1.
Djursholm
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Djursholm is one of four suburban districts in, and the seat of Danderyd Municipality, Stockholm County, Sweden. Djursholm is included in the multi-municipal Stockholm urban area, Djursholm is divided into a number of different areas - Djursholms Ekeby, Svalnäs, Ösby, Berga and Gamla Djursholm. Since 1895 it has served by electric suburban trains but the original branch was closed in 1975. Djursholm is the wealthiest community in Sweden, with the most expensive property prices in the country and it was built as a garden city with large villas, most from the turn of the century, along winding roads. Already from start the elegant seaside quarters attracted many well known academics, cultural personalities, Djursholm was separated from Danderyd as a municipality of its own in 1901, becoming a city in 1914. In 1971 it was reunited with Danderyd when the present municipality was created, statistically Djursholm lies within the Stockholm urban area. The original stone building was erected by Nils Eskilsson Banér in the 15th century. Svante Gustavsson Banér commissioned a refurbishment of the castle to its current form in the 16th century Djursholm Chapel, completed in 1902 on the initiative of Fredrik Lilljekvist, who was also the architect. The ornate altar paintings are by Natanael Beskow, who was the resident vicar at the time, large villa on Strandvägen in central Djursholm, designed by Ragnar Östberg and completed in 1907. Since 1986, Villa Pauli has been a club with a gourmet restaurant, banquet room. Sandy beach that has become a destination for people from Djursholm. Situated at the end of Strandvägen and Germaniavägen, two of the roads of Djursholm
2.
University of Uppsala
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Uppsala University is a research university in Uppsala, Sweden, and is the oldest university in Sweden and all of the Nordic countries, founded in 1477. It ranks among the best universities in Northern Europe in international rankings, the university uses Gratiae veritas naturae as its motto and embraces natural sciences. Uppsala also has an important historical place in Swedish national culture, identity and for the Swedish establishment, in historiography, literature, politics, many aspects of Swedish academic culture in general, such as the white student cap, originated in Uppsala. It shares some peculiarities, such as the student nation system, with Lund University, Uppsala belongs to the Coimbra Group of European universities. The university has nine faculties distributed over three “disciplinary domains” and it has about 24,000 full-time students and 2,400 doctoral students. It has a staff of roughly 1,800 out of a total of 6,500 employees. Twenty-five per cent of the 674 professors at the university are women, of its turnover of SEK5.9 billion in 2013, 30% was spent on education on basic and advanced level, while 66% was spent on research and research programs. Architecturally, Uppsala University has traditionally had a presence in the area around the cathedral on the western side of the River Fyris. Despite some more contemporary building developments further away from the centre, as with most medieval universities, Uppsala University initially grew out of an ecclesiastical center. The archbishopric of Uppsala had been one of the most important sees in Sweden proper since Christianity first spread to this region in the ninth century, Uppsala had also long been a hub for regional trade, and had contained settlements dating back into the deep Middle Ages. As was also the case with most medieval universities, Uppsala had initially been chartered through a papal bull, Uppsalas bull, which granted the university its corporate rights, was issued by Pope Sixtus IV in 1477, and established a number of provisions. Among the most important of these was that the university was given the same freedoms. This included the right to establish the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, and to award the bachelors, masters, licentiate. The archbishop of Uppsala was also named as the universitys Chancellor, Swedish students generally travelled to one of the Protestant universities in Germany, especially Wittenberg. The Meeting of Uppsala in 1593 established Lutheran orthodoxy in Sweden, and Charles, Theology still had precedence, but in the privileges of 1593, the importance of a university to educate secular servants of the state was also emphasized. Three of the seven professorial chairs which were established were in Theology, of the other four, a fourth chair was given to Ericus Jacobi Skinnerus, who was also appointed rector, but whose discipline was not mentioned in the charter. Of the professors, several were taken over from the Collegium Regium in Stockholm, an eighth chair, in Medicine, was established in 1595 but received no appointee for several years. In 1599 the number of students was approximately 150, in 1600 the first post-reformation conferment of degrees took place
3.
Magnetohydrodynamics
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Magnetohydrodynamics is the study of the magnetic properties of electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such magnetofluids include plasmas, liquid metals, salt water, the word magnetohydrodynamics is derived from magneto- meaning magnetic field, hydro- meaning water, and -dynamics meaning movement. The field of MHD was initiated by Hannes Alfvén, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1970. The fundamental concept behind MHD is that magnetic fields can induce currents in a conductive fluid. The set of equations that describe MHD are a combination of the Navier-Stokes equations of fluid dynamics and these differential equations must be solved simultaneously, either analytically or numerically. The importance of the waves in this respect are pointed out. The ebbing salty water flowing past Londons Waterloo Bridge interacts with the Earths magnetic field to produce a difference between the two river-banks. Michael Faraday tried this experiment in 1832 but the current was too small to measure with the equipment at the time, however, by a similar process the voltage induced by the tide in the English Channel was measured in 1851. The simplest form of MHD, Ideal MHD, assumes that the fluid has so little resistivity that it can be treated as a perfect conductor and this is the limit of infinite magnetic Reynolds number. In ideal MHD, Lenzs law dictates that the fluid is in a sense tied to the field lines. To explain, in ideal MHD a small volume of fluid surrounding a field line will continue to lie along a magnetic field line. This is sometimes referred to as the field lines being frozen in the fluid. This difficulty in reconnecting magnetic field makes it possible to store energy by moving the fluid or the source of the magnetic field. The energy can become available if the conditions for ideal MHD break down. The ideal MHD equations consist of the continuity equation, the Cauchy momentum equation, Amperes Law neglecting displacement current, as with any fluid description to a kinetic system, a closure approximation must be applied to highest moment of the particle distribution equation. This is often accomplished with approximations to the flux through a condition of adiabaticity or isothermality. The main quantities which characterize the electrically conducting fluid are the plasma velocity field v, the current density J, the mass density ρ. The flowing electric charge in the plasma is the source of a magnetic field B, All quantities generally vary with time t
4.
Plasma cosmology
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Plasma cosmology is a non-standard cosmology whose central postulate is that the dynamics of ionized gases and plasmas play important, if not dominant, roles in the physics of the universe. Very few papers supporting plasma cosmology have appeared in the literature since the mid-1990s, the term plasma universe is sometimes used as a synonym for plasma cosmology, as an alternative description of the plasma in the universe. In the 1960s, the theory behind plasma cosmology was introduced by Alfvén, in 1971, Klein extended early proposals and developed the Alfvén–Klein model of the universe, or metagalaxy, an earlier term to distinguish between the universe and the Milky Way galaxy. Interaction between these regions would generate radiation, and this would form the plasma. Alfvén introduced the term ambiplasma for a made up of matter and antimatter. According to Alfvén, such an ambiplasma would be relatively long-lived as the component particles and antiparticles would be too hot, the double layers will act to repel clouds of opposite type, but combine clouds of the same type, creating ever-larger regions of matter and antimatter. The idea of ambiplasma was developed further into the forms of heavy ambiplasma, Alfvén–Klein cosmology was proposed in part to explain the observed baryon asymmetry in the universe, starting from an initial condition of exact symmetry between matter and antimatter. They concluded that we must just happen to live in one of the pockets that was mostly baryons rather than antibaryons, explaining the baryon asymmetry. Alfvén postulated that the universe has existed due to causality arguments. The exploding double layer was also suggested by Alfvén as a mechanism for the generation of cosmic rays, x-ray bursts. In his book he showed that Alfvéns models do not predict Hubbles law. A further difficulty with the model is that matter–antimatter annihilation results in the production of high energy photons. While it is possible that the local matter-dominated cell is larger than the observable universe. He further hypothesized that they promote the contraction of interstellar clouds and may even constitute the main mechanism for contraction. In the 1980s and 1990s, Alfvén and Anthony Peratt, a plasma physicist at Los Alamos National Laboratory, in various venues, Peratt profiled what he characterized as an alternative viewpoint to the mainstream models applied in astrophysics and cosmology. He mentions laboratory experiments of Winston H. Bostick in the 1950s that created plasma discharges that looked like galaxies, perrat conducted computer simulations of colliding plasma clouds that he reported also mimicked the shape of galaxies. Peratt proposed that galaxies formed due to plasma filaments joining in a z-pinch, Peratt proposed a sequence for galaxy evolution, the transition of double radio galaxies to radioquasars to radioquiet QSOs to peculiar and Seyfert galaxies, finally ending in spiral galaxies. He also reported that flat galaxy rotation curves were simulated without dark matter, at the same time Eric Lerner, an independent plasma researcher and supporter of Peratts ideas, proposed a plasma model for quasars based on a dense plasma focus
5.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
6.
Lomonosov Gold Medal
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Since 1967, two medals are awarded annually, one to a Russian and one to a foreign scientist. It is the Academys highest accolade, pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, cumulatively, for works in physics of low temperatures. Aleksandr Nikolaevich Nesmeyanov, accumulatively for works in chemistry, sin-Itiro Tomonaga, for substantial scientific contributions to the development of physics. Hideki Yukawa, for outstanding merits in the development of theoretical physics, sir Howard Walter Florey, for an outstanding contribution in the development of medicine. Nikolai Vasilevich Belov, accumulatively for works in crystallography, vladimir Aleksandrovich Engelgardt, for outstanding achievements in biochemistry and molecular biology. István Rusznyák, for outstanding achievements in medicine, nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov, for outstanding achievements in chemical physics. Giulio Natta, for outstanding achievements in the chemistry of polymers Ivan Matveevich Vinogradov, arnaud Denjoy, for outstanding achievements in mathematics. Viktor Amazaspovich Ambartsumian, for outstanding achievements in astronomy and astrophysics, hannes Alfvén, for outstanding achievements in physics of plasma and astrophysics. Nikoloz Muskhelishvili, for outstanding achievements in mathematics and mechanics, max Steenbeck, for outstanding achievements in the physics of plasma and applied physics. Aleksandr Pavlovich Vinogradov, for outstanding achievements in geochemistry, vladimír Zoubek, for outstanding achievements in geology. Aleksandr Ivanovich Tselikov, for outstanding achievements in metallurgy and metal technology, angel Balevski, for outstanding achievements in metallurgy and metal technology. Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldysh, for outstanding achievements in mathematics, mechanics, maurice Roy, for outstanding achievements in mechanics and its applications. Semyon Isaakovich Volfkovich, for outstanding achievements in chemistry and the technology of phosphorus, herman Klare, for outstanding achievements in the chemistry and technology of man-made fibers. Mikhail Alekseevich Lavrentiev, for outstanding achievements in mathematics and mechanics, linus Carl Pauling, for outstanding achievements in chemistry and biochemistry. Anatolii Petrovich Aleksandrov, for outstanding achievements in science and technology. Alexander Robertus Todd, for outstanding achievements in organic chemistry, aleksandr Ivanovich Oparin, for outstanding achievements in biochemistry. Béla Szőkefalvi-Nagy, for outstanding achievements in mathematics, boris Yevgenevich Paton, for outstanding achievements in metallurgy and metal technology. Jaroslav Kožešník, for outstanding achievements in applied mathematics and mechanics, vladimir Aleksandrovich Kotelnikov, for outstanding achievements in radiophysics, radio engineering and electronics
7.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
8.
Electrical engineering
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Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an occupation in the later half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone. Subsequently, broadcasting and recording media made electronics part of daily life, the invention of the transistor, and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of electronics to the point they can be used in almost any household object. Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body, such bodies include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the Institution of Engineering and Technology. Electrical engineers work in a wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from basic circuit theory to the management skills required of a project manager, the tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end analyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century and he also designed the versorium, a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify, Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created an electric telegraph network and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort, Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardised units of measure. They led to the standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad. This was achieved at a conference in Chicago in 1893. During these years, the study of electricity was considered to be a subfield of physics. Thats because early electrical technology was electromechanical in nature, the Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the worlds first department of electrical engineering in 1882. The first course in engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell’s Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering. It was not until about 1885 that Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States, in the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the engineering department in 1886
9.
Plasma (physics)
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Plasma is one of the four fundamental states of matter, the others being solid, liquid, and gas. Yet unlike these three states of matter, plasma does not naturally exist on the Earth under normal surface conditions, the term was first introduced by chemist Irving Langmuir in the 1920s. However, true plasma production is from the separation of these ions and electrons that produces an electric field. Based on the environmental temperature and density either partially ionised or fully ionised forms of plasma may be produced. The positive charge in ions is achieved by stripping away electrons from atomic nuclei, the number of electrons removed is related to either the increase in temperature or the local density of other ionised matter. Plasma may be the most abundant form of matter in the universe, although this is currently tentative based on the existence. Plasma is mostly associated with the Sun and stars, extending to the rarefied intracluster medium, Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube, and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879. The nature of the Crookes tube cathode ray matter was identified by British physicist Sir J. J. The term plasma was coined by Irving Langmuir in 1928, perhaps because the glowing discharge molds itself to the shape of the Crookes tube and we shall use the name plasma to describe this region containing balanced charges of ions and electrons. Plasma is a neutral medium of unbound positive and negative particles. Although these particles are unbound, they are not ‘free’ in the sense of not experiencing forces, in turn this governs collective behavior with many degrees of variation. The average number of particles in the Debye sphere is given by the plasma parameter, bulk interactions, The Debye screening length is short compared to the physical size of the plasma. This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the plasma are more important than those at its edges, when this criterion is satisfied, the plasma is quasineutral. Plasma frequency, The electron plasma frequency is compared to the electron-neutral collision frequency. When this condition is valid, electrostatic interactions dominate over the processes of ordinary gas kinetics, for plasma to exist, ionization is necessary. The term plasma density by itself refers to the electron density, that is. The degree of ionization of a plasma is the proportion of atoms that have lost or gained electrons, even a partially ionized gas in which as little as 1% of the particles are ionized can have the characteristics of a plasma. The degree of ionization, α, is defined as α = n i n i + n n, where n i is the number density of ions and n n is the number density of neutral atoms
10.
Royal Institute of Technology
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KTH Royal Institute of Technology is a university in Stockholm, Sweden, specialized in Engineering and Technology, that ranks highest in northern mainland Europe in its academic fields. The current King of Sweden Carl XVI Gustaf is its High Protector, the King of Sweden at the time had prior to his crowning been Marshal of the French Empire, known in Sweden as Jean Baptiste Bernadotte. KTH Royal Institute of Technology is the best university of technology in northern Europe, with the exception in the area being the Technical University of Munich. The main campus buildings at Valhallavägen in Östermalm, by architect Erik Lallerstedt, were completed in 1917, the buildings and surroundings were decorated by prominent early 20th-century Swedish artists such as Carl Milles, Axel Törneman, Georg Pauli, Tore Strindberg and Ivar Johnsson. The older buildings on the campus were renovated heavily in 1994, while the original campus was large for its time, KTH very soon outgrew it, and the campus was expanded with new buildings. Today, KTH institutions and faculties are distributed across several campuses in Stockholm County, located in Flemingsberg, Haninge, Kista and Södertälje, beyond the ones in Östermalm. KTH, School of ICT, Kista offers education and research in all the areas which todays information society is based upon - from nano scale physics to the benefit of the end user, Kista is an educational environment with modern facilities, which are always open to the students. All courses are within ICT, creating a strong cohesion and an exchange over the educational programmes, Stockholm University’s computer science programmes are also located in Kista. Together, over 3000 students create an educational environment and a vibrant student life. KTH Kista is an international environment with teachers and students from all around the world. The Masters and postgraduate programmes offered by the school students from the worlds top universities. With companies such as Ericsson, Volvo, IBM, Tele2, TietoEnator, Microsoft, Intel and Oracle as neighbors, School of Technology and Health has a part of its activities in Flemingsberg. At KTH Flemingsberg the school courses in Medical Engineering and conducts research within the subject. KTHs activities in Flemingsberg started in 2002, since 2003, the school offers a Bachelor of Education in Medical Engineering, in collaboration with the Karolinska Institutet. In autumn 2008, a master of science in Medical Engineering started, Flemingsberg is an area of high academic density and one of northern Europes most important areas within biotechnology – both terms of research and industrial activities. Here are also Södertörn University and the Karolinska Institutet with over 10000 students and Novum Research Center, Flemingsberg is an area of strong growth. To meet the need for student housing more apartments are planned, in Haninge, students from two schools at KTH receive education – the School of Architecture and the Built Environment, ABE, and the School of Technology and Health, STH. Here, students study at undergraduate and master level in such as building engineering, computer engineering, electrical engineering
11.
University of California, San Diego
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The University of California, San Diego is a public research university located in the La Jolla neighborhood of San Diego, California, in the United States. The university occupies 2,141 acres near the coast of the Pacific Ocean with the main campus resting on approximately 1,152 acres, UC San Diego is organized into six undergraduate residential colleges, three graduate schools, and two professional medical schools. UC San Diego is also home to Scripps Institution of Oceanography, one of the first centers dedicated to ocean, earth and atmospheric science research and education. UC San Diego Health, the only academic health system, provides patient care, conducts medical research. According to the National Science Foundation, UC San Diego spent $1.101 billion on research and development in fiscal year 2015, ranking it 5th in the nation. UC San Diego faculty, researchers, and alumni have won 20 Nobel Prizes, eight National Medals of Science, eight MacArthur Fellowships, two Pulitzer Prizes, and three Fields medals. Local citizens supported the idea, voting the same year to transfer to the university 59 acres of land on the coast near the preexisting Scripps Institution of Oceanography. This outraged local conservatives, as well as Regent Edwin W. Pauley, UC President Clark Kerr satisfied San Diego city donors by changing the proposed name from University of California, La Jolla, to University of California, San Diego. The city voted in agreement to its part in 1958, because of the clash with Pauley, Revelle was not made chancellor. Herbert York, first director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, was designated instead, York planned the main campus according to the Oxbridge model, relying on many of Revelles ideas. UC San Diego was the first general campus of the University of California to be designed from the top down in terms of research emphasis, local leaders disagreed on whether the new school should be a technical research institute or a more broadly based school that included undergraduates as well. John Jay Hopkins of General Dynamics Corporation pledged one million dollars for the former while the City Council offered free land for the latter, maria Goeppert-Mayer, later the second female Nobel laureate in physics, was appointed professor of physics in 1960. The graduate division of the school opened in 1960 with 20 faculty in residence, with instruction offered in the fields of physics, biology, chemistry, before the main campus completed construction, classes were held in the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. By 1963, new facilities on the mesa had been finished for the School of Science and Engineering, ten additional faculty in those disciplines were hired, and the whole site was designated the First College, later renamed after Roger Revelle, of the new campus. York resigned as chancellor that year and was replaced by John Semple Galbraith, the undergraduate program accepted its first class of 181 freshman at Revelle College in 1964. Second College was founded in 1964, on the land deeded by the federal government, the School of Medicine also accepted its first students in 1966. Political theorist Herbert Marcuse joined the faculty in 1965, a champion of the New Left, he reportedly was the first protestor to occupy the administration building in a demonstration organized by his student, political activist Angela Davis. Further student unrest was felt at the university, as the United States increased its involvement in the Vietnam War during the early 1960s, protests escalated as the war continued and were only exacerbated after the National Guard fired on student protesters at Kent State University in 1970
12.
University of Maryland, College Park
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Founded in 1856, the university is the flagship institution of the University System of Maryland. It is a member of the Association of American Universities and competes in athletics as a member of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Marylands proximity to the nations capital has resulted in research partnerships with the Federal government. The operating budget of the University of Maryland during the 2009 fiscal year was projected to be approximately $1.531 billion, for the same fiscal year, the University of Maryland received a total of $518 million in research funding, surpassing its 2008 mark by $118 million. As of December 12,2012, the universitys Great Expectations campaign had exceeded $1 billion in private donations, on March 6,1856, the forerunner of todays University of Maryland was chartered as the Maryland Agricultural College. Two years later, Charles Benedict Calvert, a future U. S. Congressman, Calvert founded the school later that year. On October 5,1859, the first 34 students entered the Maryland Agricultural College, the school became a land grant college in February 1864. During the Civil War, Confederate soldiers under Brigadier General Bradley Tyler Johnson moved past the college on July 12,1864 as part of Jubal Earlys raid on Washington, D. C. By the end of the war, financial problems forced the administrators to sell off 200 acres of land, for the next two years the campus was used as a boys preparatory school. Following the Civil War, in February 1866 the Maryland legislature assumed half ownership of the school, the college thus became in part a state institution. By October 1867, the school reopened with 11 students, in the next six years, enrollment grew and the schools debt was paid off. In 1873, Samuel Jones, a former Confederate Major General, twenty years later, the federally funded Agricultural Experiment Station was established there. Morrill Hall was built the following year, on November 29,1912, a fire destroyed the barracks where the students were housed, all the schools records, and most of the academic buildings, leaving only Morrill Hall untouched. There were no injuries or fatalities, and all but two returned to the university and insisted on classes continuing. Students were housed by families in neighboring towns until housing could be rebuilt, a large brick and concrete compass inlaid in the ground designates the former center of campus as it existed in 1912. The state took control of the school in 1916, and the institution was renamed Maryland State College and that year, the first female students enrolled at the school. On April 9,1920, the became part of the existing University of Maryland, replacing St. Johns College. In the same year, the school on the College Park campus awarded its first PhD degrees. In 1925 the university was accredited by the Association of American Universities, by the time the first black students enrolled at the university in 1951, enrollment had grown to nearly 10,000 students—4,000 of whom were women
13.
University of Southern California
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The University of Southern California is a private research university founded in 1880 with its main campus in Los Angeles, California. As Californias oldest private university, USC has historically educated a large number of the regions business leaders. In recent decades, the university has also leveraged its location in Los Angeles to establish relationships with research and cultural institutions throughout Asia, an engine for economic activity, USC contributes $8 billion annually to the economy of the Los Angeles metropolitan area and California. For the 2014–15 academic year, there were 18,740 students enrolled in undergraduate programs. USC also has 23,729 graduate and professional students in a number of different programs, including business, law, engineering, social work, and medicine. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the world, consistently ranking among the top 3 in external contributions, multiple academic rankings list the University of Southern California as being among the top 25 universities in the United States. With an acceptance rate of 16 percent, USC is also among the most selective academic institutions in the nation. USC maintains a tradition of innovation and entrepreneurship, with alumni having founded companies such as Lucasfilm, Myspace, Salesforce. com, Intuit, Qualcomm, Box, Tinder. As of 2014, the university has produced the fourth largest number of billionaire alumni out of all institutions in the world. USC is home to the world’s most powerful computer, which is presently housed in a super-cooled. The only other commercially available quantum computing system is operated jointly by NASA, USC was also one of the earliest nodes on ARPANET and is the birthplace of the Domain Name System. Other technologies invented at USC include DNA computing, dynamic programming, image compression, VoIP, USC sponsors a variety of intercollegiate sports and competes in the National Collegiate Athletic Association as a member of the Pac-12 Conference. Members of the teams, the Trojans, have won 102 NCAA team championships, ranking them third in the nation. Trojan athletes have won 288 medals at the Olympic games, more than any university in the United States. If USC were a country, its athletes would have received the 12th-most Olympic gold medals in history. In 1969, it joined the Association of American Universities, the University of Southern California was founded following the efforts of Judge Robert M. Hellman. The three donated 308 lots of land to establish the campus and provided the seed money for the construction of the first buildings. Originally operated in affiliation with the Methodist Church, the school mandated from the start that no student would be denied admission because of race, the university is no longer affiliated with any church, having severed formal ties in 1952
14.
Manne Siegbahn
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Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn ForMemRS was a Swedish physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1924 for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy. Siegbahn was born in Örebro, Sweden and he obtained his Ph. D. at the Lund University in 1911, his thesis was titled Magnetische Feldmessungen. He was acting professor for Johannes Rydberg when his health was failing, following his Ph. D. he started research on X-ray spectroscopy. This work continued when he moved to the University of Uppsala in 1923 and he developed improved experimental apparatus which allowed him to make very accurate measurements of the X-ray wavelengths produced by atoms of different elements. He developed a convention for naming the different spectral lines that are characteristic to elements in X-ray spectroscopy, siegbahns precision measurements drove many developments in quantum theory and atomic physics. In 1937, Siegbahn was appointed Director of the Physics Department of the Nobel Institute of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, in 1988 this was renamed the Manne Siegbahn Institute. The institute research groups have been reorganized since, but the lives on in the Manne Siegbahn Laboratory hosted by Stockholm University. He won the Hughes Medal 1934 and Rumford Medal 1940, in 1944, he patented the Siegbahn pump. Siegbahn was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1954, Siegbahn married Karin Högbom in 1914
15.
Carl Wilhelm Oseen
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Carl Wilhelm Oseen was a theoretical physicist in Uppsala and Director of the Nobel Institute for Theoretical Physics in Stockholm. Oseen was born in Lund, and took a Fil, kund. degree at Lund University in 1897. Oseen formulated the fundamentals of the elasticity theory of liquid crystals and he gave his name to the Oseen tensor and, with Horace Lamb, to the Lamb–Oseen vortex. The Basset–Boussinesq–Oseen equation describes the motion of – and forces on – a particle moving in a flow at low Reynolds numbers. Oseen was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences from 1921, as a full professor of a Swedish university, Oseen also had the right to nominate Nobel Prize winners. It was Oseen who nominated Albert Einstein for the Nobel Prize in 1921, Einstein was finally awarded the prize for 1921 when Oseen repeated the nomination in 1922. Oseen, C. W. Neuere Methoden und Ergebnisse in der Hydrodynamik, Oseen equations Oseens approximation Lamb–Oseen vortex Basset–Boussinesq–Oseen equation Broberg, Gunnar. Before 1932, Scientists writing their own history, History of Science in Sweden, the Growth of a Discipline, 1932-1982. Uppsala, Uppsala Studies in the History of Science
16.
Aurora
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An aurora, sometimes referred to as a polar lights or northern lights, is a natural light display in the sky, predominantly seen in the high latitude regions. The resulting ionization and excitation of atmospheric constituents emits light of varying colour, the form of the aurora, occurring within bands around both polar regions, is also dependent on the amount of acceleration imparted to the precipitating particles. Precipitating protons generally produce optical emissions as incident hydrogen atoms after gaining electrons from the atmosphere, proton auroras are usually observed at lower latitudes. A region that currently displays an aurora is called the auroral oval, early evidence for a geomagnetic connection comes from the statistics of auroral observations. Elias Loomis, and later Hermann Fritz and S. Tromholt in more detail, day-to-day positions of the auroral ovals are posted on the internet. In northern latitudes, the effect is known as the Aurora Borealis or the Northern Lights, the former term was coined by Galileo in 1619, from the Roman goddess of the dawn and the Greek name for the north wind. The Aurora Australis is visible from southern latitudes in Antarctica, Chile, Argentina, New Zealand. A geomagnetic storm causes the auroral ovals to expand, and bring the aurora to lower latitudes and it was hardly ever seen near the geographic pole, which is about 2000 km away from the magnetic pole. The aurora can be seen best at this time, which is called magnetic midnight, Auroras also occur poleward of the auroral zone as either diffuse patches or arcs, which can be sub-visual. Auroras are occasionally seen in latitudes below the zone, when a geomagnetic storm temporarily enlarges the auroral oval. Large geomagnetic storms are most common during the peak of the sunspot cycle or during the three years after the peak. An aurora may appear overhead as a corona of rays, radiating from a distant and apparent central location, an electron spirals about a field line at an angle that is determined by its velocity vectors, parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the local geomagnetic field vector B. This angle is known as the “pitch angle” of the particle, the distance, or radius, of the electron from the field line at any time is known as its Larmor radius. The pitch angle increases as the travels to a region of greater field strength nearer to the atmosphere. Thus it is possible for particles to return, or mirror. Other particles that do not mirror enter the atmosphere and contribute to the display over a range of altitudes. Other types of auroras have been observed from space, e. g. poleward arcs stretching sunward across the cap, the related theta aurora. These are relatively infrequent and poorly understood, there are other interesting effects such as flickering aurora, black aurora and sub-visual red arcs
17.
Van Allen radiation belt
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A radiation belt is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of which originate from the solar wind that is captured by and held around a planet by that planets magnetic field. The Earth has two belts and sometimes others may be temporarily created. The discovery of the belts is credited to James Van Allen, Earths two main belts extend from an altitude of about 1,000 to 60,000 kilometers above the surface in which region radiation levels vary. Most of the particles form the belts are thought to come from solar wind. By trapping the solar wind, the magnetic field deflects those energetic particles, the belts are located in the inner region of the Earths magnetosphere. The belts trap energetic electrons and protons, other nuclei, such as alpha particles, are less prevalent. The belts endanger satellites, which must have their sensitive components protected with adequate shielding if they spend significant time in that zone, kristian Birkeland, Carl Størmer, and Nicholas Christofilos had investigated the possibility of trapped charged particles before the Space Age. Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 confirmed the existence of the belt in early 1958 under James Van Allen at the University of Iowa, the trapped radiation was first mapped by Explorer 4, Pioneer 3 and Luna 1. The term Van Allen belts refers specifically to the radiation belts surrounding Earth, however, the Sun does not support long-term radiation belts, as it lacks a stable, global, dipole field. The Earths atmosphere limits the belts particles to regions above 200–1,000 km, the belts are confined to a volume which extends about 65° on either side of the celestial equator. The NASA Van Allen Probes mission aims at understanding how populations of relativistic electrons and ions in space form or change in response to changes in solar activity, the Van Allen Probes mission successfully launched on August 30,2012. The primary mission is scheduled to last two years with expendables expected to last four, NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center manages the Living With a Star program of which the Van Allen Probes is a project, along with Solar Dynamics Observatory. The Applied Physics Laboratory is responsible for the implementation and instrument management for the Van Allen Probes, Radiation belts exist around other planets and moons in the solar system that have magnetic fields powerful enough to sustain them. To date, most of these belts have been poorly mapped. The Voyager Program only nominally confirmed the existence of similar belts around Uranus, the inner Van Allen Belt extends typically from an altitude of 0.2 to 2 Earth radii or 1,000 km to 6,000 km above the Earth. In certain cases when solar activity is stronger or in areas such as the South Atlantic Anomaly. The inner belt contains high concentrations of electrons in the range of hundreds of keV and energetic protons with energies exceeding 100 MeV, the source of lower energy protons is believed to be proton diffusion due to changes in the magnetic field during geomagnetic storms. Due to the offset of the belts from Earths geometric center
18.
Geomagnetic storm
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A geomagnetic storm is a temporary disturbance of the Earths magnetosphere caused by a solar wind shock wave and/or cloud of magnetic field that interacts with the Earths magnetic field. The increase in the wind pressure initially compresses the magnetosphere. The solar winds magnetic field interacts with the Earth’s magnetic field, both interactions cause an increase in plasma movement through the magnetosphere and an increase in electric current in the magnetosphere and ionosphere. During the main phase of a storm, electric current in the magnetosphere creates a magnetic force that pushes out the boundary between the magnetosphere and the solar wind. The frequency of geomagnetic storms increases and decreases with the sunspot cycle, CME driven storms are more common during the maximum of the solar cycle, while CIR driven storms are more common during the minimum of the solar cycle. Several space weather phenomena tend to be associated with or are caused by a geomagnetic storm, in 1989, a geomagnetic storm energized ground induced currents that disrupted electric power distribution throughout most of the province of Quebec and caused aurorae as far south as Texas. In 1931, Sydney Chapman and Vincenzo C. A. Ferraro wrote an article, A New Theory of Magnetic Storms and they argued that whenever the Sun emits a solar flare it also emits a plasma cloud, now known as a coronal mass ejection. This plasma will travel at a velocity such that it reaches Earth within 113 days, the cloud then compresses the Earths magnetic field and thus increases this field at the Earths surface. A geomagnetic storm is defined by changes in the Dst index, the Dst index estimates the globally averaged change of the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field at the magnetic equator based on measurements from a few magnetometer stations. Dst is computed once per hour and reported in near-real-time, during quiet times, Dst is between +20 and −20 nano-Tesla. A geomagnetic storm has three phases, initial, main and recovery, the initial phase is characterized by Dst increasing by 20 to 50 nT in tens of minutes. The initial phase is referred to as a storm sudden commencement. However, not all geomagnetic storms have a phase and not all sudden increases in Dst or SYM-H are followed by a geomagnetic storm. The main phase of a storm is defined by Dst decreasing to less than −50 nT. The selection of −50 nT to define a storm is somewhat arbitrary, the minimum value during a storm will be between -50 and approximately -600 nT. The duration of the phase is typically 2–8 hours. The recovery phase is when Dst changes from its value to its quiet time value. The recovery phase may last as short as 8 hours or as long as 7 days, the size of a geomagnetic storm is classified as moderate, intense or super-storm
19.
Earth's magnetic field
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Its magnitude at the Earths surface ranges from 25 to 65 microteslas. The North geomagnetic pole, located near Greenland in the hemisphere, is actually the south pole of the Earths magnetic field. Unlike a bar magnet, Earths magnetic field changes over time because it is generated by a geodynamo, however, at irregular intervals averaging several hundred thousand years, the Earths field reverses and the North and South Magnetic Poles relatively abruptly switch places. These reversals of the geomagnetic poles leave a record in rocks that are of value to paleomagnetists in calculating geomagnetic fields in the past, such information in turn is helpful in studying the motions of continents and ocean floors in the process of plate tectonics. The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earths magnetic field in space. The Earths magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind, one stripping mechanism is for gas to be caught in bubbles of magnetic field, which are ripped off by solar winds. The study of past magnetic field of the Earth is known as paleomagnetism, reversals also provide the basis for magnetostratigraphy, a way of dating rocks and sediments. The field also magnetizes the crust, and magnetic anomalies can be used to search for deposits of metal ores, humans have used compasses for direction finding since the 11th century A. D. and for navigation since the 12th century. Although the magnetic declination does shift with time, this wandering is slow enough that a simple compass remains useful for navigation, using magnetoception various other organisms, ranging from some types of bacteria to pigeons, use the Earths magnetic field for orientation and navigation. At any location, the Earths magnetic field can be represented by a three-dimensional vector, a typical procedure for measuring its direction is to use a compass to determine the direction of magnetic North. Its angle relative to true North is the declination or variation, facing magnetic North, the angle the field makes with the horizontal is the inclination or magnetic dip. The intensity of the field is proportional to the force it exerts on a magnet, another common representation is in X, Y and Z coordinates. The intensity of the field is measured in gauss, but is generally reported in nanoteslas. A nanotesla is also referred to as a gamma, the tesla is the SI unit of the Magnetic field, B. The Earths field ranges between approximately 25,000 and 65,000 nT, by comparison, a strong refrigerator magnet has a field of about 10,000,000 nanoteslas. A map of intensity contours is called an isodynamic chart, as the World Magnetic Model shows, the intensity tends to decrease from the poles to the equator. A minimum intensity occurs in the South Atlantic Anomaly over South America while there are maxima over northern Canada, Siberia, the inclination is given by an angle that can assume values between -90° to 90°. In the northern hemisphere, the field points downwards and it is straight down at the North Magnetic Pole and rotates upwards as the latitude decreases until it is horizontal at the magnetic equator
20.
Magnetosphere
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A magnetosphere is the region of space surrounding an astronomical object in which charged particles are controlled by that objects magnetic field. The magnetic field near the surface of many astronomical objects resembles that of a dipole, the field lines farther away from the surface can be significantly distorted by the flow of electrically conducting plasma emitted from a nearby star. Study of Earths magnetosphere began in 1600, when William Gilbert discovered that the field on the surface of Earth resembled that on a terrella. In the 1940s, Walter M. Elsasser proposed the model of dynamo theory, through the use of magnetometers, scientists were able to study the variations in Earths magnetic field as functions of both time and latitude and longitude. Beginning in the late 1940s, rockets were used to study cosmic rays, in 1958, Explorer 1, the first of the Explorer series of space missions, was launched to study the intensity of cosmic rays above the atmosphere and measure the fluctuations in this activity. This mission observed the existence of the Van Allen radiation belt, also in 1958, Eugene Parker proposed the idea of the solar wind. The term magnetosphere was proposed by Thomas Gold in 1959, the Explorer 12 mission led to the observation by Cahill and Amazeen in 1963 of a sudden decrease in the strength of the magnetic field near the noon meridian, later named the magnetopause. In 1983, the International Cometary Explorer observed the magnetotail, or the distant magnetic field, the distance at which a planet can withstand the solar wind pressure is called the Chapman–Ferraro distance. Mercury, Earth, Jupiter, Ganymede, Saturn, Uranus, a magnetosphere is classified as induced when R C F ≪ R P, or when the solar wind is not opposed by the objects magnetic field. In this case, the solar wind interacts with the atmosphere or ionosphere of the planet, when R C F ≈ R P, the planet itself and its magnetic field both contribute. It is possible that Mars is of this type, the bow shock forms the outermost layer of the magnetosphere, the boundary between the magnetosphere and the ambient medium. For stars, this is usually the boundary between the wind and interstellar medium, for planets, the speed of the solar wind there decreases as it approaches the magnetopause. The magnetosheath is the region of the magnetosphere between the bow shock and the magnetopause and it is formed mainly from shocked solar wind, though it contains a small amount of plasma from the magnetosphere. It is an area exhibiting high particle flux, where the direction. This is caused by the collection of solar wind gas that has effectively undergone thermalization and it acts as a cushion that transmits the pressure from the flow of the solar wind and the barrier of the magnetic field from the object. The magnetopause is the area of the magnetosphere wherein the pressure from the magnetic field is balanced with the pressure from the solar wind. It is the convergence of the solar wind from the magnetosheath with the magnetic field of the object. Because both sides of this convergence contain magnetized plasma, the interactions between them are complex, the structure of the magnetopause depends upon the Mach number and beta of the plasma, as well as the magnetic field
21.
Milky Way
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The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. The descriptive milky is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy – a band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610, until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies, the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 light-years and 180,000 light-years. The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars, there are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located within the disk, about 26,000 light-years from the Galactic Center, on the edge of one of the spiral-shaped concentrations of gas. The stars in the inner ≈10,000 light-years form a bulge, the very center is marked by an intense radio source, named Sagittarius A*, which is likely to be a supermassive black hole. Stars and gases at a range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation. This mass has been termed dark matter, the rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun. The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to frames of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself, the Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which is a component of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster. The Milky Way can be seen as a band of white light some 30 degrees wide arcing across the sky. Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift, the area of the sky obscured by the Milky Way is called the Zone of Avoidance. The Milky Way has a low surface brightness. Its visibility can be reduced by background light such as light pollution or stray light from the Moon. The sky needs to be darker than about 20.2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be seen and it should be visible when the limiting magnitude is approximately +5.1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at +6.1
22.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
23.
Stockholm
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The city is spread across 14 islands on the coast in the southeast of Sweden at the mouth of Lake Mälaren, by the Stockholm archipelago and the Baltic Sea. The area has settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC. It is also the capital of Stockholm County, Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP and it is an important global city, and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europes top ranking universities, such as the Stockholm School of Economics, Karolinska Institute and it hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is known for its decoration of the stations. Swedens national football arena is located north of the city centre, Ericsson Globe, the national indoor arena, is in the southern part of the city. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and hosted the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics otherwise held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residencies of the Swedish monarch and the Prime Minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag is seated in the Parliament House, and the Prime Ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House. After the Ice Age, around 8,000 BCE, there were already a number of people living in the present-day Stockholm area. Thousands of years later, as the ground thawed, the climate became tolerable, at the intersection of the Baltic Sea and lake Mälaren is an archipelago site where the Old Town of Stockholm was first built from about 1000 CE by Vikings. They had a positive impact on the area because of the trade routes they created. Stockholms location appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne, the earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word meaning fortification, the second part of the name means islet, and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. Stockholms core, the present Old Town was built on the island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid 13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League, Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk, Visby, Reval, and Riga during this time
24.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
25.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
26.
Kristian Birkeland
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Kristian Olaf Bernhard Birkeland was a Norwegian scientist. He is best remembered as the person whose theories of electric currents elucidated the nature of the aurora borealis. In order to fund his research on the aurorae, he invented the electromagnetic cannon, Birkeland was nominated for the Nobel Prize seven times. Birkeland was born in Christiania to Reinart Birkeland and Ingeborg and wrote his first scientific paper at the age of 18, Birkeland married Ida Charlotte Hammer in May 1905. They had no children and, due to Birkelands preoccupation with his work, a post-mortem revealed that Birkeland had taken 10 g of veronal the night he died, instead of the 0.5 g recommended. The time of death was estimated at 7am on 15 June 1917, some authors have claimed that he committed suicide. On the nightstand lay a revolver, Birkeland organized several expeditions to Norways high-latitude regions where he established a network of observatories under the auroral regions to collect magnetic field data. The discovery of X-rays inspired Birkeland to develop vacuum chambers to study the influence of magnets on cathode rays and this is essentially the theory of the aurora today. Such field-aligned currents are known today as Birkeland currents in his honour, the book on the 1902–1903 expedition contains chapters on magnetic storms on the Earth and their relationship to the Sun, the origin of the Sun itself, Halleys comet, and the rings of Saturn. Birkelands theory of the continued to be dismissed by mainstream astrophysicists after his death in 1917. It was notably championed by the Swedish plasma scientist Hannes Alfvén, proof of Birkelands theory of the aurora only came in 1967 after a probe was sent into space. The crucial results were obtained from U. S. Navy satellite 1963-38C, launched in 1963, magnetic disturbances were observed on nearly every pass over the high-latitude regions of the Earth. These were originally interpreted as waves, but on later analysis it was realized that they were due to field-aligned or Birkeland currents. The scale of Birkelands research enterprises was such that funding became an overwhelming obstacle, recognizing that technological invention could bring wealth, he developed an electromagnetic cannon and, with some investors, formed a firearms company. The coil-gun worked, except the high muzzle velocities he predicted were not produced, the most he could get from his largest machine was 100 m/s, corresponding to a disappointing projectile range of only 1 km. So he renamed the device an aerial torpedo and arranged a demonstration with the aim of selling the company. At the demonstration, one of the coils shorted and produced a sensational inductive arc complete with noise, flame and this was the first failure of any of the launchers that Birkeland had built. It could easily have been repaired and another demonstration organized, however, fate intervened in the form of an engineer named Sam Eyde
27.
Birkeland current
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A Birkeland current is a set of currents that flow along geomagnetic field lines connecting the Earth’s magnetosphere to the Earths high latitude ionosphere. In the Earth’s magnetosphere, the currents are driven by the wind and interplanetary magnetic field. The strength of the Birkeland currents changes with activity in the magnetosphere, small scale variations in the upward current sheets accelerate magnetospheric electrons which, when they reach the upper atmosphere, create the Auroras Borealis and Australis. In the high latitude ionosphere, the Birkeland currents close through the region of the auroral electrojet, the Birkeland currents occur in two pairs of field-aligned current sheets. One pair extends from noon through the sector to the midnight sector. The other pair extends from noon through the sector to the midnight sector. The sheet on the high side of the auroral zone is referred to as the Region 1 current sheet. The currents were predicted in 1908 by Norwegian explorer and physicist Kristian Birkeland and this could only imply that currents were flowing in the atmosphere above. He theorized that somehow the Sun emitted a ray, and corpuscles from what is now known as a solar wind entered the Earth’s magnetic field and created currents. This view was scorned by other researchers, but in 1967 a satellite, launched into the auroral region, in honour of him and his theory these currents are named Birkeland currents. A good description of the discoveries by Birkeland is given in the book by Jago and these in turn lead to consequences such as acceleration of charged particles, both positive and negative, and element separation. Both of these classes of phenomena should have a general astrophysical interest far beyond that of understanding the environment of our own Earth. Auroral Birkeland currents carry about 100,000 amperes during quiet times, Birkeland had estimated currents at heights of several hundred kilometres, and strengths of up to a million amperes in 1908. The ionospheric currents that connect the field-aligned currents heat up the atmosphere due to the finite conductivity of the ionosphere. The heat is transferred from the plasma to the gas of the upper atmosphere. Birkeland currents can also be created in the laboratory with multi-terawatt pulsed power generators, the resulting cross-section pattern indicates a hollow beam of electrons in the form of a circle of vortices, a formation called the diocotron instability, that subsequently leads to filamentation. Such vortices can be seen in aurora as auroral curls, Birkeland currents are also one of a class of plasma phenomena called a z-pinch, so named because the azimuthal magnetic fields produced by the current pinches the current into a filamentary cable. This can also twist, producing a helical pinch that spirals like a twisted or braided rope, there is also a short-range circular component to the force between two Birkeland currents that is opposite to the longer-range parallel forces
28.
Mathematician
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A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematics is concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, one of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, the number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was All is number. It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term mathematics, and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins, the first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria. She succeeded her father as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote works on applied mathematics. Because of a dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked. Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and it was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences, an example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham, the Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. As time passed, many gravitated towards universities. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the “regurgitation of knowledge” to “encourag productive thinking. ”Thus, seminars, overall, science became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. ”Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of an understanding of mathematics, the students, who pass, are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their knowledge and professional methodology. With professional focus on a variety of problems, theoretical systems
29.
Geophysics
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Although geophysics was only recognized as a separate discipline in the 19th century, its origins date back to ancient times. The first magnetic compasses were made from lodestones, while more modern magnetic compasses played an important role in the history of navigation, the first seismic instrument was built in 132 BC. Geophysics is applied to societal needs, such as resources, mitigation of natural hazards. Geophysics is a highly interdisciplinary subject, and geophysicists contribute to area of the Earth sciences. To provide an idea of what constitutes geophysics, this section describes phenomena that are studied in physics and how they relate to the Earth. The gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun give rise to two high tides and two low tides every lunar day, or every 24 hours and 50 minutes, therefore, there is a gap of 12 hours and 25 minutes between every high tide and between every low tide. Gravitational forces make rocks press down on rocks, increasing their density as the depth increases. Measurements of gravitational acceleration and gravitational potential at the Earths surface, the surface gravitational field provides information on the dynamics of tectonic plates. The geopotential surface called the geoid is one definition of the shape of the Earth, the geoid would be the global mean sea level if the oceans were in equilibrium and could be extended through the continents. The Earth is cooling, and the heat flow generates the Earths magnetic field through the geodynamo. The main sources of heat are the heat and radioactivity. Some heat is carried up from the bottom of the mantle by mantle plumes, the heat flow at the Earths surface is about 4.2 ×1013 W, and it is a potential source of geothermal energy. Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earths interior or along its surface, the entire Earth can also oscillate in forms that are called normal modes or free oscillations of the Earth. Ground motions from waves or normal modes are measured using seismographs, if the waves come from a localized source such as an earthquake or explosion, measurements at more than one location can be used to locate the source. The locations of earthquakes provide information on plate tectonics and mantle convection, measurements of seismic waves are a source of information on the region that the waves travel through. If the density or composition of the rock changes suddenly, some waves are reflected, reflections can provide information on near-surface structure. Changes in the direction, called refraction, can be used to infer the deep structure of the Earth. Earthquakes pose a risk to humans, understanding their mechanisms, which depend on the type of earthquake, can lead to better estimates of earthquake risk and improvements in earthquake engineering
30.
Sydney Chapman (mathematician)
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Sydney Chapman FRS was a British mathematician and geophysicist. His work on the theory of gases, solar-terrestrial physics. Chapman was born in Eccles, near Salford in England and began his studies at a technical institute, now the University of Salford. In 1904 at age 16, Chapman entered the University of Manchester and he competed for a scholarship to the university offered by his home county, and was the last student selected. Chapman later reflected, I sometimes wonder what would have happened if Id hit one place lower and he initially studied engineering in the department headed by Osborne Reynolds. Chapman was taught mathematics by Horace Lamb, the Beyer professor of mathematics, and J. E. Littlewood, although he graduated with an engineering degree, Chapman had become so enthusiastic for mathematics that he stayed for one further year to take a mathematics degree. Following Lambs suggestion, Chapman applied for a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge and he was at first awarded only a partial scholarship as a sizar, but from his second year onwards he received a full scholarship. He graduated as a wrangler in 1910 and he began his research in pure mathematics under G. H. Hardy, but later that year was asked by Sir Frank Dyson to be his chief assistant at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. From 1914 to 1919 he returned to Cambridge as a lecturer in mathematics and he held the Beyer Chair of Applied Mathematics at Manchester from 1919 to 1924, the same position as had been held by Lamb, and then moved to Imperial College London. During the Second World War he was Deputy Scientific Advisor to the Army Council, in 1946, Chapman was elected to the Sedleian Chair of Natural Philosophy at Oxford, and was appointed fellow of The Queens College, Oxford. As the Advisory Scientific Director of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute from 1951 to 1970, much of the remainder of the year he spent at the High Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado. The relationship of Chapman with some German geophysicists has been investigated by Wilfried Schröder, in 1970, Chapman died in Boulder, Colorado at the age of 82. Chapmans most noted mathematical accomplishments were in the field of stochastic processes, Chapman is credited with working out, in 1930, the photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer. Chapman is also recognised as one of the pioneers of solar-terrestrial physics and this interest stemmed from his early work on the kinetic theory of gases. Chapman studied magnetic storms and aurorae, developing theories to explain their relation to the interaction of the Earths magnetic field with the solar wind and he disputed and ridiculed the work of Kristian Birkeland and Hannes Alfven, later adopting Birkelands theories as his own. Chapman and his first graduate student, V. C. A. Ferraro and they also predicted characteristics of the magnetosphere that were confirmed 30 years later by the Explorer 12 satellite. Chapman was President of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year, the idea of the IGY stemmed from a discussion in 1950 between Chapman and scientists including James Van Allen. The IGY was held in 1957–58, and resulted in progress in fields including Earth and space sciences
31.
Peer review
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Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people of similar competence to the producers of the work. It constitutes a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field, peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia, scholarly peer review is used to determine an academic papers suitability for publication. Peer review can be categorized by the type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs, professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification. In academia, peer review is common in decisions related to faculty advancement, a prototype professional peer-review process was recommended in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishāq ibn ʻAlī al-Ruhāwī. He stated that a physician had to make duplicate notes of a patients condition on every visit. Professional peer review is common in the field of health care, further, since peer review activity is commonly segmented by clinical discipline, there is also physician peer review, nursing peer review, dentistry peer review, etc. Many other professional fields have some level of peer review process, accounting, law, engineering, aviation, and even forest fire management. Peer review is used in education to achieve certain learning objectives and this may take a variety of forms, including closely mimicking the scholarly peer review processes used in science and medicine. The peer review helps the publisher decide whether the work should be accepted, considered acceptable with revisions, peer review requires a community of experts in a given field, who are qualified and able to perform reasonably impartial review. Peer review is generally considered necessary to academic quality and is used in most major scientific journals, the European Union has been using peer review in the Open Method of Co-ordination of policies in the fields of active labour market policy since 1999. In 2004, a program of peer reviews started in social inclusion and these usually meet over two days and include visits to local sites where the policy can be seen in operation. The meeting is preceded by the compilation of a report on which participating peer countries submit comments. The results are published on the web, the State of California is the only U. S. state to mandate scientific peer review. This requirement is incorporated into the California Health and Safety Code Section 57004, thus, the terminology has poor standardization and specificity, particularly as a database search term
32.
Scientific journal
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In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. There are thousands of journals in publication, and many more have been published at various points in the past. Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles, Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journals standards of quality, and scientific validity. If the journals editor considers the paper appropriate, at least two researchers preferably from the same field check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument, although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines, they are actually quite different. Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually, as one would read a magazine, the publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method. If they are describing experiments or calculations, they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results, each such journal article becomes part of the permanent scientific record. Over a thousand, mostly ephemeral, were founded in the 18th century, articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education. Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field, an essential part of a scientific article is citation of earlier work. The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations, some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles, and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper. Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written only on established topics, while the latest research. In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs, the standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely. Some journals, such as Nature, Science, PNAS, and it is also common for journals to have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular country or other geographic region, like African Invertebrates. Articles tend to be technical, representing the latest theoretical research. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field, in some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content. Usually, rigorous rules of writing are enforced by the editors, however. Articles are usually either original articles reporting new results or reviews of current literature. There are also publications that bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors. Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings that are considered less urgent or important than Letters, supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that is the result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly numerical data
33.
Journal of Geophysical Research
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The Journal of Geophysical Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal. It is the journal of the American Geophysical Union. It contains original research on the physical, chemical, and biological processes that contribute to the understanding of the Earth, Sun and it has seven sections, A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. All current and back issues are available online for subscribers, the journal was originally named Terrestrial Magnetism by the American Geophysical Unions president Louis Agricola Bauer in 1896. It was entitled Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity from 1899–1948, in 1980, three specialized sections were established, A, Space Physics, B, Solid Earth, and C, Oceans. Subsequently, further sections have been added, D, Atmospheres in 1984, E, Planets in 1991, F, Earth Surface in 2003, C, Oceans covers physical, biological, and chemical oceanography. D, Atmospheres covers atmospheric properties and processes, including the interaction of the atmosphere with other components of the Earth system, studies of the Earth are included when they concern exogenic effects or the comparison of the Earth to other planets. G, Biogeosciences focuses on the interface between biology and the geosciences and attempts to understand the functions of the Earth system across multiple spatial and temporal scales. Each of the sections has one or more editors who are appointed by, each editor can in turn appoint associate editors. According to the Editor-in-Chief of JGR-Space Physics, With the switch to Wiley and this means that in a couple of years, each section of JGR will have its own Impact Factor. The journal is indexed by GEOBASE, GeoRef, Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science and it published 2995 articles in 2010. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2010 impact factor of 3.303, ranking it 15th out of 165 journals in the category Geosciences, Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres was also the 6th most cited publication on climate change between 1999 and 2009. Among the most highly cited papers in the Journal of Geophysical Research are, Cande, D. V. Kent, revised calibration of the geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic. Brune, J. N. Tectonic stress and the spectra of seismic shear Waves from earthquakes, analysis of variation of ocean-floor bathymetry and heat-flow with age. Jordan, T. H. Present-day plate motions, a global model of natural volatile organic compound emissions. CS1 maint, Uses authors parameter Kennel, C. F. Petschek, limit on stably trapped particle fluxes. Elasticity and constitution of the Earth interior, list of scientific journals in earth and atmospheric sciences Official website
34.
Solar wind
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The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun. This plasma consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with thermal energies between 1.5 and 10 keV. Embedded within the plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field. The solar wind varies in density, temperature and speed over time and its particles can escape the Suns gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona, which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field. At a distance of more than a few radii from the sun. The flow of the wind is no longer supersonic at the termination shock. The Voyager 2 spacecraft crossed the shock more than five times between 30 August and 10 December 2007, Voyager 2 crossed the shock about a billion kilometers closer to the Sun than the 13.5 billion kilometer distance where Voyager 1 came upon the termination shock. The spacecraft moved outward through the shock into the heliosheath. Other related phenomena include the aurora, the tails of comets that always point away from the Sun. The existence of flowing outward from the Sun to the Earth was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observation of what would later be called a solar flare, george FitzGerald later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the Sun and was reaching the Earth after several days. In 1910 British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington essentially suggested the existence of the wind, without naming it. The idea never caught on even though Eddington had also made a similar suggestion at a Royal Institution address the previous year. In the latter case, he postulated that the material consisted of electrons while in his study of Comet Morehouse he supposed them to be ions. The first person to suggest that the material consisted of both ions and electrons was Kristian Birkeland. His geomagnetic surveys showed that activity was nearly uninterrupted. In 1916, Birkeland proposed that, From a physical point of view it is most probable that solar rays are neither exclusively negative nor positive rays, in other words, the solar wind consists of both negative electrons and positive ions. Three years later in 1919, Frederick Lindemann also suggested that particles of both polarities, protons as well as electrons, come from the Sun
35.
Earth
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Earth, otherwise known as the World, or the Globe, is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life. It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets, according to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Earths gravity interacts with objects in space, especially the Sun. During one orbit around the Sun, Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times, thus, Earths axis of rotation is tilted, producing seasonal variations on the planets surface. The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides, stabilizes the Earths orientation on its axis, Earths lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of Earths surface is covered with water, mostly by its oceans, the remaining 29% is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes, rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. The majority of Earths polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet, Earths interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the Earths magnetic field, and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics. Within the first billion years of Earths history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earths atmosphere and surface, some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earths distance from the Sun, physical properties, in the history of the Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events. Over 99% of all species that lived on Earth are extinct. Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely, over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival. Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures, politically, the world has about 200 sovereign states, the modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms, which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their proto-Germanic root has been reconstructed as *erþō, originally, earth was written in lowercase, and from early Middle English, its definite sense as the globe was expressed as the earth. By early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and the became the Earth. More recently, the name is simply given as Earth. House styles now vary, Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, another convention capitalizes Earth when appearing as a name but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the. It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as what on earth are you doing, the oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4. 5672±0.0006 billion years ago. By 4. 54±0.04 Gya the primordial Earth had formed, the formation and evolution of Solar System bodies occurred along with the Sun
36.
Comet
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A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to evolve gasses, a process called outgassing. This produces an atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are due to the effects of radiation and the solar wind acting upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred metres to tens of kilometres across and are composed of collections of ice, dust. The coma may be up to 15 times the Earths diameter, if sufficiently bright, a comet may be seen from the Earth without the aid of a telescope and may subtend an arc of 30° across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures, Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital periods, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years. Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc, long-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud, a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star. Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun from the Oort cloud by gravitational perturbations caused by passing stars, hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space. The appearance of a comet is called an apparition, Comets are distinguished from asteroids by the presence of an extended, gravitationally unbound atmosphere surrounding their central nucleus. This atmosphere has parts termed the coma and the tail, however, extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids. Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets, having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System, the discovery of main-belt comets and active centaur minor planets has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets. As of November 2014 there are 5,253 known comets, however, this represents only a tiny fraction of the total potential comet population, as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System is estimated to be one trillion. Roughly one comet per year is visible to the eye, though many of those are faint. Particularly bright examples are called Great Comets, the word comet derives from the Old English cometa from the Latin comēta or comētēs. That, in turn, is a latinisation of the Greek κομήτης, Κομήτης was derived from κομᾶν, which was itself derived from κόμη and was used to mean the tail of a comet. The astronomical symbol for comets is ☄, consisting of a disc with three hairlike extensions. The solid, core structure of a comet is known as the nucleus, cometary nuclei are composed of an amalgamation of rock, dust, water ice, and frozen gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and ammonia. As such, they are described as dirty snowballs after Fred Whipples model
37.
Solar System
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The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are the planets, with the remainder being significantly smaller objects, such as dwarf planets, of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly, the moons, two are larger than the smallest planet, Mercury. The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud. The vast majority of the mass is in the Sun. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are terrestrial planets, being composed of rock. The four outer planets are giant planets, being more massive than the terrestrials. All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a flat disc called the ecliptic. The Solar System also contains smaller objects, the asteroid belt, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptunes orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc, which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices, within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity. Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets, identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris. In addition to two regions, various other small-body populations, including comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust clouds. Six of the planets, at least four of the dwarf planets, each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun, the heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of the interstellar medium, it extends out to the edge of the scattered disc. The Oort cloud, which is thought to be the source for long-period comets, the Solar System is located in the Orion Arm,26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way. For most of history, humanity did not recognize or understand the concept of the Solar System, the invention of the telescope led to the discovery of further planets and moons. The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G2 main-sequence star that contains 99. 86% of the known mass. The Suns four largest orbiting bodies, the giant planets, account for 99% of the mass, with Jupiter. The remaining objects of the Solar System together comprise less than 0. 002% of the Solar Systems total mass, most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earths orbit, known as the ecliptic
38.
Astrophysical plasma
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An astrophysical plasma is a plasma whose physical properties are studied as part of astrophysics. Because the particles are charged, they are influenced by electromagnetic forces. All astrophysical plasmas are likely influenced by magnetic fields, astrophysical plasma may be studied in a variety of ways since they emit electromagnetic radiation across a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum. This radiation may be detected with X-ray observatories, performed in the atmosphere or space. Astrophysical plasmas also emit radio waves and gamma rays and they exhibit an array of complex magnetohydrodynamic behaviors, such as turbulence and instabilities. Although these phenomena may occur on scales as large as the galactic core, in the big bang cosmology the entire universe was a plasma prior to recombination. Afterwards, much of the universe reionized after the first quasars formed and emitted radiation which reionized most of the universe and it is assumed by many scientists that very little baryonic matter is neutral. In particular, the medium, the interstellar medium, the interplanetary medium and solar winds are all mainly diffuse plasmas. Norwegian explorer and physicist Kristian Birkeland may have been the first to predict that space is filled with plasma. He wrote in 1913, It seems to be a consequence of our points of view to assume that the whole of space is filled with electrons. We have assumed that each stellar system through its evolution throws off electric corpuscles into space, from this, he assumed that most of mass in the universe should be found in empty space. In 1937, plasma physicist Hannes Alfvén argued that if plasma pervaded the universe, during the 1940s and 50s, Alfvén developed magnetohydrodynamics which enables plasmas to be modelled as waves in a fluid, for which Alfvén won the 1970 Nobel Prize for physics. List of plasma articles US / Russia Collaboration in Plasma Astrophysics
39.
Physical cosmology
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Physical cosmology is the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the Universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate. These advances made it possible to speculate about the origin of the universe, a few researchers still advocate a handful of alternative cosmologies, however, most cosmologists agree that the Big Bang theory explains the observations better. Cosmology draws heavily on the work of many areas of research in theoretical. Areas relevant to include particle physics experiments and theory, theoretical and observational astrophysics, general relativity, quantum mechanics. Modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks of theory and observation, in 1916, Albert Einstein published his theory of general relativity, which provided a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time. At the time, Einstein believed in a universe. This is because masses distributed throughout the universe gravitationally attract, however, he realized that his equations permitted the introduction of a constant term which could counteract the attractive force of gravity on the cosmic scale. Einstein published his first paper on relativistic cosmology in 1917, in which he added this cosmological constant to his equations in order to force them to model a static universe. However, this so-called Einstein model is unstable to small perturbations—it will eventually start to expand or contract, the Einstein model describes a static universe, space is finite and unbounded. It was later realized that Einsteins model was just one of a set of possibilities, all of which were consistent with general relativity. The cosmological solutions of general relativity were found by Alexander Friedmann in the early 1920s and his equations describe the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker universe, which may expand or contract, and whose geometry may be open, flat, or closed. In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher interpreted the red shift of spiral nebulae as a Doppler shift that indicated they were receding from Earth, however, it is difficult to determine the distance to astronomical objects. One way is to compare the size of an object to its angular size. Another method is to measure the brightness of an object and assume an intrinsic luminosity, due to the difficulty of using these methods, they did not realize that the nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own Milky Way, nor did they speculate about the cosmological implications. In 1929, Edwin Hubble provided a basis for Lemaîtres theory. Hubble showed that the nebulae were galaxies by determining their distances using measurements of the brightness of Cepheid variable stars. He discovered a relationship between the redshift of a galaxy and its distance and he interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are receding from Earth in every direction at speeds proportional to their distance. Given the cosmological principle, Hubbles law suggested that the universe was expanding, two primary explanations were proposed for the expansion
