cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time, furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the ICs components switch quickly and consume little power because of their small size, the main disadvantage of ICs is the high cost to design them and fabricate the required photomasks. This high initial cost means ICs are only practical when high production volumes are anticipated, Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies, including thin-film transistor, thick film technology, or hybrid integrated circuit. However, in general usage integrated circuit has come to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally known as a integrated circuit. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent, an immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported. The idea of the circuit was conceived by Geoffrey Dummer. Dummer presented the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington and he gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas, and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares, Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, however, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design, the IC. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as a body of semiconductor material … wherein all the components of the circuit are completely integrated. The first customer for the new invention was the US Air Force, Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit. His work was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009, half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor developed his own idea of an integrated circuit that solved many practical problems Kilbys had not. Noyces design was made of silicon, whereas Kilbys chip was made of germanium, Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p–n junction isolation, a key concept behind the IC
26.
Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation
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The Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation is a Japanese company that produces a range of musical instruments. Suzuki was founded in 1953 by Mr. Manji Suzuki, initially the company manufactured Harmonicas and later developed the Melodion which in 1956 was officially adopted by the Japanese Ministry of Education for use in schools. Authorised Distribution centers are located in the United Kingdom and in Western U. S and it has expanded to include a variety of instruments including pianos and band instruments, and purely electronic instruments such as the Tronichord, Omnichord, and QChord Digital Soundcard Guitar. In 1991 Suzuki bought the Hammond Organ Co. which is now known as Hammond Suzuki, Interview with Chairman, Manji Suzuki NAMM Oral History Library Interview with President, Fujio Suzuki NAMM Oral History Library
27.
Korg
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Korg Inc. is a Japanese multinational corporation that manufactures electronic musical instruments, audio processors and guitar pedals, recording equipment, and electronic tuners. Under the Vox brand name, they also manufacture guitar amplifiers, Korg was founded in 1962 in Japan by Tsutomu Katoh and Tadashi Osanai as Keio Gijutsu Kenkyujo Ltd. It later became Keio Electronic Laboratories because its fledgling offices were located near the Keio train line in Tokyo and Keio can be formed by combining the first letters of Katoh, before founding the company, Katoh ran a nightclub. Osanai, a Tokyo University graduate and noted accordionist, regularly performed at Katohs club accompanied by a Wurlitzer Sideman rhythm machine, unsatisfied with the rhythm machine, Osanai convinced Katoh to finance his efforts to build a better one. The companys first product, released in 1963, was an electro-mechanical rhythm device called the Disc Rotary Electric Auto Rhythm machine Donca matic DA-20, the name Donca was an onomatopoeic reference to the sound the rhythm machine made. Buoyed by the success of the DA-20, Keio released a version of the Rhythm machine. In 1967, Katoh was approached by Fumio Mieda, an engineer who wanted to build keyboards, impressed with Miedas enthusiasm, Katoh asked him to build a prototype and 18 months later Mieda returned with a programmable organ. Keio sold the organ under the name KORG, created by using the first letter of each founders name plus RG from their planned emphasis on products targeted for the organ market, keios first synthesizer, the miniKORG, was thus released in 1973. During the 1970s, Korgs synthesizer line was divided into instruments for the hobbyist, in the early 80s, Korg branched out into the digital piano category. Korg is credited with a number of innovations and landmark products, the key transpose function was Katohs idea after a singer at his club needed her accompaniment played in a lower key, which the accompanist wasnt accomplished enough to do. Korg was the first company to feature effects on a synthesizer, the M1 workstation, released in 1988, sold over 250,000 units, making it the bestselling synthesizer ever at that time. In 1989, Korg recruited the team from Sequential Circuits just as they were relieved of their duties by then-Sequential owner Yamaha. Yamaha Corporation has always been a partner of Korg, supplying them with circuitry. In 1987, shortly before the release of the M1 Music Workstation, the takeover of the company was amicable, with Katoh drawing up the terms, and the two companies continued to independently develop their product lines and compete in the marketplace. After 5 very successful years, Katoh had enough money to rebuy most of the Yamaha share back in 1993, Korg has since diversified into digital effects, tuners, recording equipment, electronic hand percussion, and software instruments. In 1992, Korg acquired Vox, then primarily a manufacturer of guitar amplifiers, Korg was also the exclusive distributor of Marshall Amplification product in the United States for decades, with this distribution arrangement ending in 2010. Tsutomo Katoh died of cancer on March 15,2011, category, Korg synthesizers Electronic tuner Korg Museum. Audio interview with Mitch Colby - EVP / CMO of Korg USA Korg - Review NAMM Oral History Interview Tsutomu Katoh discusses his favorite of his many musical products, the tuner
28.
Roland Corporation
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The Roland Corporation is a Japanese manufacturer of electronic musical instruments, electronic equipment and software. It was founded by Ikutaro Kakehashi in Osaka on April 18,1972, in 2005, Rolands headquarters relocated to Hamamatsu in Shizuoka Prefecture. Today it has factories in Italy, Taiwan, Japan, as of March 31,2010, it employed 2,699 employees. It has existed in different forms since 1960, making it relatively old among still-operating manufacturers of musical electronics, known for hundreds of popular synthesizers, drum machines, and other instruments, Roland has been one of the top names in professional music equipment since the late 1970s. In 2014, Roland Corporation was subject to a management buyout by Rolands CEO Junichi Miki, Kakehashi founded Ace Electronic Industries in 1960, a manufacturer of numerous combo organs, guitar amplifiers, and effects pedals. He was also contracted by Hammond to produce machines for the companys line of home organs. In 1973, Kakehashi cut ties with companies to found Roland. As with many Japanese start-ups of the period, the name Roland was selected for export purposes as Kakehashi was interested in a name that was easy to pronounce for his worldwide target markets. Rumour has long circulated that he named his company after the French epic poem La Chanson de Roland, in reality, the name Roland was found in a telephone directory. Kakehashi opted for it as he was satisfied with the simple two-syllable word, the letter R was chosen because it was not used by many other music equipment companies, and would therefore stand out in trade show directories and industry listings. Kakehashi did not learn of The Song Of Roland until later, Roland markets products under a number of brand names, each of which are used on products geared toward a different niche. The Roland brand is used on a range of products including synthesizers, digital pianos, electronic drum systems, dance/DJ gear, guitar synthesizers, amplifiers. BOSS is a used for products geared toward guitar players and is used for guitar pedals, effects units, rhythm and accompaniment machines. Edirol was a line of professional video-editing and video-presentation systems, as well as digital audio recorders. Edirol also had Desktop Media products, more production-oriented, and included computer audio interfaces, mixers, Roland Systems Group is a line of professional commercial audio and video products. Rodgers was founded in 1958 as a company and survives today as a subsidiary of Roland, still manufacturing high-quality electric, electronic. Cakewalk music software company is a partner of Roland’s. In January 2008, Roland announced the purchase of controlling interest in the company, in 2013, ownership of Cakewalk passed from Roland to Gibson Guitar Corporation
29.
Clavia
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In 1984 an improved version that could play four sounds from an EPROM was released under the ddrum name with the now signature red coloring. The same year a system was released with several sound modules in a rack. The pads used to trigger the sounds were unusual for the time, since they used real drum heads and this, together with a separate trigger for the snare drums rim, made for a more realistic playing experience. The ddrum brand and products were sold in 2005 to their US distributor Armadillo who continues to manufacture products under the name. In 1995, Clavia released the Nord Lead, called a magic piece of electronics by Sound on Sound it popularized the virtual analog type of synthesis. In 1997 the Nord Lead 2 was released, with many improvements, the Nord Lead 3 was released in 2001, with a reworked sound engine, better D/A converters and monophonic aftertouch. The rotary knobs, LED collars and keyboard with aftertouch made the Nord Lead 3 an absolute delight but because of its higher price, the Nord Lead 3 was discontinued in 2007, but the Nord Lead 2x remains in production. In 1997 Clavia released the Nord Modular, an analog modular synthesizer. Called a landmark in synthesis it allowed you to build your own virtual analog synthesizer. It too was upgraded with the 2004 release of the Nord Modular G2, that gave it the same endless rotary knobs as the Nord Lead 3. In 2001 the Nord Electro was released and it was designed to emulate the classical electromechanical keyboards like Hammond organ, electric piano and Hohner Clavinet. The pianos are samples but the organs are modeled using a digital simulation
30.
Clonewheel organ
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Clonewheel organ is a jargon term used to refer to an electronic musical instrument that emulates the sound of the electromechanical tonewheel-based organs formerly manufactured by Hammond. The phrase clonewheel is a pun on the used to describe how the original Hammond produces sound. The first generation of clonewheel organs used synthesizer voices, which were not able to reproduce the Hammond sound. In the 1990s and 2000s, clonewheel organs began using sampling or digital signal processing techniques, to use keyboardless emulation devices, they need to be connected to a MIDI-enabled keyboard. The Hammond organ is an organ that was designed and built by Laurens Hammond in 1934. While the Hammond organ was sold to churches as a lower-cost alternative to the pipe organ, it came to be used for jazz, blues. The original Hammond organ imitated the function of a pipe organs ranks of pipes in multiple registers by using additive synthesis of waveforms from harmonic series to generate its sounds, the Hammond organs individual waveforms were made by mechanical tonewheels which rotated beneath electromagnetic pickups. The component waveforms can be mixed in varying ratios by using drawbars mounted above the two keyboards, Hammond organs also have a harmonic percussion effect, in which the 2nd and 3rd harmonic tones can be added to the attack envelope of a note. Hammond organs have a distinctive percussive key click, which is the transient that occurs when all nine key contacts close. Originally, key click was considered to be a design defect, however, some performers liked the percussive effect, and it has become part of the classic sound that modern imitators of the Hammond organ have tried to reproduce. The classic way of enhancing the sound of a Hammond organ is to use a rotating speaker known as a Leslie speaker or cabinet. Transporting the heavy Hammond organ, bass pedalboard and Leslie speaker cabinets to performance venues makes it cumbersome for artists to tour with a vintage electromechanical organ. As such, there was a strong demand amongst musicians for a way of recreating the Hammond sound in a portable, reliable fashion. Hammond Suzuki USA currently markets numerous home, church, and professional models that reproduce the sound of vintage Hammond tonewheel organs. In between are numerous keyboard-based models from Hammond, Korg, Roland, Clavia, rack-mounted modules, there is even a model by the Pari. E company which uses a modern version of the classic Hammond tonewheels, not a digital simulation. The use of Hammond clones and the merits of using clones versus the vintage electromechanical Hammond is the subject of debate amongst musicians. The argument that digital simulations cannot recreate the complex interplay of variables that create the Hammond sound is supported by a review of clones in Keyboard Magazine, Hammond organ Organ trio History & References
31.
Native Instruments
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Native Instruments is a German technology company that develops software and hardware for music production and DJing. The company was known for their software instruments, but has also expanded its product line to include various other music equipment segments in recent years. Native Instruments was founded in 1996 in the Kreuzberg district of Berlin, Germany and it also has branches in Los Angeles, Tokyo, Shenzhen and London. The company also holds a partnership with the music store Beatport
32.
C (musical note)
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In terms of musical pitch, C or Do is the first note of the fixed-Do solfège scale. When the A440 pitch standard is used to tune a musical instrument, Middle C is designated C4 in scientific pitch notation because of the notes position as the fourth C key from left on a standard 88-key piano keyboard. Another system known as scientific pitch assigns a frequency of 256 Hz but, while numerically convenient, other note-octave systems, including those used by some makers of digital music keyboards, may refer to Middle C differently. In MIDI, Middle C is note number 60, the C4 designation is the most commonly recognized in auditory science, and in musical studies it is often used in place of the Helmholtz designation c. While the expression Middle C is generally clear across instruments and clefs, C4 may be called Low C by someone playing a Western concert flute, which has a higher and narrower playing range than the piano, while C5 would be Middle C. This technically inaccurate practice has led some pedagogues to encourage standardizing on C4 as the definitive Middle C in instructional materials across all instruments, in vocal music, the term Soprano C, sometimes called High C or Top C, is the C two octaves above Middle C. It is so named because it is considered the defining note of the voice type. It is C6 in scientific notation and c in Helmholtz notation. The term Tenor C is sometimes used in music to refer to C5. In organ music, the term Tenor C can refer to an organ builders term for small C or C3, in stoplists it usually means that a rank is not full compass, omitting the bottom octave. For the frequency of each note on a piano, see piano key frequencies. Pythagorean,701.955 ×12 =8423.46 =23.46 = B♯+++ ET,700 ×12 =8400 =0 = B♯ = C1200 ×7 =8400 =0 = C This difference,23.46 cents, is known as the Pythagorean comma. Piano key frequencies A440 C major C minor Root
33.
American Guild of Organists
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The American Guild of Organists, or AGO, is a national organization of academic, church, and concert organists in the U. S. headquartered in The Interchurch Center in New York City. Henry Houseley was a Founder of the American Guild of Organists, the Guild seeks to set and maintain high musical standards and to promote understanding and appreciation of all aspects of organ and choral music. Membership is not limited to professional organists, but is open to anybody with an interest in the organ and organ music, there are approximately 25,000 AGO members in all categories, of whom 18,409 are voting members as of 2009. The AGOs current president is Michael Bedford, elected in 2016, the AGO is geographically divided into nine regions and 330 chapters nationwide. In recent years, the AGO has added international chapters in Bermuda, Australia, Korea, the European chapter is the oldest international chapter, with many members in France and Germany, as well as some in other countries. The leadership of the AGO consists of a National Council, several Regions, the national headquarters are located at 475 Riverside Drive, Suite 1260, in New York, New York, a building commonly known as the The Interchurch Center. The National Council is the governing body of the American Guild of Organists. The four National Officers, three National Councillors with portfolio and nine Regional Councillors are members of the National Council, the Executive Director is a non-voting member of the National Council. All actions of the Executive Committee are subject to ratification by the National Council at its next meeting, the Executive Committee consists of the four National Officers, the three National Councillors with portfolio and the Convener of the Regional Councillors. The Executive Director is a member of the Executive Committee, the National Officers of the Guild consist of a President, a Vice President, a Secretary, a Treasurer who also serves as the Councillor for Finance and Development, and a Chaplain. The Chaplain is a national officer and not a member of the National Council. The Regional Councillors are elected by the members of the Guild assigned to Chapters within each of the seven regions, a Regional Councillor is responsible for supervision and coordination of the work of the Guild in their Region and representation of the Region on the National Council. A Regional Councillor is elected by the members of the Guild assigned to Chapters within each of the nine regions, the Regional Councillor is responsible for supervision and coordination of the work of the Guild in their Region and representation of the Region on the National Council. Appointed District Conveners are responsible for the development of the Guilds interests in state or area located within the Region. The District Convener assists the Regional Councillor in the work of the Region, Michael Bedford is currently president, elected in 2016 to a two-year term succeeding John C. Past presidents elected in the 21st century, and their terms in office, are Eileen Guenther, the organization holds national conventions in even-numbered years and regional conventions in odd-numbered years. The 2010 national convention held in Washington, D. C. on July 4–8, for example, included workshops and concerts at prominent Washington-area churches, with premieres of newly commissioned works. The 2014 national convention, attended by more than 1,700 members, featured several notable venues in the Boston area, the AGO sponsors a number of education programs, including Pipe Organ Encounters, which are intended to introduce youth to the organ and its workings
34.
Octave
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In music, an octave or perfect octave is the interval between one musical pitch and another with half or double its frequency. It is defined by ANSI as the unit of level when the base of the logarithm is two. The octave relationship is a phenomenon that has been referred to as the basic miracle of music. The most important musical scales are written using eight notes. For example, the C major scale is typically written C D E F G A B C, two notes separated by an octave have the same letter name and are of the same pitch class. Three commonly cited examples of melodies featuring the perfect octave as their opening interval are Singin in the Rain, Somewhere Over the Rainbow, the interval between the first and second harmonics of the harmonic series is an octave. The octave has occasionally referred to as a diapason. To emphasize that it is one of the intervals, the octave is designated P8. The octave above or below a note is sometimes abbreviated 8a or 8va, 8va bassa. For example, if one note has a frequency of 440 Hz, the note one octave above is at 880 Hz, the ratio of frequencies of two notes an octave apart is therefore 2,1. Further octaves of a note occur at 2n times the frequency of that note, such as 2,4,8,16, etc. and the reciprocal of that series. For example,55 Hz and 440 Hz are one and two away from 110 Hz because they are 1⁄2 and 4 times the frequency, respectively. After the unison, the octave is the simplest interval in music, the human ear tends to hear both notes as being essentially the same, due to closely related harmonics. Notes separated by a ring together, adding a pleasing sound to music. For this reason, notes an octave apart are given the note name in the Western system of music notation—the name of a note an octave above A is also A. The conceptualization of pitch as having two dimensions, pitch height and pitch class, inherently include octave circularity, thus all C♯s, or all 1s, in any octave are part of the same pitch class. Octave equivalency is a part of most advanced cultures, but is far from universal in primitive. The languages in which the oldest extant written documents on tuning are written, leon Crickmore recently proposed that The octave may not have been thought of as a unit in its own right, but rather by analogy like the first day of a new seven-day week
35.
Manual (music)
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A manual is a musical keyboard designed to be played with the hands, on an instrument such as a pipe organ, harpsichord, clavichord, electronic organ, or synthesizer. The term manual is used with regard to any hand keyboard on these instruments to distinguish it from the pedalboard and it is proper to use manual rather than keyboard, then, when referring to the hand keyboards on any instrument that has a pedalboard. Music written to be played only on the manuals can be designated by manualiter, organs and synthesizers can, and usually do, have more than one manual, most home instruments have two manuals, while most larger organs have two or three. Elaborate pipe and theater organs can have four or more manuals, the manuals are set into the organ console. A typical, full-size organ manual consists of five octaves, or 61 keys, some smaller electronic organs may have manuals of four octaves or less. On smaller electronic organs and synthesizers, the manuals may span fewer octaves and this arrangement encourages the organist to play the melody line on the upper manual as he plays the harmony line or chords on the lower manual. On pipe organs each manual plays a specific subset of the organs stops, synthesizers can program separate manuals to emulate sounds of various orchestral sections or instruments. On such instruments a performer can produce the sounds of an entire orchestra through his or her use of all available manuals in conjunction with the pedalboard, despite the superficial resemblance to piano keyboards, organ manuals require a very different style of playing. Organ keys often require less force to depress than piano keys, when depressed, an organ key continues to sound its note at the same volume until the organist releases the key, unlike a piano key, whose note gradually fades away. Another difference is that of dynamic control, while the piano note, then, can only decay, the organ note may increase in volume or undergo other dynamic changes. All of these mean that both the technique of organ playing and the resulting music are quite different from those of the piano. Nevertheless, the trained pianist may play a basic organ repertoire with little difficulty, although more advanced organ music will require specialized training, theatre pipe organs use the nomenclature Great, Accompaniment, Solo, Bombarde, and Orchestral. Devices known as couplers are available to link the manuals
36.
Action (piano)
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Roughly speaking, a pianos action is light when its keys fall easily under the fingers, and heavy when a noticeable downward thrust is required. The action, in short, is what makes a piano playable or not to an individual musician, the piano action was the key new addition that Bartolomeo Cristofori created when he invented the piano in 1700. Other than in the action, the first pianos were quite similar in construction to contemporary harpsichords, with the piano, a hammer strikes the string, whereas with a harpsichord, a mechanism plucks the string. Cristoforis action already embodied many of the principles found in 2000-era actions. After Cristoforis death in 1731, a number of piano makers built pianos with actions that were copies of Cristoforis. Others produced quite different actions, often simpler and less effective ones, in the 1770s, the Augsburg builder Johann Andreas Stein developed an entirely new action in which the orientation of the hammer was reversed, with the hammer head closer to the player. This Viennese action was used by makers in Vienna, and was the action of pianos played by Haydn, Mozart. It survived in Viennese pianos almost to the end of the 19th century, the 2000s-era grand action is a distant descendent of Cristoforis original. It emerged from the work in the 1770s of Americus Backers, in the 19th century, the English action was further modified by French builders, notably in the invention of the repetition lever, which facilitated rapidly repeating notes. Perhaps the best-known English piano action of the century is the Brooks action of 1810. One of the most well-known French piano actions was created by Jean Schwander in 1844, at the turn of the century, Schwander-Herrburger merged with Brooks, giving us the Herrburger-Brooks piano action, which was the definitive piano action of the twentieth century. The action mechanism of a key consists of the key itself, a key appurtenances include a see-saw like leverage-system, the escapement, a supplementary device for Repetition, and a check for hammer rebound. The illustration to the right is of a circa 1907 Wessell, Nickel and Gross Upright action, ky, is the Key in its resting position. C, wherever found, represents a cushion of felt or soft leather upon which the different parts of the action rest or come in contact with each other and their purpose is that of rendering the action noiseless and easy of operation. Bnc R, shows the end of the rail, extending the entire length of the keyboard. This is a round pin driven firmly in the balance rail. The bottom of the hole in the key fits closely around the pin, at the top, it is the shape of a mortise, parallel with the key. L, is the put in this portion of the key to balance it, and to ensure uniformity of touch
37.
Pedal keyboard
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A pedalboard is a keyboard played with the feet that is usually used to produce the low-pitched bass line of a piece of music. Training in pedal technique is part of standard organ pedagogy in church music, pedalboards are found at the base of the console of most pipe organs, theatre organs, and electronic organs. Standalone pedalboards such as the 1970s-era Moog Taurus bass pedals are used in progressive rock. In the 21st century, MIDI pedalboard controllers are used with synthesizers, electronic Hammond-style organs, pedalboards are also used with pedal pianos and with some harpsichords, clavichords, and carillons. The first use of pedals on an organ grew out of the need to hold bass drone notes. Indeed, the pedal point, which refers to a prolonged bass tone under changing upper harmonies, derives from the use of the organ pedalboard to hold sustained bass notes. These earliest pedals were wooden stubs nicknamed mushrooms which were placed at the height of the feet and these pedals, which used simple pulldowns connected directly to the manual keys, are found in organs dating to the 13th century. The pedals on French organs were composed of short stubs of wood projecting out of the floor which were mounted in pedalboards that could be flat or tilted. Organists were unable to play anything but simple lines or slow-moving plainsong melodies on these short stub-type pedals. Organist E. Power Biggs, in the notes for his album Organs of Spain noted that One can learn to play them. There were two used for the accidental notes. The first approach can be seen in the 1361 Halberstadt organ, other organs positioned the black keys on the same level and depth as the white keys. The first pedal keyboards only had three or four notes, eventually, organ designers augmented this range by using eight notes, an approach now called a short octave keyboard, because it does not include accidental notes such as C♯, D♯, F♯, G♯, and A♯. The 17th-century north German organ builder Arp Schnitger used an F♯ and G♯ in the lowest octave of the manuals and pedal keyboards, from the 16th to 18th centuries, short octave keyboards were also used in the lowest octave of upper manual keyboards. By the 14th century, organ designers were building separate windchests for the pedal division and these windchests were often built into tall structures called organ towers. Until the 15th century, most pedal keyboards only triggered the existing Hauptwerk pipes already used by the manual keyboards. Beginning in the 15th century, some organ designers began giving pedal keyboards their own set of pipes, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the pedal division usually consisted of a few 8′ ranks and a single 16′ rank. By the early 17th century, pedal divisions became more complex, nevertheless, the pedal division was usually inconsistent from one country to another
38.
Mixing console
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In the 2010s, a mixer is able to control analog or digital signals, depending on the type of mixer. The modified signals are summed to produce the output signals. A typical, simple application combines signals from two microphones into an amplifier that drives one set of speakers simultaneously, a DJ mixer may have only two channels, for mixing two record players. A coffeehouses tiny stage might only have a six channel mixer, a nightclub stages mixer for rock music shows may have 24 channels for mixing the signals from a rhythm section, lead guitar and several vocalists. A mixing console for a large concert may have 48 channels, a mixing console in a professional recording studio may have as many as 96 channels. In practice, mixers do more than simply mix signals, some mixers have onboard electronic effects, such as reverb. Some mixers intended for small venue live performance applications may include a power amplifier. A mixing console is also known as a mixer, audio console, mixing desk, sound mixer, sound board. A typical analog mixing board has three sections, Channel inputs Master controls Audio level metering The channel input strips are usually a bank of identical monaural or stereo input channels. Each channel has rotary knobs, buttons and/or faders for controlling the gain, the master control section is used to adjust the levels of the overall output of the mixer. The master control section has sub-group faders, master faders, master auxiliary mixing bus level controls, in addition it may have solo monitoring controls, a stage talk-back microphone control, muting controls and an output matrix mixer. On smaller mixers the inputs are on the left of the mixing board, in larger mixers, the master controls are in the center with input faders and channel strips on both sides. The audio level meters may be above the input and master sections or they may be integrated into the input, the audio level meters indicate when the signals are clipping. Each signal that is plugged into the mixer has its own channel, depending on the specific mixer, each channel is stereo or monaural. On most mixers, each channel has an XLR input, the smallest, least expensive mixers may only have one XLR input with the other inputs being line inputs. These can be used by a singer-guitarist or other small acts, below each input, there are usually several rotary controls. The first knob is typically a trim or gain control, the inputs buffer the signal from the external device and this controls the amount of amplification or attenuation needed to bring the signal to a nominal level for processing. This stage is where most noise of interference is picked up, balanced inputs and connectors, such as XLR or phone connectors, reduce interference problems
39.
Organ stop
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An organ stop is a component of a pipe organ that admits pressurized air to a set of organ pipes. Its name comes from the fact that stops can be used selectively by the organist, some can be on, the term can also refer to the control that operates this mechanism, commonly called a stop tab, stop knob, or drawknob. On electric or electronic organs that imitate a pipe organ, the terms are often used, with the exception of the Hammond organ and clonewheel organs. The term is sometimes used as a synonym for register. Registration is the art of combining stops, the phrase pull out all the stops has entered general usage, for deploying all available means to pursue a goal. Organ pipes are organized within the organ according to note and timbre. A set of pipes producing the same timbre for each note is called a rank, while each key on a pipe organ controls a note which may be sounded by different ranks of pipes, alone or in combination. The use of stops enables the organist to selectively turn off certain ranks in order to produce different combinations of sounds, a stop may be linked to a single rank, or to multiple ranks. While nowadays one speaks of drawing a stop to select a particular rank or set of ranks, when the organist desires a rank to sound, he or she operates the corresponding control at the console, allowing wind to flow to the pipes. Likewise, the organist can deny wind to the pipes by operating the control in the opposite direction. Common stop controls include stop knobs, which move in and out of the console, and stop tabs, some organs, particularly smaller historical organs from England or Spain, feature divided registers, in which there are two stop knobs for certain ranks. One stop knob will control the upper portion of the keyboard, over the course of the history of the pipe organ, there have been several different designs by which stops are actuated. In the longest-standing design, known as the slider chest, there is a strip of material called a slider which fits underneath a given rank of pipes, the slider has small holes drilled in it, one for each pipe in the rank. When the stop is set such that pipes are inactive, the holes are misaligned with the pipes, when the stop is set such that the pipes are active, the slider moves over, aligning the holes with the pipes, allowing air to reach them. Because the slider chest was developed before the advent of electricity, many organs originally built with mechanical actuators have been retrofitted with electric actuators. Other common designs include the spring chest, the valve chest. The term unification refers to the practice of expanding the resources of an organ without adding extra pipes by making notes available to different stops from the same rank of pipes. For example, an 8′ Gedeckt may also be available as a 4′ Gedeckt
40.
Fundamental frequency
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The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as the fundamental, is defined as the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform. In music, the fundamental is the pitch of a note that is perceived as the lowest partial present. In terms of a superposition of sinusoids, the frequency is the lowest frequency sinusoidal in the sum. In some contexts, the fundamental is usually abbreviated as f0, in other contexts, it is more common to abbreviate it as f1, the first harmonic. All sinusoidal and many non-sinusoidal waveforms are periodic, which is to say they repeat exactly over time. The period of a waveform is the T for which the equation is true. This means that this equation and a definition of the values over any interval of length T is all that is required to describe the waveform completely. Every waveform may be described using any multiple of this period, there exists a smallest period over which the function may be described completely and this period is the fundamental period. The fundamental frequency is defined as its reciprocal, f 0 =1 T Since the period is measured in units of time, when the time units are seconds, the frequency is in s −1, also known as Hertz. For a tube of length L with one end closed and the end open the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic is 4 L. If the ends of the tube are now both closed or both opened as in the last two animations, the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic becomes 2 L. By the same method as above, the frequency is found to be f 0 = v 2 L. At 20 °C the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s and this speed is temperature dependent and does increase at a rate of 0.6 m/s for each degree Celsius increase in temperature. The fundamental may be created by vibration over the length of a string or air column. The fundamental is one of the harmonics, a harmonic is any member of the harmonic series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. The reason a fundamental is also considered a harmonic is because it is 1 times itself, the fundamental is the frequency at which the entire wave vibrates. Overtones are other components present at frequencies above the fundamental. All of the components that make up the total waveform, including the fundamental
41.
Harmonic
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A harmonic is any member of the harmonic series, the divergent infinite series. Every term of the series after the first is the mean of the neighboring terms. The phrase harmonic mean likewise derives from music, the term is employed in various disciplines, including music, physics, acoustics, electronic power transmission, radio technology, and other fields. It is typically applied to repeating signals, such as sinusoidal waves, a harmonic of such a wave is a wave with a frequency that is a positive integer multiple of the frequency of the original wave, known as the fundamental frequency. The original wave is called the 1st harmonic, the following harmonics are known as higher harmonics. As all harmonics are periodic at the frequency, the sum of harmonics is also periodic at that frequency. On strings, harmonics that are bowed have a glassy, pure tone, harmonics may also be called overtones, partials or upper partials. In some music contexts, the harmonic, overtone and partial are used fairly interchangeably. Most acoustic instruments emit complex tones containing many individual partials, rather, a musical note is perceived as one sound, the quality or timbre of that sound being a result of the relative strengths of the individual partials. Oscillators that produce harmonic partials behave somewhat like one-dimensional resonators, and are long and thin. Wind instruments whose air column is open at one end, such as trumpets and clarinets. However they only produce partials matching the odd harmonics, at least in theory, the reality of acoustic instruments is such that none of them behaves as perfectly as the somewhat simplified theoretical models would predict. Partials whose frequencies are not integer multiples of the fundamental are referred to as inharmonic partials, antique singing bowls are known for producing multiple harmonic partials or multiphonics. An overtone is any partial higher than the lowest partial in a compound tone, the relative strengths and frequency relationships of the component partials determine the timbre of an instrument. This chart demonstrates how the three types of names are counted, In many musical instruments, it is possible to play the upper harmonics without the note being present. In a simple case this has the effect of making the note go up in pitch by an octave, in some cases it also changes the timbre of the note. This is part of the method of obtaining higher notes in wind instruments. The extended technique of playing multiphonics also produces harmonics, on string instruments it is possible to produce very pure sounding notes, called harmonics or flageolets by string players, which have an eerie quality, as well as being high in pitch
42.
Undertone series
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In music, the undertone series or subharmonic series is a sequence of notes that results from inverting the intervals of the overtone series. While overtones naturally occur with the production of music on instruments. The overtone series being a series, the undertone series is based on arithmetic division. The hybrid term subharmonic is used in music and dynamics in a few different ways, in its pure sense, the term subharmonic refers strictly to any member of the subharmonic series. When the subharmonic series is used to refer to frequency relationships, the complex tones of acoustic instruments do not produce partials that resemble the subharmonic series. However, such tones can be produced artificially with audio software, subharmonics can be contrasted with harmonics. While harmonics can. occur in any system, there are. only fairly restricted conditions that will lead to the nonlinear phenomenon known as subharmonic generation. One way to define subharmonics is that they are. integral submultiples of the fundamental frequency, the human voice can also be forced into a similar driven resonance, also called “undertone singing”, to extend the range of the voice below what is normally available. The overtone series can be produced physically in two ways—either by overblowing a wind instrument, or by dividing a monochord string. If a monochord string is lightly damped at the point, then at 1/3, then 1/4, 1/5, etc. then the string will produce the overtone series. If instead, the length of the string is doubled in the opposite ratios, similarly, on a wind instrument, if the holes are equally spaced, each successive hole covered will produce the next note in the undertone series. In addition, José Sotorrio showed that undertones could be made through the use of an oscillator such as a tuning fork. If that oscillator is gently forced to vibrate against a sheet of paper it will make contact at various audible modes of vibration. The tritare, a guitar with Y shaped strings, cause subharmonics too and this can also be achieved by the extended technique of crossing two strings as some experimental jazz guitarists have developed. Also third bridge preparations on guitars cause timbres consisting of sets of high pitched overtones combined with a resonant tone of the unplugged part of the string. Subharmonics can be produced by signal amplification through loudspeakers, Subharmonic frequencies are frequencies below the fundamental frequency of an oscillator in a ratio of 1/n, with n a positive integer number. For example, if the frequency of an oscillator is 440 Hz, sub-harmonics include 220 Hz. Thus, they are an image of the harmonic series
43.
Vibrato
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Vibrato is a musical effect consisting of a regular, pulsating change of pitch. It is used to add expression to vocal and instrumental music, Vibrato is typically characterised in terms of two factors, the amount of pitch variation and the speed with which the pitch is varied. In singing it can occur spontaneously through variations in the larynx, the vibrato of a string instrument and wind instrument is an imitation of that vocal function. In practice, it is difficult for a singer or musical instrument player to achieve a pure vibrato or tremolo, electronic manipulation or generation of signals makes it easier to achieve or demonstrate pure tremolo or vibrato. A Leslie speaker creates vibrato as a byproduct of tremolo production, as a Leslie speaker is moved by the rotating mechanism on which it is mounted, it moves closer to or farther away from any given object not also mounted on the mechanism. e. However, the size of effect is likely to be tiny compared against the tremolo effect since the distance oscillation is very small. The use of vibrato is intended to add warmth to a note and this can add a shimmer to the sound, with a well-made instrument it may also help a solo player to be heard more clearly when playing with a large orchestra. The rate and extent of the variation in pitch during vibrato is controlled by the performer, wind and bowed instruments generally use vibratos with an extent of less than half a semitone either side. Despite his technique, he was unable to play without vibrato, the featured saxophonist in Benny Goodmans Orchestra, George Auld, was brought in to play the part. Many classical musicians, especially singers and string players, have a similar problem, the use of vibrato in classical music is a matter of some dispute. For much of the 20th century it was used almost continuously in the performance of pieces from all eras from the Baroque onwards, especially by singers, a drastic change in approach cannot be understood wholly without regarding the rise of notionally historically informed performance from the 1970s onwards. However, there is no proof that singers performed without vibrato in the baroque era. Vocal music of the renaissance is almost never sung with vibrato as a rule, there are only a few texts from the period on vocal production, but they all condemn excessive use of vibrato. However, it should be understood that vibrato occurs over a range of intensities, slow, fast, wide. Leopold Mozart’s Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule, for example, provides an indication of the state of vibrato in string playing at the end of the baroque period. This however, does not give anything more than an indication of Mozarts own personal taste, in this respect he resembles his contemporary, Francesco Geminiani, who advocated using vibrato as frequently as possible on short notes for this purpose. Certain types of vibrato, then, were seen as an ornament, in wind playing too, it seems that vibrato in music up to the 20th century was seen as an ornament to be used selectively. Martin Agricola writing in his Musica instrumentalis deudsch writes of vibrato in this way, occasionally, composers up to the baroque period indicated vibrato with a wavy line in the sheet music
44.
Chorus effect
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In music, a chorus effect occurs when individual sounds with approximately the same timbre, and very similar pitch converge and are perceived as one. When the effect is produced successfully, none of the constituent sounds are perceived as being out of tune and it is characteristic of sounds with a rich, shimmering quality that would be absent if the sound came from a single source. The shimmer occurs because of beating, the effect is more apparent when listening to sounds that sustain for longer periods of time. The chorus effect is especially easy to hear when listening to a choir or string ensemble, a choir has multiple people singing each part. A string ensemble has multiple violinists and possibly multiples of other stringed instruments, in spite of the name, most electronic chorus effects do not accurately emulate this acoustic ensemble effect. Instead, they create a moving electronic shimmer. Some instruments produce an effect as part of their design, however. Piano - Each hammer strikes multiple strings tuned to nearly the same pitch, professional piano tuners carefully control the mistuning of each string to add movement without losing clarity. 12 string guitar - Six pairs of strings tuned in octaves, synthesizer - The effect can be achieved by using multiple, slightly detuned oscillators for each note, or by passing all the notes played through a separate electronic chorus circuit. Mandolin -4 pairs of identically tuned strings, as opposed to octaves, accordion - two or three reed blocks tuned to nearly the same pitch produce a unique and distinctive sound exclusive to the accordion. The chorus effect can be simulated by signal processing equipment, the signal processor may be software running on a computer, software running in a digital effect processor, or an analog effect processor. If the processor is hardware-based, it may be packaged as a pedal, a rack-mount module, some keyboard instruments have an electronic chorus effect built in, such as some electronic pianos and some Hammond organs. Regardless of the technology or form factor, the processor achieves the effect by taking an audio signal, the pitch of the added voices is typically modulated by an LFO, which makes the overall effect similar to that of a flanger, except with longer delays and without feedback. Stereo chorus effect processors produce the effect, but it is varied between the left and right channels by offsetting the delay or phase of the LFO. The effect is enhanced because sounds are produced from multiple locations in the stereo field. Used on instruments like clean electric guitar and keyboards, it can yield very dreamy or ambient sounds, examples of the use of obviously chorused guitar tracks include Fripp & Enos Evensong, Nirvanas Come As You Are, Mike Sterns Swunk, and Satellite Partys Mr. Sunshine. The voix céleste is an organ consisting of either one or two ranks of pipes slightly out of tune. The term celeste refers to a rank of pipes detuned slightly so as to produce an effect when combined with a normally tuned rank
45.
Harp
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The harp is a stringed musical instrument that has a number of individual strings running at an angle to its soundboard, which are plucked with the fingers. Harps have been known since antiquity in Asia, Africa and Europe, Harps vary globally in many ways. In terms of size, many smaller harps can be played on the lap, whereas larger harps are quite heavy, different harps may use strings of catgut or nylon, or of metal, or some combination. While all harps have a neck, resonator, and strings, frame harps have a pillar at their end to support the strings, while open harps, such as arch or bow harps. Modern harps also vary in techniques used to extend the range and chromaticity of the strings, the earliest harps and lyres were found in Sumer,3500 BC, and several harps were found in burial pits and royal tombs in Ur. The oldest depictions of harps without a forepillar can be adjacent to the Near East, in the wall paintings of ancient Egyptian tombs in the Nile Valley. These murals show an instrument that resembles the hunters bow. The chang flourished in Persia in many forms from its introduction, about 3000 BC, around 1900 BC arched harps in the Iraq–Iran region were replaced by angular harps with vertical or horizontal sound boxes. By the start of the Common Era, robust, vertical, angular harps, in the last century of the Sasanian period, angular harps were redesigned to make them as light as possible, while they became more elegant, they lost their structural rigidity. At the height of the Persian tradition of illustrated book production, such light harps were still frequently depicted, the works of the Tamil Sangam literature describe the harp and its variants, as early as 200 BC. Variants were described ranging from 14 to 17 strings, and the instrument used by wandering minstrels for accompaniment, another early South Asian harp was the ancient veena, unlike the modern instrument of the same name, the ancient veena was a harp vice the modern lute-type instrument. Some Samudragupta gold coins show of the mid-4th century AD show the king Samudragupta himself playing the instrument, the ancient veena survives today in Burma, in the form of the saung harp still played there. The harp was popular in ancient China and neighboring regions, though harps are largely extinct in East Asia in the modern day, the Chinese konghou harp is documented as early as the Spring and Autumn period, and became extinct during the Ming Dynasty. A similar harp, the gonghu was played in ancient Korea, Harps are essentially triangular in shape, and are made primarily of wood. Harp strings are made of gut or metal, the top end of each string is secured on the crossbar or neck of the instrument, where each will have a tuning peg or similar device to adjust the pitch of that string. It is the distance between the tuning peg and the soundboard, as well as the tension and weight of the string, the body is hollow and when a taut string is plucked, the body resonates, projecting sound. The longest side of the harp is called the column or pillar, though some earlier harps, such as a bow harp, on most harps, the sole purpose of the pillar is to hold up the neck against the great strain of the strings. On harps which have pedals, the pillar is a column and encloses the rods which adjust the pitch of strings
46.
Xylophone
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The xylophone is a musical instrument in the percussion family that consists of wooden bars struck by mallets. The term xylophone may be used generally, to all such instruments such as the marimba, balafon. The term is popularly used to refer to similar instruments of the lithophone and metallophone types. The bars of metal sound more high pitched than the wooden ones, the modern western xylophone has bars of rosewood, padauk, or various synthetic materials such as fiberglass or fiberglass-reinforced plastic which allows a louder sound. Some can be as small a range as 2½ octaves but concert xylophones are typically 3½ or 4 octaves, the xylophone is a transposing instrument, its parts are written one octave below the sounding notes. Xylophones should be played with hard rubber, polyball, or acrylic mallets. Sometimes medium to hard rubber mallets, very hard core, or yarn mallets are used for softer effects, lighter tones can be created on xylophones by using wooden-headed mallets made from rosewood, ebony, birch, or other hard woods. Concert xylophones have tube resonators below the bars to enhance the tone, frames are made of wood or cheap steel tubing, more expensive xylophones feature height adjustment and more stability in the stand. In other music cultures some versions have gourds that act as Helmholtz resonators, others are trough xylophones with a single hollow body that acts as a resonator for all the bars. Old methods consisted of arranging the bars on tied bundles of straw, ancient mallets were made of willow wood with spoon-like bowls on the beaten ends. The instrument has obscure, ancient origins, according to Nettl, it originated in southeast Asia and came to Africa c. AD500 when a group of Malayo-Polynesian speaking peoples migrated to Africa, one piece of evidence for this is the similarity between East African xylophone orchestras and Javanese and Balinese gamelan orchestras. This, however has been questioned by ethnomusicologist and linguist Roger Blench who posits an independent origin in Africa, the xylophone-like ranat was used in Hindu regions. Java and Bali use xylophones in gamelan ensembles and they still have traditional significance in Africa, Malaysia, Melanesia, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, and regions of the Americas. The term marimba is also applied to traditional folk instruments such as the West Africa balafon. Early forms were constructed of bars atop a gourd, the wood is first roasted around a fire before shaping the key to achieve the desired tone. A skilled maker can produce startling amplification, the mallets used to play dibinda and mbila have heads made from natural rubber taken from a wild creeping plant. This usually doubles an already rapid rhythmic pulse that may also co-exist with a counter-rhythm, the Mbila is associated with the Chopi people of the Inhambane Province, in southern Mozambique
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