1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
United States Army Coast Artillery Corps
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The U. S. Army Coast Artillery Corps was a corps level organization responsible for coastal, harbor, and anti-aircraft defense of the United States between 1901 and 1950. The CAC also operated heavy and railway artillery during World War I, as early as 1882 the need for heavy fixed artillery for seacoast defense was noted in Chester A. In 1885 the Endicott Board was convened under the subsequent Grover Cleveland administration and this board recommended a large-scale program of harbor defenses at 29 ports, including guns, mortars, and mine fields. Most of their recommendations were implemented and new defenses were constructed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers 1895-1905, as the defenses were constructed, each harbor or rivers installations were controlled by Artillery Districts, renamed Coast Defense Commands in 1913 and Harbor Defense Commands in 1925. An extensive fire control system was developed and provided for the forts of each Coast Artillery District, Army leaders realized that heavy fixed artillery required different training programs and tactics than mobile field artillery. Prior to 1901 each of the seven artillery regiments contained both heavy and light artillery batteries, in February 1901 the Artillery Corps was divided into two types, field artillery and coast artillery. The previous seven artillery regiments were dissolved, and 30 numbered companies of artillery and 126 numbered companies of coast artillery were authorized. 82 existing heavy artillery batteries were designated as coast artillery companies, the company-based organization was for flexibility, as each harbor defense command was differently equipped and a task-based organization was needed. The Coast Artillery would alternate between small unit and regimental organization several times over its history, the head of the Artillery Corps became the Chief of Artillery in the rank of brigadier general with jurisdiction over both types of artillery. The Coast Artillery became responsible for the installation and operation of the mine fields that were planted to be under observation, fired electrically. The mine component was considered to be among the armament of coastal defense works. In 1905, after the experiences of the Spanish–American War, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a new board on fortifications and they updated some standards and reviewed the progress of the Endicott boards program. Most of the changes recommended by this board were technical, such as adding more searchlights, electrification, the board also recommended fortifications in territories acquired from Spain, Cuba and the Philippines, as well as Hawaii and a few other sites. Defenses in Panama were authorized by the Spooner Act of 1902, due to rapid development of the dreadnought battleship type, a new 14-inch gun was introduced in a few locations, primarily Los Angeles, the Philippines, and Panama. The Taft program fortifications differed slightly in construction and had fewer numbers of guns at a given location than those of the Endicott program. By the beginning of World War I, the United States had a defense system that was equal to any other nation. The rapidity of technological advances and changing techniques increasingly separated coastal defenses from field artillery, officers were rarely qualified to command both, requiring specialization. National Guard coast artillery units were formed by the states to attempt to bring the CAC up to strength in wartime
3.
Coastal artillery
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Coastal artillery is the branch of the armed forces concerned with operating anti-ship artillery or fixed gun batteries in coastal fortifications. The advent of 20th-century technologies, especially aviation, naval aviation, jet aircraft, and guided missiles, reduced the primacy of cannon, battleships. In countries where coastal artillery has not been disbanded, these forces have acquired amphibious capabilities, in littoral warfare, mobile coastal artillery armed with surface-to-surface missiles still can be used to deny the use of sea lanes. Land-based guns also benefited in most cases from the protection of walls or earth mounds. The Martello tower is an excellent example of a widely used coastal fort which mounted defensive artillery, during the 19th century China also built hundreds of coastal fortresses in an attempt to counter Western naval threats. Coastal artillery could be part of the Navy, or part of the Army, in English-speaking countries, certain coastal artillery positions were sometimes referred to as Land Batteries, distinguishing this form of artillery battery from for example floating batteries. In the United Kingdom, in the later 19th and earlier 20th Centuries, then, following the Spanish–American War and the report of the Endicott Board, U. S. harbor defenses were greatly strengthened and provided with new, rifled artillery and minefield defenses. Shortly thereafter, in 1907, Congress split the field artillery, the first decade of the 20th Century, the United States Marine Corps established the Advanced Base Force. The force was used for setting up and defending advanced bases, during the Siege of Port Arthur, Japanese forces had captured the vantage point on 203 Meter Hill overlooking Port Arthur harbor. The battleship Sevastopol, although hit 5 times by 11-inch shells, after 3 weeks, the Sevastopol was still afloat, having survived 124 torpedoes fired at her while sinking two Japanese destroyers and damaging six other vessels. The Japanese had meanwhile lost the cruiser Takasago to a mine outside the harbor, the Blücher had entered the narrow waters of the Oslofjord, carrying 1,000 soldiers and leading a German invasion fleet. The first salvo from the Norwegian defenders, fired from Oscarsborg Fortress about 1 mile distant, disabled Blüchers main battery, fire from the smaller guns swept her decks and disabled her steering, and she received several torpedo hits before the fires reached her magazines and doomed her. Singapore was defended by its famous large-caliber coastal guns, which included one battery of three 15-inch guns and one with two 15-inch guns, AP shells were designed to penetrate the hulls of heavily armoured warships and were ineffective against personnel. The Japanese defended the island of Betio in the Tarawa atoll with numerous 203 mm coastal guns, in 1943, these were knocked out early in the battle with a combined USN naval and aerial bombardment. Nazi Germany fortified its conquered territories with the Atlantic Wall, the intent was to destroy the Allied landing craft before they could unload. During the Normandy Landings in 1944, shore bombardment was given a high importance, using ships from battleships to destroyers, for example, the Canadians at Juno beach had fire support many times greater than they had had for the Dieppe Raid in 1942. In addition, there were modified landing-craft, eight Landing Craft Gun, twenty-four Landing Craft Tank carried Priest self-propelled howitzers which also fired while they were on the run-in to the beach. Similar arrangements existed at other beaches, on June 25,1944 the American battleship Texas engaged German shore batteries on the Cotentin Peninsula
4.
First United States Army
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It now serves as a mobilization, readiness and training command. First Army was established on 10 August 1918 as an army when sufficient American military manpower had arrived in France during World War I. As an element of the American Expeditionary Forces in the stages of World War I it was the first of three field armies established under the AEF. Serving in its ranks were many figures who played important roles in World War II. First Army was inactivated in April 1919, the field armies were established to provide organizational structure for large military organizations that might be mobilized in time of national need. First Army was located in the northeast United States and was activated on 11 September 1933 at Fort Jay, Governors Island, initially activated as a paper army, it was commanded by General Dennis E. Nolan. Until 1942, First Armys commander was always the senior commander of one of its three corps areas, since First Army was only a paper organization in its early days, its staff was the existing staff of the corps areas. The overall mission of the First Army was commanding and training army, army reserve. In the years after World War I, Conner was a mentor in the careers of Dwight Eisenhower. Passed over as a candidate for Army Chief of Staff for Douglas MacArthur, in 1938 First Army came under command of General Hugh A. Drum. Drum who along with a buildup of the Army in 1939 and it began to establish and develop its own staff and participated in the large scale Army maneuvers in Louisiana and North Carolina between 1939 and 1941. As the United States entered World War II, Drum was assigned a new command of the newly established Eastern Defense Command, responsible for coastal, Drum retired in 1943 when he reached mandatory retirement age. Headquarters, First Army was activated In January 1944 at Bristol, upon going ashore on 6 June 1944, D-Day, First Army came under 21st Army Group and commanded all American ground forces during the invasion. Three American divisions were landed by sea at the Western end of the beaches, on Utah Beach the assault troops made good time, but Omaha Beach came nearest of all of the five landing areas to disaster. First Army captured much of the gains of the Allied forces in Normandy. Once the beachheads were joined up, its troops struck west and isolated the Cotentin Peninsula, when the American Mulberry harbour was wrecked by a storm, Cherbourg became even more vital. After the capture of Cherbourg, First Army struck south, in Operation Cobra, its forces finally managed to break through the German lines. The newly established Third Army was then fed through the gap, the Army then passed from the control of 21st Army Group to the newly arrived 12th Army Group
5.
Eastern Defense Command
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This organization was charged with coordinating the defense of the Atlantic Coast, replacing the New England Defense Sector, an organization of the U. S. However, this did not initially occur, and the command was more than a planning agency until 24 December 1941. After 24 December, the command exercised control over Army coast defense, antiaircraft, the command also included US Army forces in Newfoundland and, from April 1942, Bermuda. The commanding generals of the commands were initially the commanders of the existing continental army commands established under the the 1921 amendment to the National Defense Act of 1916. For the Eastern Defense Command, its first commander was First U. S. Army commander, the commands headquarters was co-located with First Army headquarters and a soon-to-be-established Second Service Command Corps Area at Fort Jay, Governors Island in New York City. Lieutenant General George Grunert assumed command of the Eastern Defense Command upon Drums mandatory retirement at age 64 in October 1943, as prospects for any enemy attack on the United States all but diminished, Central Defense Command was merged into the Eastern Defense Command on 15 January 1944. In early 1945, Southern Defense Command was also absorbed by the Eastern Defense Command, with Grunerts retirement in July 1945, his deputy, Brigadier General Kenneth Lord, became interim commander until the appointment of General Jonathan M. Wainwright. This was Wainwrights first command since he was compelled to surrender the Philippines to the Japanese Army in early 1942, in August 1945, he was liberated from a Japanese prisoner of war camp and assumed command after he returned to full duty. Upon Wainwrights 15 January 1946 transfer to Fourth Army at Fort Sam Houston, fairchild, Byron, Guarding the United States and its Outposts, United States Army in World War II, Washington, D. C. Center of Military History, United States Army
6.
Fort Adams
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Its first commander was Captain John Henry, who was later instrumental in starting the War of 1812. The current Fort Adams was built 1824–1857 under the Third System of coastal forts, today, the fort is part of Fort Adams State Park. The first Fort Adams was designed by Major Louis de Tousard of the Army Corps of Engineers as part of the first system of US fortifications. After some additions in 1809, this fort mounted 17 cannon and was garrisoned during the War of 1812 by Woods State Corps of Rhode Island militiamen. The Secretary of Wars report for December 1811 describes the fort as a star fort of masonry, with an irregular indented work of masonry adjoining it. The barracks are of wood and bricks, for one company, after the War of 1812, there was a thorough review of the nations fortification needs and it was decided to replace the older Fort Adams with a newer and much larger fort. This was part of what became known as the system of US fortifications. The new fort was designed by Brigadier General Simon Bernard, a Frenchman who had served as an engineer under Napoleon. Bernard designed the new Fort Adams in the style and it became the most complex fortification in the Western Hemisphere. It included a tenaille and crownwork, an outer work on the southern side, designed to break up. In the US, it is rivaled in size only by Fort Monroe in Hampton, Virginia, construction of the new fort began in 1824 and continued at irregular intervals until 1857. From 1825 to 1838 construction was overseen by Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Gilbert Totten, in 1838 Totten became Chief of Engineers and served until his death in 1864. The new Fort Adams was first garrisoned in August 1841, functioning as an active Army post until 1950, during this time the fort was active in five major wars but never fired a shot in anger. At the start of the Mexican–American War the post was commanded by Benjamin Kendrick Pierce, the forts redoubt, about 1/4 mile south of the main fort, was built during this war. From 1848 to 1853, Fort Adams was commanded by Colonel William Gates, a long serving veteran of both the War of 1812 and the Mexican War. The forts garrison was ordered to California and many of the soldiers lost their lives when the steamer SS San Francisco was wrecked, in a report of 1854 Fort Adams was armed with 100 32-pounder seacoast guns,57 24-pounder seacoast guns, and 43 24-pounder flank howitzers. The flank howitzers were short-barreled guns deployed in casemates in the tenaille to protect the fort against a landward assault, in September 1861, the academy moved to the Atlantic House Hotel in Newport and remained there for the rest of the war. Among the midshipmen assigned to the Naval Academy while it was at Fort Adams was Robley D, in 1862 Fort Adams became the headquarters and recruit depot for the 15th Infantry Regiment
7.
Newport, Rhode Island
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Newport is a seaside city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States. The City of Newport is located approximately 37 miles southeast of Providence,21 miles south of Fall River and it is known as a New England summer resort and famous for its mansions. It was a major 18th-century port city and also contains a number of surviving buildings from the colonial era of the United States. The city is the county seat of Newport County and it was known for being the city of some of the Summer White Houses during the administrations of Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy. The population was 24,027 as of 2013 and its eight founders and first officers were Nicholas Easton, William Coddington, John Clarke, John Coggeshall, William Brenton, Jeremy Clark, Thomas Hazard, and Henry Bull. They left Portsmouth, Rhode Island after a fallout with Anne Hutchinson. As part of the agreement, Coddington and his followers took control of the side of the island. They were soon joined by Nicholas Easton, who had recently expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony for holding heretical beliefs. The settlement grew to be the largest of the four settlements of Rhode Island. Many of the first colonists in Newport became Baptists, and the second Baptist congregation in Rhode Island was formed in 1640 under the leadership of John Clarke, peace did not last long in Newport, as many did not like Coddingtons autocratic style. As a result, a counter-faction was formed by 1650, led by Nicholas Easton, Newport became the most important port in colonial Rhode Island, and a public school was established in 1640. In 1658, a group of Jews were allowed to settle in Newport who were fleeing the Inquisition in Spain, the Newport congregation is now referred to as Congregation Jeshuat Israel and is the second-oldest Jewish congregation in the United States. It meets in Touro Synagogue, the oldest standing synagogue in the United States, in 1663, the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations received its Royal Charter, and Benedict Arnold was elected its first Governor at Newport. The commercial activity which raised Newport to its fame as a port was begun by a second wave of Portuguese Jews who settled there about the middle of the 18th century. They brought with them experience and connections, capital. Most prominent among those were Jacob Rodrigues Rivera who arrived in 1745, Rivera introduced into America the manufacture of sperm oil, which became one of the leading industries and made Newport rich. Newports inhabitants who were engaged in whaling developed 17 manufactories of oil and candles, Aaron Lopez fled to Newport from Lisbon in 1752 and is credited with making Newport an important center of trade. To him in a degree than to any one else was due the rapid commercial development which made Newport for a quarter of a century afterward the most formidable rival of New York
8.
Oozlefinch
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The Oozlefinch is the unofficial historic mascot of the Air Defense Artillery – and formerly of the U. S. Army Coast Artillery Corps. The Oozlefinch is portrayed as a bird that flies backwards and carries weapons of the Air Defense and Coast Artillery. Oozlefinch has been portrayed in different forms and artistic interpretations through its history. There are many legends about the origins of the oozlefinch, most agree that the legend of began in 1905 at Ft. Monroe, Virginia, then home of the Coast Artillery Corps. A Captain H. M. Merriam, no doubt under the effects of alcohol, soon more people would report seeing this bird and soon even sketches were made. Eventually the legend of this bird would become so great that even a statue was erected at the club in its honor, the Oozlefinch was used on the patch of Railway Artillery Reserve during World War I, In some descriptions, this bird is instead a pelican. The DUI of the 42nd Field Artillery Brigade later included Oozlefinch, describing the insignia thus, On a wreath of the colors an oozlefinch Vert, the Oozlefinchs eyes are very large, allowing it to see very distant and very clearly in the sky. Its vision is unobstructed by eyelids or eyebrows, and the eyes are said to be able to turn 180 degrees so the Oozlefinch can look inward, symbolizing the need of a good leader for inward reflection. Gules and Sable, The color of the shield is red and black-red for the Artillery, in honor, a deuce spot of dice, lozenged. Proper, The honor point of the shield was given to the lowest marked dice, as it was the one which most frequently appeared to some members, the law of probabilities to the contrary notwithstanding. In nombril a gridiron sable, the half of the shield given over to the memory of those who did not belong to the Gridiron Club. The wavy bar, over which the terrapin is passing, represents the adjacent waters of Chesapeake Bay, Oozlefinch Roosts at ADA Museum Coast Defense Study Group
9.
Coastal defence and fortification
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Coastal defence and coastal fortification are measures taken to provide protection against military attack at or near a coastline, for example, fortification and coastal artillery. In littoral warfare, coastal defence counteracts naval offence, such as artillery, naval infantry. For example, in the late Roman period the Saxon Shore was a system of forts at the mouths of navigable rivers, sea forts are completely surrounded by water - if not permanently, then at least at high tide. Unlike most coastal fortifications, which are on the coast, sea forts are not, instead, they are off the coast on islands, artificial islands, or are specially built structures. Some sea forts, such as Fort Denison or Fort Sumter, are within harbours in proximity to the coast, some, such as for example Bréhon Tower, completely occupy small islands, others, such as Flakfortet and Pampus, are on artificial islands built up on shoals. Fort Louvois is on an island,400 meters from the shore. The most elaborate sea fort is Murud-Janjira, which is so extensive that one might call it a sea fortress. The most recent sea forts were the Maunsell Forts, which the British built during World War II as anti-aircraft platforms, one type consisted of a concrete pontoon barge on which stood two cylindrical towers on top of which was the gun platform mounting. They were laid down in dry dock and assembled as complete units and they were then fitted out before being towed out and sunk onto their sand bank positions in 1942. The other type consisted of seven interconnected steel platforms built on stilts, five platforms carried guns arranged in a semicircle around the sixth platform, which contained the control centre and accommodation. The seventh platform, set further out than the gun towers, was the searchlight tower, in Colonial times the Spanish Empire diverted significant resources to fortify the Chilean coast as consequence of Dutch and English raids. The Dutch occupation of Valdivia in 1643 caused great alarm among Spanish authorities, China first established formal coastal defences during the early Ming dynasty to protect against attacks by pirates. Subsequently, the European powers built their own coastal defences to protect the various colonial enclaves that they established along the Chinese coast. One such, a built by the British commanding the Lei Yue Mun channel between Hong Kong Island and the mainland, has been converted into the Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence. This tells the story of coastal defence along the South China coast from the Ming dynasty onwards, the islands of Malta, Gozo and Comino all have some form of coastal fortification. The area around the Grand Harbour was possibly first fortified during Arab rule, and by the 13th century, the Maltese islands were given to Order of Saint John in 1530, who settled in Birgu and rebuilt the Castrum Maris as Fort Saint Angelo. In the 1550s, Fort Saint Elmo and Fort Saint Michael were built, in 1565, the Great Siege of Malta reduced many of these coastal fortifications to rubble, but after the siege they were rebuilt. The fortified city of Valletta was built on the Sciberras Peninsula, the Order also built Fort Chambray near Mġarr Harbour in Gozo
10.
Narragansett Bay
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Narragansett Bay is a bay and estuary on the north side of Rhode Island Sound covering 147 mi2,120.5 mi2 in Rhode Island. The Bay forms New Englands largest estuary, which functions as a natural harbor. Small parts of it extend into Massachusetts, there are more than 30 islands in the Bay, the three largest ones are Aquidneck Island, Conanicut Island, and Prudence Island. Bodies of water that are part of Narragansett Bay include the Sakonnet River, Mount Hope Bay, the bay opens on Rhode Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean, Block Island lies less than 20 miles southwest of its opening. Narragansett Bay can be seen in NOAA chart 13221 Providence, the Rhode Island state capital and largest city, many of Providences suburbs, including Warwick and Cranston, are also on the bay. The city of Fall River, Massachusetts is located at the confluence of the Taunton River and Mount Hope Bay, the southwest side of the bay include the seaside tourist towns of Narragansett and Wickford. Quonset Point, south of Warwick, gives its name to the Quonset hut, Roger Williams University is located in Bristol, Rhode Island on land overlooking the Bay. Narragansett Bay comprises an area of about 4836 square kilometers, the Blackstone and Taunton provide the highest volume of mean, annual freshwater flow into the watershed. River water inflow has a seasonal variability, with the highest flow in the spring, the bay is a drowned river valley estuary which is composed of three ancient river valleys, the Sakonnet River, the East Passage and the West Passage. The bathymetry varies greatly between the three passages, with the depths of the East, West and Sakonnet River passages being 37 m,10 m and 7.5 m respectively. The present shape of Narragansett Bay is instead the result of the most recent glaciation of New England, under the edges of the Laurentide ice sheet at the Last Glacial Maximum, about 18,000 B. P. Sea level was lowered so much that the shelf was exposed, under its weight of ice. Glaciers flowing through an old sedimentary basin carved channels through the younger sediments. As the ice stalled, then retreated, the region became ice-free by about 14,000 B. P, a complicated sequence of marine ingression and isostatic rebound flooded and emptied the landscape. Then salt water filled the valley, as rising sea levels flooded the area. Tides in the watershed are measured at 6 stations, Providence, Fall River, Quonset Point, Conimicut Light, Prudence Island, tides are measured with pressure-sensing tide gauges. In shallow water, sound waves are used to measure water height by measuring the travel time of the waves. In deeper water, tides are measured with pressure-sensing tide gauges that are placed on the floor to measure water height
11.
Rhode Island
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Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, the state also shares a short maritime border with New York. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, on May 29,1790, Rhode Island became the 13th and last state to ratify the Constitution. Rhode Islands official nickname is The Ocean State, a reference to the fact that the state has several large bays, Rhode Island covers 1,214 square miles, of which 1,045 square miles are land. Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States, the official name of the state is State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which is derived from the merger of four settlements. Rhode Island is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay, Providence Plantation was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick, hence the plural Providence Plantations and it is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories. Explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay in 1524, subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area assumed that it was Aquidneck. A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block passed by Aquidneck during his expeditions in the 1610s, historians have theorized that this reddish appearance resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The earliest documented use of the name Rhode Island for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams, the name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words, Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island. The name Isle of Rodes is used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island Red Island, Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others founded Providence Plantation as a proprietary colony. Providence referred to the concept of providence, and plantation was an English term for a colony. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations is the longest official name of any state in the Union, advocates for excising plantation asserted that the word specifically referred to the British colonial practice of establishing settlements which disenfranchised native people. Advocates for retaining the name argued that plantation was simply an archaic English synonym for colony, the referendum election was held on November 2,2010, and the people voted overwhelmingly to retain the entire original name. It shares a maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island
12.
Board of Fortifications
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In 1885 US President Grover Cleveland appointed a joint Army, Navy and civilian board, headed by Secretary of War William Crowninshield Endicott, known as the Board of Fortifications. Coast Artillery fortifications built between 1885 and 1905 are often referred to as Endicott Period fortifications, prior efforts at harbor defense construction had ceased in the 1870s. Since that time the design and construction of heavy ordnance had advanced rapidly, including the development of superior breech-loading and longer-range cannon and these factors combined to create a need for improved coastal defense systems. The Endicott Era Defenses were constructed, in part, during the years of 1890-1910. Masonry walls shrouding hordes of smooth-bore cannon could no longer serve as a coastal defense mechanism. Endicott Era Forts were constructed with walls that concealed large. These disappearing carriages allowed the new, rifled cannons to be raised above the walls, aimed, and fired and this became even more important as warships of the era were armored with steel plates, increasing the necessity of accurate, sustained fire in anti-ship warfare. Fort Hancocks Endicott Era Defenses, Dynamite Gun Battery,15 dynamite guns and 8 dynamite gun Battery Potter,12 disappearing guns and this marked the first instance of concrete and electricity being used together in defenses. An easily overlooked aspect of the Endicott Era Defenses, especially with the necessary highlighting of the breech-loading rifled artillery mounted on disappearing carriages, are the mortars. At Fort Hancock, Battery Potters 12 guns mounted on disappearing carriages, the Abbot-Quad design called for mortars to be fired in 4-16 gun salvos, in shotgun-like patterns designed to overcome the shortcomings of range-finding techniques of the time. In 1907 the Coast Artillery Corps was created from the artillery units which previously manned the forts. This vastly increased garrisons and catalyzed the installation of electrical plants at various forts, other technological improvements at all forts included meteorological stations and telephone communications. All of this served as the capstone of the Endicott Era defenses, in 1905, after the experiences of the Spanish–American War, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a new board, under Secretary of War William Howard Taft. They updated some standards and reviewed the progress on the Endicott Boards program, most of the changes recommended by the Taft Board were technical, such as adding more searchlights, electrification, and more sophisticated optical aiming techniques. The Board also recommended fortifications in territories acquired from Spain, as well as Hawaii, Defenses in Panama were authorized by the Spooner Act of 1902. The Taft program fortifications differed slightly in construction and had fewer guns at a given location than those of the Endicott program. By the time of the First World War, many of the Endicott and Taft era forts had become due to the increased range and accuracy of naval weaponry. In the 1920s and 1930s, most U. S. coast defense facilities were put on maintenance status, as the new weapons were deployed, almost all of the older weapons were scrapped
13.
Fortification
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Fortifications are military constructions or buildings designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and also used to solidify rule in a region during peace time. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs, the term is derived from the Latin fortis and facere. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for cities to survive in a changing world of invasion. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified, in ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae. A Greek Phrourion was a collection of buildings used as a military garrison. These construction mainly served the purpose of a tower, to guard certain roads, passes. Though smaller than a fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch. The art of setting out a camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castramentation since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches, permanent fortification and field fortification, there is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble. Roman forts and hill forts were the antecedents of castles in Europe. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb, Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification, steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may be called fortresses, smaller ones were known as fortalices
14.
Submarine mines in United States harbor defense
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The modern era of defending American harbors with submarine mines began in the post-Civil War period. In 1866, the United States Army Corps of Engineers established the Engineer School of Application at Willets Point, NY. Abbot experimented with explosives, fuzes, cabling, and electrical equipment for over a decade before publishing the first manuals on the use of mines in coast defense in 1876–77. From about 1900 until 1946 the mine defense program grew, until upwards of 10,000 controlled mines were maintained by the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps. In July 1918, the U. S. Army Mine Planter Service was established to maintain U. S. mine defenses. Controlled mines were anchored to the bottom of a harbor, either sitting on the bottom itself or floating at depths which could vary widely and these mines were fired electrically through a vast network of underwater electrical cables at each protected harbor. Mines could be set to explode on contact or be triggered by the operator, the networks of cables terminated on shore in massive concrete bunkers called mine casemates, that were usually buried beneath protective coverings of earth. The mine casemate housed electrical generators, batteries, control panels, the map of Boston Harbors mine fields shows the harbor mine defenses consisting of 30 groups of mines, with 19 mines per group. Each mine was loaded with 200 lb of TNT. So in Bostons case, a total of 57 tons of explosives guarded the harbor. Each of these also had on-shore facilities to store the mines and the TNT used to fill them, rail systems to load and transport the mines. The preferred method of using the mines was to set them to detonate a set period of time after they had touched or tipped. Each mine casemate controlled about 150 to 300 mines, arranged in groups of 19, the mines in a group were generally laid about 100 ft apart, in lines running across the channel being protected, with 50 ft or less on either end of the line. This meant that one group of mines could protect a total distance of about 1,900 ft, about 3 miles of cable were required to connect one group of 19 mines to its distribution box, with the connecting cables radiating out from the box in a hub-and-spoke fashion. Actually, the box was usually located well behind the line of mines. If more groups of mines were needed, multiple mine casemates were generally built, for example, Boston had three mine casemates, with two originally at Fort Dawes on Deer Island and Fort Strong on Long Island. Later in World War II, Fort Strongs mine casemate was deactivated and these panels were located in the casemates operating room, pictured at left-center in the plan shown at right. In addition to these firing controls, the mine casemate contained one or more electric generators, the generators produced direct current, which was used to signal the readiness of the mines
15.
Aquidneck Island
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Aquidneck Island, officially Rhode Island, is located in Narragansett Bay in the U. S. state of Rhode Island. The total land area is 97.9 km2, which makes it the largest island in the bay, the 2000 United States Census reported its population as 60,870. Aquidneck Island is home to three towns, from north to south geographically, Portsmouth, Middletown, and Newport, Aquidneck is derived from the Narragansett name for the island aquidnet. The word literally means floating-mass-at or simply at the island, other sources claim that Aquidneck is an Indian word meaning Isle of Peace. It is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, in 1524, explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay which he likened to the Greek island of Rhodes. It is uncertain to which island he was referring, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area decided to refer to Aquidneck as Rhode Island, the earliest known use of the name Rhode Island was in 1637 by Roger Williams. The name was applied to the island in 1644 with these words. The name Isle of Rodes is found used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps from as early as 1659 call it Roode Eylant or Red Island, historians have theorized that it was named by the Dutch for either the red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The entire state is now referred to as Rhode Island. Board on Geographic Names addressed the issue in 1930 by using names of the island on its maps. By 1964, the board decided that two names was confusing, and Rhode Island was used exclusively as the official name of the island. Attempts to change the name to Aquidneck Island have been made as recently as 2004. A compromise was reached in 2011 when the RI State Department of Transportation allowed Aquidneck Island to be added to maps as a variant appellation. This variant was employed as a result of the 2006 decision by the U. S, board of Geographic Names to allow Rhode Island and Aquidneck Island to co-exist on nautical maps. English colonists first settled on present-day Aquidneck Island in 1638 in the called by the natives Pocasset. At one time, Aquidneck Island was controlled by the Wampanoags, traditionally, Massasoit greeted the Pilgrims at Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1621. Aquidneck Island was used primarily as a territory, although it was probably a summer residence
16.
Conanicut Island
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Conanicut Island is the second largest island in Narragansett Bay in the US state of Rhode Island. It is connected on the east by the Claiborne Pell Bridge to Newport on Aquidneck Island, the island comprises the town of Jamestown, Rhode Island, Newport County, Rhode Island. The United States Census Bureau reported an area of 24.46 km2. Conanicut Island was home to many American Indians, at least on a seasonal basis, the largest Indian cemetery in New England is located on the island, and artifacts spanning a 3000-year period have been recovered from a site near the elementary school. The island is named for Chief Canonicus of the Narragansett tribe who inhabited the land. In 1636 or 1637, Dutch fur traders paid to use the island of Quentenis as a base for their activities and this island is located just west of Conanicut, it is now known as Dutch Island and is part of Jamestown. In 1638, the English colonists made arrangements to use Conanicut Island for grazing sheep, as a result, the name Conanicut was given to the island and the figure of a sheep is in a central position in the Jamestown seal. Conanicut Island was a part of the territory included in a patent given to William Coddington by the English in 1651. In 1657, a consortium of about one hundred buyers purchased Conanicut, Dutch and they divided Conanicut Island into roughly one dozen large plots and reserved Dutch Island and parts of Conanicut Island for common use. Benedict Arnold was one of the purchasers, and he became governor of the colony of Rhode Island the same year, the Indians and colonists lived side-by-side in relative peace for almost four decades. Conflicts eventually occurred in a number of places in southern New England, life in the region was dominated by the colonists after 1676, although Conanicut Island remained a haven for many Indians. In 1725, a ferry was established between the island and Newport, a ferry was established to South Kingstown in 1748
17.
Jamestown, Rhode Island
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Jamestown is a town in Newport County, Rhode Island, in the United States. The population was 5,405 at the 2010 census, Jamestown is situated almost entirely on Conanicut Island, the second largest island in Narragansett Bay. It also includes the uninhabited Dutch Island and Gould Island. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 35.3 square miles, the total area is 72. 55% water. Rhode Island Route 138 is the state highway in Jamestown, connecting the town and island to North Kingstown to the west. Humans arrived in the area about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, at the end of the last ice age, ongoing melting of glaciers caused the sea level to rise, covering low-lying areas and eventually filling Narragansett Bay. The rising sea forced humans to higher elevations, and submerged most traces of the earliest inhabitants, the oldest human artifacts found on Conanicut Island date from around 3000 BC. In 1524, the Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano and his crew visited Narragansett Bay, in 1636 or 1637, Dutch Island was used by fur traders. In 1638 the English made arrangements to use Conanicut Island for grazing sheep, ferries were in operation between Conanicut Island and Newport by 1675. In 1678, Conanicut Island was incorporated as the town of Jamestown, the town was named for James, Duke of York, who would become King James II in 1685. By 1710, many of Conanicut Islands current roads were in place, in 1728, the town of Jamestown built a windmill for grinding corn, which used the sea breeze for power since there was no source of running water to turn a waterwheel. On December 10,1775,200 British and Hessian troops landed at East Ferry on Conanicut Island and marched to West Ferry, where they burned the ferry house. As they returned to East Ferry, they destroyed many buildings, including fourteen homes, in December 1776, a British fleet arrived in Narragansett Bay and occupied Newport. The British took over the colonial militia batteries at Fort Dumpling, the British left Narragansett Bay in October 1779. As they departed, they destroyed the fortifications they had occupied, by 1784, Beavertail Light was back in operation. In 1787, Jamestown rebuilt the Jamestown Windmill and Quaker Meetinghouse that had destroyed during the occupation. In 1800 Fort Dumpling was established on the site of previous fortifications overlooking East Passage, a tall stone tower atop the highest cliff could hold eight guns. In 1872, the town of Jamestown commissioned a steam powered ferryboat, in May 1873, service was initiated between Jamestown and Newport
18.
Sakonnet River
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The Sakonnet River is a tidal strait in the U. S. state of Rhode Island. It flows approximately 23 km between Mount Hope Bay and Rhode Island Sound and it separates Aquidneck Island from the eastern portion of Newport County. Below is a list of all crossings over the Sakonnet River, the list begins at the headwaters and goes downstream. Old Sakonnet River Bridge Replacement Sakonnet River Bridge, opened September 2012, stone Bridge Quaket River Sapowet Creek Almy Brook Little Creek List of rivers in Rhode Island Narragansett Bay Quaket River Maps from the United States Geological Survey
19.
Beavertail State Park
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Beavertail State Park is a Rhode Island state park encompassing 153 acres at the southern end of Conanicut Island in Narragansett Bay. Its main attraction is the active Beavertail Lighthouse, the current tower of which dates from 1856, during World War II, the park area was part of Fort Burnside, one of several coastal fortifications designed to protect Narragansett Bay. The parks scenic shoreline offers hiking, picnicking, and saltwater fishing, Lighthouse A 58-foot wooden tower built in 1749, under the direction of architect Peter Harrison of Newport, burnt down in 1753. It was replaced by a tower which was in use until 1856. The assistant keepers house, which was built in 1898, now houses the Beavertail Lighthouse Museum, coastal fortifications During the American Revolution the Beaver Tail Fort was built in 1776, in conjunction with the Conanicut Battery near Beaver Head. These forts were captured by the British when they seized the Newport area in December 1778, Fort Burnside was established in 1942 as part of the Harbor Defenses of Narragansett Bay. By late 1943, a battery of two 6-inch guns and a battery of two 3-inch guns were established, the 6-inch battery was called Battery Construction Number 213, with ammunition magazines in a large bunker and the guns in shielded mounts. The 3-inch battery was called Battery Whiting, the guns were relocated from Fort Getty, a large Army-Navy Harbor Entrance Control Post, disguised as a seaside mansion, was also built and still exists. Fort Burnside also hosted a US Navy indicator loop station, a battery of two 16-inch guns, similar to those at Fort Church and Fort Greene and called BCN110, was proposed for Fort Burnside but never built. With the war over, Fort Burnsides guns were scrapped in 1948, Radio station From circa 1960 to 1974, part of the former Fort Burnside was used for the Naval Radio Station Jamestown, part of Naval Communications Station Newport. It had a distinctive 600-foot radio tower, State park The state created Beavertail State Park in 1980, after the site was declared federal surplus land. The park is used for sightseeing, hiking, picnicking, Seacoast defense in the United States United States Army Coast Artillery Corps Berhow, Mark A. Ed. American Seacoast Defenses, A Reference Guide, Second Edition, Seacoast Fortifications of the United States
20.
Fort Wolcott
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Fort Wolcott was a fortification on the small Goat Island in Newport Harbor of Narragansett Bay less than 1 mile west of the city of Newport, Rhode Island. The attacks on the HMS St John and HMS Liberty occurred near the fort, an earthen Fort Anne, built on Goat Island in 1702 or 1703 during the War of Spanish Succession, taking the name of Anne, Queen of Great Britain. The fort with 12 guns lasted until 1724, in 1730, the fort returned to service under a new name, Fort George after King George II of Great Britain. In 1738, defenders of Rhode Island built a fortification on the site with perhaps fifty guns. In 1764, residents of Newport, Rhode Island, took over Fort George, in another early act of rebellion against British rule, Rhode Islanders in 1769 burned the British customs ship Liberty when it drifted to the north end of Goat Island. With the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1775, the fort was renamed as Fort Liberty, in 1776, American patriots armed Fort Liberty with 25 guns and built various breastworks to defend the City of Newport. In December 1776 the British army occupied Newport without resistance and renamed the fort Fort George, the British left Newport in November 1779. The French army under Count de Rochambeau occupied Newport in 1780, in 1784, Rhode Islanders repaired the fort, renamed it Fort Washington after General George Washington, and armed it with 28 guns. In 1794, the City of Newport sold Goat Island to the government for $1,500 to maintain a fort to defend Newport Harbor. Control of Fort Washington passed from the Rhode Island state militia to United States Army artillery, the Army rebuilt Fort Washington and outfitted it with 38 guns. The first United States Army officer to command the fort was Captain William Littlefield, Captain Littlefield assumed his duties in either June or July 1794 which marked the beginning of a presence of the United States Armed Forces in Newport which continues to this day. The Army assigned Captain John Henry, who was instrumental in starting the War of 1812, from 1798 to 1800, the American government rebuilt the earthworks of the fort. After 1802 Fort Wolcott was the fort defending Newport harbor along with the smaller Fort Adams which was activated in 1799. The Army repaired Fort Wolcott in 1808, secretary of War William Eustis on 19 December 1809 records 12 guns mounted within Fort Wolcott and 18 more guns mounted on the flank batteries to the north and south of the fort. The barracks are of bricks and wood, for one company, Fort Wolcott, built of stone cemented with lime, featured a brick-and-stone magazine, sally-port, ditch, furnace, and bomb-proof brick barracks. Armament included five long range 32-pounder guns, president James Monroe visited the garrison on 28 June 1817 and left with a positive impression. By 1818, Fort Wolcott featured 28 guns, after 1821, Fort Wolcott absorbed troops from the other forts in Rhode Island and hosted the only continuous army garrison in the state. In 1823 or 1824, the first Newport Harbor Lighthouse was built at the end of Goat Island
21.
Goat Island (Rhode Island)
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Goat Island is a small island in Narragansett Bay and is part of the city of Newport, Rhode Island, U. S. The island is connected to the Eastons Point neighborhood via a causeway bridge and it is home to the Newport Harbor Light, The Marina Cafe & Pub, Belle Mer, the Hyatt Regency Newport hotel, and the Goat Island South Condominiums. It was also home to military forts and to the U. S. Naval Torpedo Station. Narragansett Indians called the island Nante Sinunk and sold it in 1658, early Newport colonists used the island as a goat pasture. An earthen fort was built on Goat Island in 1703 during the War of Spanish Succession, on Friday,19 July 1723, twenty-six pirates were buried on the north end of Goat Island, on the shore, between high and low water mark. They had been tried in Newport between 10 and 12 July and hanged at nearby Bulls Point, the pirates were all young men, most of them natives of England. In 1738, a fort was built and renamed Fort George after King George II. In 1764, Newporters took over Fort George and fired shots at HMS St. John, in 1769, Rhode Islanders burned the customs ship HMS Liberty when it drifted to the north end of Goat Island in another early act of rebellion against British rule. In 1775, the Fort was renamed Fort Liberty, the British army occupied Newport from 1776 through 1779 and renamed it Fort George during that time. In 1784 it was repaired and renamed Fort Washington after George Washington, in 1794, Newport sold Goat Island to the federal government for $1,500 to maintain a military fort to defend Newport Harbor. The fort was named Fort Wolcott in commemoration the services of Oliver Wolcott who was a General of the Militia, in 1824, the first Newport Harbor Lighthouse was constructed at the north end of the island. Fort Wolcott was active until 1835 when the garrison was transferred to Florida to fight the Seminole Indians, in 1851 the original lighthouse moved to Prudence Island to become Prudence Island Light, and the current Newport Harbor Light was constructed on a dike near the former lighthouse site. The area surrounding the dike was later filled in when the hotel was constructed much later, in 1869 the U. S. Naval Torpedo Station was founded on Goat Island, on the site of the former Army fort. The Station was greatly expanded over the next 100 years and produced many of the Navys torpedoes through World War I, the torpedo station was closed in 1951 and Naval Undersea Warfare Center was created with a facility nearby. In addition to the Goat Island lighthouse, the Coast Guard has maintained a cutter at Goat Island since at least the late 1960s. The Point class cutter USCGC Point Turner served her entire 31-year career at Goat Island from when she was commissioned on 14 April 1967 until she was decommissioned on 3 April 1998. The tradition of having a Coast Guard cutter stationed at Goat Island resumed when the Marine Protector class coastal patrol boat USCGC Tiger Shark was commissioned on 16 July 2005, in the 1960s, Goat Island was sold to a private developer Globe Manufacturing. In the 1990s IDC, Island Development Corp. constructed the Regatta Club, after two Rhode Island Supreme Court decisions, regarding the development, Goat Island South Condominiums took possession of the Regatta Club leasing it to a third party
22.
Anne, Queen of Great Britain
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Anne became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702. On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union, two of her realms, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, united as a sovereign state known as Great Britain. She continued to reign as Queen of Great Britain and Ireland until her death, Anne was born in the reign of her uncle Charles II, who had no legitimate children. Her father, James, was first in line to the throne and his suspected Roman Catholicism was unpopular in England, and on Charless instructions Anne was raised as an Anglican. Three years after he succeeded Charles, James was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Annes Dutch Protestant brother-in-law and cousin William III became joint monarch with his wife, Annes elder sister Mary II. Although the sisters had been close, disagreements over Annes finances, status and choice of acquaintances arose shortly after Marys accession, William and Mary had no children. After Marys death in 1694, William continued as sole monarch until he was succeeded by Anne upon his death in 1702, as queen, Anne favoured moderate Tory politicians, who were more likely to share her Anglican religious views than their opponents, the Whigs. The Whigs grew more powerful during the course of the War of the Spanish Succession and her close friendship with Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, turned sour as the result of political differences. Anne was plagued by ill health throughout her life, from her thirties onwards, she grew increasingly lame and obese. Despite seventeen pregnancies by her husband, Prince George of Denmark, she died without any surviving children and was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. Anne was born at 11,39 p. m. on 6 February 1665 at St Jamess Palace, London, the child and second daughter of James, Duke of York. At her Anglican baptism in the Chapel Royal at St Jamess, her sister, Mary, was one of her godparents, along with the Duchess of Monmouth. The Duke and Duchess of York had eight children, but Anne, as a child, Anne suffered from an eye condition, which manifested as excessive watering known as defluxion. For medical treatment, she was sent to France, where she lived with her grandmother, Queen Henrietta Maria. Following her grandmothers death in 1669, Anne lived with an aunt, Henrietta Anne, on the sudden death of her aunt in 1670, Anne returned to England. Her mother died the following year, as was traditional in the royal family, Anne and her sister were brought up separated from their father in their own establishment at Richmond, London. On the instructions of Charles II, they were raised as Protestants, placed in the care of Colonel Edward and Lady Frances Villiers, their education was focused on the teachings of the Anglican church. Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was appointed as Annes preceptor, around 1671, Anne first made the acquaintance of Sarah Jennings, who later became her close friend and one of her most influential advisors
23.
George II of Great Britain
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George II was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 until his death. George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain, he was born, after the deaths of Sophia and Anne, Queen of Great Britain, in 1714, his father George I, Elector of Hanover, inherited the British throne. In the first years of his fathers reign as king, George was associated with opposition politicians, as king from 1727, George exercised little control over British domestic policy, which was largely controlled by the Parliament of Great Britain. As elector, he spent twelve summers in Hanover, where he had direct control over government policy. He had a relationship with his eldest son, Frederick. During the War of the Austrian Succession, George participated at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743, Frederick died unexpectedly in 1751, nine years before his father, and so George II was ultimately succeeded by his grandson, George III. For two centuries after George IIs death, history tended to him with disdain, concentrating on his mistresses, short temper. Since then, most scholars have reassessed his legacy and conclude that he held and exercised influence in foreign policy and military appointments. George was born in the city of Hanover in Germany, and was the son of George Louis, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, both of Georges parents committed adultery, and in 1694 their marriage was dissolved on the pretext that Sophia had abandoned her husband. She was confined to Ahlden House and denied access to her two children, George and his sister Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, who never saw their mother again. George spoke only French, the language of diplomacy and the court, until the age of four, after which he was taught German by one of his tutors, Johann Hilmar Holstein. In addition to French and German, he was schooled in English and Italian. Georges second cousin once removed, Queen Anne, ascended the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1702, consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, Georges father did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he had, and wanted him to have the opportunity of meeting his bride before any formal arrangements were made. Negotiations from 1702 for the hand of Princess Hedvig Sophia of Sweden, Dowager Duchess and regent of Holstein-Gottorp, the English envoy to Hanover, Edmund Poley, reported that George was so taken by the good character he had of her that he would not think of anybody else. A marriage contract was concluded by the end of July, on 22 August /2 September 1705O. S. /N. S. Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding, which was held the evening in the chapel at Herrenhausen. George was keen to participate in the war against France in Flanders, in early 1707, Georges hopes were fulfilled when Caroline gave birth to a son, Frederick
24.
HMS St John (1764)
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HMS St. John was a Royal Navy ship attacked in 1764 by American colonists in Newport, Rhode Island. Rhode Islanders were violently opposed to the passage of the Sugar Act in 1764, to collect the tax the British sent several ships to New England including HMS Squirrel. In 1764 crew members on another British ship, HMS St John had allegedly stolen goods from Newport merchants, therefore, a group of Rhode Islanders took control of Fort George on Goat Island in Newport harbor and fired cannon shots at the British ship. The shots were one of the first open acts of rebellion against the British government in America, the Rhode Islanders were acting under orders from local officials, but dispersed before HMS Squirrel, a twenty-gun ship, arrived at the scene. St. John successfully fled the harbor, HMS Liberty Gaspée Affair Colonists Respond to the Sugar Act & Currency Act of 1764
25.
Customs
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The movement of people into and out of a country is normally monitored by immigration authorities, under a variety of names and arrangements. Each country has its own laws and regulations for the import and export of goods into and out of a country, the import or export of some goods may be restricted or forbidden. In most countries, customs are attained through government agreements and international laws, a customs duty is a tariff or tax on the importation or exportation of goods. Commercial goods not yet cleared through customs are held in an area, often called a bonded store. All authorized ports are recognized customs areas, at airports, customs is the point of no return for all passengers, once a passenger has cleared customs, they cannot go back. In many countries, customs procedures for arriving passengers at many international airports and some road crossings are separated into red, passengers with goods to declare go through the red channel. Passengers with nothing to go through the green channel. Each channel is a point of no return, once a passenger has entered a particular channel, australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States do not officially operate a red and green channel system, however, some airports copy this layout. Airports in EU countries such as Finland, Ireland or the United Kingdom, as the EU is a customs union, travellers between EU countries do not have to pay customs duties. Value-added tax and excise duties may be if the goods are subsequently sold. Passengers arriving from other EU countries go through the blue channel, luggage tickets for checked luggage travelling within the EU are green-edged so they may be identified. In most EU member states, travellers coming from other EU countries can use the green lane. All airports in the United Kingdom operate a system, however some dont have a red channel. Customs is part of one of the three functions of a government, namely, administration, maintenance of law, order, and justice. However, in a bid to mitigate corruption, many countries have partly privatised their customs and this has occurred by way of contracting pre-shipment inspection agencies, which examine the cargo and verify the declared value before importation occurs. The countrys customs is obliged to accept the report for the purpose of assessing duties and taxes at the port of entry. It has been found that evasion of customs duty escalated when pre-shipment agencies took over and it has also been alleged that involvement of such agencies has caused shipping delays. Privatization of customs has been viewed as a fatal remedy, the basic customs law is harmonized across Europe within the European Union Customs Union
26.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
27.
Patriot (American Revolution)
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Patriots were those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Their rebellion was based on the philosophy of republicanism, as expressed by spokesmen such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams. They were opposed by the Loyalists who instead supported continued British rule, as a group, Patriots represented a wide array of social, economic and ethnic backgrounds. The critics of British rule called themselves Whigs after 1768, identifying members of the British Whig party. The Oxford English Dictionary third definition of Patriot is A person actively opposing enemy forces occupying his or her country, a member of a resistance movement, originally used of those who opposed and fought the British in the American War of Independence. The earliest citation is a 1773 letter by Benjamin Franklin, in Britain at the time, patriot had a negative connotation, and was used, says Samuel Johnson as a negative epithet for a factious disturber of the government. During the Revolution these persons became known primarily as Loyalists, afterward, many emigrated north to the remaining British territories in what is now modern Canada. There they called themselves the United Empire Loyalists, many Patriots were active before 1775 in groups such as the Sons of Liberty. The most prominent leaders of the Patriots are referred to today by Americans as the Founding Fathers, the Patriots came from many different backgrounds. Among the most active of the Patriots group were highly educated, however, without the support of the ordinary men and women, such as farmers, lawyers, merchants, seamstresses, homemakers, shopkeepers, and ministers, the struggle for independence would have failed. With a white population of about 2.5 million, that makes about 380,000 to 500,000 Loyalists, the great majority of them remained in America, since only about 80,000 Loyalists left the United States 1775–1783. They went to Canada, Britain, Florida or the West Indies, to understand how people made the choice between being a Patriot or a Loyalist, historians have compared the motivations and personalities of leading men on each side. Labaree has identified eight characteristics that differentiated the two groups, psychologically, Loyalists were older, better established, and more likely to resist innovation than the Patriots. Men who were alienated by physical attacks on Royal officials took the Loyalist position, most men who wanted to find a compromise solution wound up on the Loyalist side, while the proponents of immediate action became Patriots. Some Loyalists were procrastinators who believed that independence was bound to some day, but wanted to postpone the moment. Loyalists were cautious and afraid of anarchy or tyranny that might come from mob rule, Patriots made an effort to use. Finally, Labaree argues that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the Patriots confidence that independence lay ahead, the Patriot faction came to reject taxes imposed by legislatures in which the tax-payer was not represented. No taxation without representation, was their slogan, referring to the lack of representation in the British Parliament, the British countered there was virtual representation, that is, all members of Parliament represented the interests of all the citizens of the British Empire
28.
Easton's Point
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The Point is one of the oldest neighborhoods in Newport, Rhode Island and has one of the highest concentrations of colonial houses in the United States. The neighborhood sits between Washington Street and Farewell Street/Americas Cup in Newport looking out on Goat Island, former home to the U. S. Naval Torpedo Station, nicholas Easton, a founder of Newport, first settled in the area in the 17th century. Eastons heirs divided the property into lots in 1725 and sold parcels to many of Newports early tradesmen, many of the early inhabitants attended the nearby Quaker Meeting House or Touro Synagogue. None of the streets were named after people because of a Quaker tradition, so 1st, 2nd. Marsh Street was formerly the site of a marsh, and Bridge Street was the site of a bridge traversing the side of the marsh. Long Wharf jutted across the side of the marsh until it was filled in the 19th century. In 1723, Gravelly Point was the site of the largest public mass execution in American history and they were then buried on nearby Goat Island. Various houses in The Point were occupied by British and French forces during the American Revolution around the time of the Battle of Rhode Island, the famous Goddard and Townsend furniture makers lived and worked in The Point, and their houses still remain. Battery Park was created from Fort Greene, a military battery from the War of 1812. Newport has remained largely unindustrialized, so many of the colonial houses were not demolished, as was done in Boston. As a result, Newport allegedly has the highest concentration of homes of any American city. The Point, however, was neglected by the 1950s. In the 1960s and 70s, Doris Dukes Newport Restoration Foundation bought 27 historic houses in The Point, restored them, in the 1960s, the construction of the Newport Bridge divided the neighborhood in two. The Point is home to the Hunter House museum, the Rumbline Restaurant, the old docks disappeared at the end of the streets but the driftways remained, allowing public access to the harbor for boaters. Saint John the Evangelist Church in the Point Christine Dunn, Newport’s the Point, A mingling of mansions, modest residences, Providence Journal, April 8,2008 Point pictures and info
29.
Castle Hill Light
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Castle Hill Lighthouse is located on Narragansett Bay in Newport, Rhode Island at the end of the historic Ocean Drive. It is a navigation aid for vessels entering the East Passage between Conanicut Island and Aquidneck Island. The lighthouse was completed in 1890 on property belonging to the naturalist, oceanographer. Agassiz sold the land to the United States Government for the lighthouse for $1.00, henry Hobson Richardson drew a sketch for a lighthouse at this location which may or may not have been the basis for the actual design. The structure does not include the residence which was featured in Richardsons sketch, the keepers house was built, and still stands, near Castle Hill Cove, a few hundred feet away. Although the lighthouse is not open to the public, the shoreline and cliff face where the lighthouse sits are accessible by footpaths from the Castle Hill Inn. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988 as Castle Hill Lighthouse, frank W. Parmele George L. Hoxsie Manuel Soares Macedo. National Register of Historic Places listings in Newport County, Rhode Island
30.
Fort Wetherill
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Fort Wetherill is a former coast artillery fort that occupies the southern portion of the eastern tip of Conanicut Island, located in Jamestown, Rhode Island. The fort sits atop high granite cliffs, overlooking the entrance to Narragansett Bay, Fort Dumpling, dating from the American Revolutionary War, used to occupy a small site until it was built over by Fort Wetherill. The fort was deactivated and turned over to the State of Rhode Island after World War II and is now operated as Fort Wetherill State Park, the park is managed by the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management. In 1776, an 8-gun earthwork fortification was constructed by forces at the site of Dumpling Rock. This old fort was occupied by American, British, and French forces for various periods of time during the Revolutionary War, the patriots called it the Dumpling Rock Battery, the British called it Fort Dumpling Rock. The British abandoned the fort at Dumpling Rock in 1779 when they evacuated Newport, after this it was called Fort Conanicut. In 1798, construction was started on a permanent fortification at Dumpling Rock under the supervision of Major Louis Tousard of the Army Corps of Engineers and this fort was officially called Fort Louis and, later, Fort Brown, but it was commonly called Fort Dumpling throughout its existence. Fort Dumpling was in the form of a stone tower and was frequently used as an artistic motif. The fort was mentioned in the Secretary of Wars report on fortifications for December 1811 as being at the Dumplins and is described as a tower of stone. With a small expense, there can be mounted six or eight heavy guns, in 1899, the U. S. government purchased additional land during the Endicott period of coastal fortification, and built Fort Wetherill at the site of Fort Dumpling. Fort Wetherill was the largest fort of the Coast Defenses of Narragansett Bay and it was named for Captain Alexander Macomb Wetherill, a Jamestown native who was killed in action during the Battle of San Juan Hill. Fort Dumpling was destroyed in the process of building the new fort, in 1901, Battery Varnum was the first modern battery to be completed, mounting two 12-inch guns on barbette carriages and situated in the far southeast corner of the fort. By 1910, the six batteries in the forts pre-World War II arsenal had been brought into service. Several of these batteries are now overgrown with brush, but they offer what is perhaps the longest linear concrete gun line in the coast defenses of New England, during World War I, the fort was garrisoned by five companies of the Rhode Island National Guard. After the war, Fort Wetherill reverted to caretaker status, with only a single Coast Artillery sergeant assigned to watch over it, the 10th Coast Artillery Regiment of the Regular Army also garrisoned forts in Rhode Island 1924-45. The fort also functioned in the year before World War II as a training facility. However, the big guns of the Endicott era were mostly scrapped by 1943, as Fort Wetherill was superseded by new defenses centered on Fort Greene and Fort Church. In 1946, the U. S. military ceased operations at Fort Wetherill, the State of Rhode Island officially acquired the fort on 16 August 1972 and reconfigured the site for public use as a state park
31.
Artillery Company of Newport
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The Newport Artillery Company of Newport, Rhode Island was chartered in 1741 by the Rhode Island General Assembly during the reign of King George II of Great Britain. It is the oldest military unit in the United States operating under its charter. The Company has served in wars ranging from the French and Indian War to the First World War, individual members of the Company have served in every war fought by the United States. The Newport Artillery was the first chartered independent unit in the Rhode Island Militia, unlike most colonial era militia units, which served under officers commissioned by the governor, the Newport Artillery was granted the right to elect its own officers. It also had the privilege of being only to the orders of the governor. Its first commanding officer was Captain Jahleel Brenton, Captain Brenton was the grandson of Governor William Brenton and the father of Jahleel Brenton, Jr. who became a rear admiral in the Royal Navy. During the American Revolution, the British Army occupied Newport for almost three years starting in December 1776, the Assembly found no reason that the charter was invalid and Malbone was elected captain of the Company. Members of the company followed Newport native Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry to Put-in-Bay, Ohio, in 1814, during the War of 1812, the Company was activated and garrisoned Fort Greene in the Point section of Newport. The company was inactivated when the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war, was signed in early 1815, during the Dorr War of 1842 to 1843, the Company was one of several militia units to suppress the rebellion against the government of Rhode Island. During the American Civil War, the Company was mustered into Federal serice as Company F of the 1st Rhode Island Infantry in April 1861 under the command of Captain George W. Tew. It fought at the Battle of Bull Run in July and was mustered out of Federal service in August, individual members of Company F volunteered for service with other regiments after they were mustered out of service in August 1861. In 1862 the Company was activated to provide the force at the newly established Lovell General Hospital at Portsmouth Grove. A number of members of the Company enlisted in the 1st Rhode Island Volunteer Infantry Regiment which served stateside from 1898 to 1899. In September 1913 the Company, led by Colonel Frank P. King, went to Put in Bay, unfortunately, many of the Companys members were sickened by food poisoning during the trip. The company purchased historic reproduction uniforms for the occasion and these uniforms became the basis for Companys colonial uniform which is currently worn. As the Company was not part of the National Guard it was not called into Federal service during the First World War and it was, however, called into state service and guarded a railroad bridge connecting the towns of Portsmouth and Tiverton from April to June 1917. A former commander of the company, Colonel Alvin A. Barker, was placed in command of the Rhode Island State Guard, the RISG was formed to replace National Guard units which had been called into Federal service. The RISG consisted of 16 companies spread throughout the state, the Newport Artillery formed Company F of the RISG
32.
Battle of Rhode Island
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The Battle of Rhode Island, also known as the Battle of Quaker Hill, and the Siege of Newport took place on August 29,1778. The battle ended inconclusively, but afterwards Continental forces withdrew to the mainland, the battle was the first attempt at cooperation between French and American forces following Frances entry into the war as an American ally. France formally recognized the United States of America in February 1778 following the surrender of the British Army after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777, War was declared between France and Great Britain in March 1778. It was not until early June that a fleet of 13 ships of the line left European waters in pursuit, dEstaings crossing of the Atlantic took three months, but Byron was also delayed due to bad weather and did not reach New York until mid August. The British evacuated from Philadelphia to New York City before dEstaings arrival and their North American fleet was no longer on the river when the French fleet arrived at Delaware Bay in early July. DEstaing decided to sail for New York, but its well-defended harbor presented a challenge to the French fleet. The troops reached their destination on July 15, raising the size of Major General Robert Pigots garrison to more than 6,700 men, American and British forces had been in a standoff on Aquidneck Island since the British occupation began in late 1776. In March 1778, Congress approved the appointment of Major General John Sullivan to Rhode Island, by early May, Sullivan had arrived in the state and produced a detailed report on the situation. He began logistical preparations for an attack on Newport, caching equipment and supplies on the shore of Narragansett Bay. British General Pigot was aware of Sullivans preparations and launched an expedition on May 25 that raided Bristol and this destroyed military supplies and plundered the towns. Sullivans response was to make renewed appeals for assistance, which were reinforced by a Congressional declaration after a raid on Freetown on May 31. General Washington wrote to Sullivan on July 17 ordering him to raise 5,000 troops for operations against Newport. Sullivans force at that time amounted to 1,600 troops, Laurens had left Washingtons camp on the 22nd, riding ahead of a column of Continental troops led by the Marquis de Lafayette. News of the French involvement rallied support for the cause, however, these forces took some time to muster, and the majority of them did not arrive until the first week of August. Washington sent Major General Nathanael Greene, a Rhode Island native and reliable officer, Sullivan had been regularly criticized in Congress for his performance in earlier battles, and Washington urged him to take counsel from Greene and Lafayette. Greene wrote to Sullivan on the matter and reinforced the need for a successful operation, dEstaing sailed from his position outside the New York harbor on July 22, when the British judged the tide high enough for the French ships to cross the bar. He initially sailed south before turning northeast toward Newport, the British fleet in New York consisted of eight ships of the line under the command of Lord Richard Howe, and they sailed out after him once they discovered that his destination was Newport. DEstaing arrived off Point Judith on July 29 and immediately met with Generals Greene, the next day, dEstaing sent frigates into the Sakonnet River and into the main channel leading to Newport
33.
Middletown, Rhode Island
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Middletown is a town in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States. The population was 16,150 at the 2010 census and it lies to the south of Portsmouth and to the north of Newport on Aquidneck Island, hence the name Middletown. Various issues including unjust taxation and a population caused the freeholders living in the northern section of Newport to petition the general assembly for independence. As a result of the petition, the land that Middletown occupies was set apart in 1731, the town was incorporated in 1743. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 14.9 square miles. Middletown was known as the community of Aquidneck Island. Today most of the land is located towards the western part of the town. The town is governed by a town council, elected at-large in partisan elections. Executive authority is vested in a town administrator. The town also elects a non-partisan school committee, Middletown forms part of Rhode Islands 1st congressional district, represented by Democrat David Cicilline. At the state level, Middletown is part of one state senate, the 12th Rhode Island Senate district, which also includes parts of Newport, Little Compton and Tiverton, is held by Democrat Louis P. DiPalma. In the Rhode Island House of Representatives, Middletown forms part of the 72nd, 73rd, the 72nd, which also includes portions of Newport and Portsmouth, is represented by Republican Daniel Reilly. The 73rd, which is predominantly Newport, is held by Democrat Russell Jackson, the 74th, shared between Middletown and Jamestown, is represented by Democrat Deb Ruggiero. At the 2000 census, there were 17,334 people,6,993 households and 4,643 families residing in the town, the population density was 1,335.4 per square mile. There were 7,603 housing units at a density of 585.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 89. 12% White,2. 72% African American,2. 36% Native American,1. 18% Asian,1. 11% Pacific Islander,1. 07% from other races, and 2. 43% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 93% of the population, of all households 28. 7% were made up of individuals and 10. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the family size was 3.01
34.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
35.
Yorktown campaign
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The Yorktown or Virginia campaign was a series of military maneuvers and battles during the American Revolutionary War that culminated in the decisive Siege of Yorktown in October 1781. The campaign involved land and naval forces of Great Britain and France, British forces were sent to Virginia between January and April 1781 and joined with Cornwalliss army in May, which came north from an extended campaign through the southern states. The Royal Navy attempted to dispute this control, but Admiral Thomas Graves was defeated in the key Battle of the Chesapeake on September 5, American and French armies that had massed outside New York City began moving south in late August, and arrived near Yorktown in mid-September. Deceptions about their movement successfully delayed attempts by Clinton to send troops to Cornwallis. The Siege of Yorktown began on September 28,1781, in a step that probably shortened the siege, Cornwallis decided to abandon parts of his outer defenses, and the besiegers successfully stormed two of his redoubts. When it became clear that his position was untenable, Cornwallis opened negotiations on October 17, when the news reached London, the government of Lord North fell, and the following Rockingham ministry entered into peace negotiations. These culminated in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, in which King George III recognized the independent United States of America. Clinton and Cornwallis engaged in a war of words defending their roles in the campaign. By December 1780, the American Revolutionary Wars North American theaters had reached a critical point, the national currency was virtually worthless, public support for the war, about to enter its sixth year, was waning, and army troops were becoming mutinous over pay and conditions. In the Americans favor, Loyalist recruiting in the south had been checked with a blow at Kings Mountain in October. Virginias only defenses consisted of locally raised militia companies, and a force that had been virtually wiped out in the 1779 raid. Steuben had established a center in Chesterfield for new Continental Army recruits. French military planners had to balance competing demands for the 1781 campaign, after a series of unsuccessful attempts at cooperation with the Americans, they realized more active participation in North America was needed. However, they also needed to coordinate their actions with Spain, as the French fleet was preparing to depart Brest in March 1781, several important decisions were made. Due to a lack of transports, France also promised six million livres to support the American war effort instead of providing additional troops, the French fleet at Newport was given a new commander, the Comte de Barras. In orders that were not fully shared with General Washington. The French general, the Comte de Rochambeau was instructed to tell Washington that de Grasse might be able to assist, the French fleet sailed from Brest on March 22. The British fleet was busy with preparations to resupply Gibraltar, after the French fleet sailed, the packet ship Concorde sailed for Newport, carrying the Comte de Barras, Rochambeaus orders, and credits for the six million livres
36.
Seacoast defense in the United States
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Seacoast defense was a major concern for the United States from its independence until World War II. Before airplanes, Americas enemies could only reach her from the sea, after the 1940s, it was recognized that fixed fortifications were obsolete and ineffective against aircraft and missiles. However, in prior eras foreign fleets were a realistic threat, the defenses heavily depended on fortifications but also included submarine minefields, nets and booms, ships, and airplanes. Therefore, all of the armed forces participated in seacoast defense, designs evolved and became obsolete with changes in the technology available to both the attacking forces and the defenders. At the beginning of the American Revolution, many coastal fortifications already protected the Atlantic coast, prior to independence from Britain, local communities or colonies bore the cost and responsibility for their own protection. Urgency would wax and wane based on the climate in Europe. Most defenses were artillery protected by earthworks, as protection from pirate raids, though seldom used, the forts were a deterrent. Additional forts, called Patriot batteries, were built during the Revolution, when the United States gained independence in 1783, the seacoast defense fortifications were in poor condition. Twenty significant forts at thirteen harbors were approved for construction, mostly with traditional low walled structures with low sloped earthworks protecting wood or brick walls. The conventional wisdom was that soft earth would cushion the effect of fire against the walls. The angled walls also reduced the chance for more destructive straight-on hits from cannonballs, most First System forts were relatively small, and with some exceptions mounted only one tier of cannon, on the roof of the fort. Additional water batteries outside the fort provided more firepower, lacking trained engineers to supervise the work, Secretary of War Henry Knox placed a number of European engineers under contract. Although some fine forts were constructed, for the most part enthusiasm and funding waned, most of the partially finished earthworks and wooden structures deteriorated before they were needed to defend against the British in 1812. In 1802, Congress separated the artillerists and engineers into separate corps and directed the Corps of Engineers to create a military academy at West Point, one of the driving forces for establishing the new academy was the need to divorce the United States from its reliance on foreign engineers. In 1807-1808, new concerns over a war with Great Britain, prompted President Thomas Jefferson to renew fortification programs. One common weakness among the typical low-walled open bastion or star forts was exposure to fire, especially to new devices designed to explode in mid air. Gun emplacements which were at an angle to the sea were vulnerable to a solid shot running parallel to the taking out a row of guns. In the late 1770s, a French engineer, the Marquis de Montalembert and his design protected a forts gunners by placing most of them in covered casemate walls with openings for the guns
37.
United States Army Corps of Engineers
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The United States Army Corps of Engineers, also sometimes shortened to CoE is a U. S. Although generally associated with dams, canals and flood protection in the United States, the Corps of Engineers provides outdoor recreation opportunities to the public, and provides 24% of U. S. hydropower capacity. The corps mission is to Deliver vital public and military engineering services, partnering in peace and war to strengthen our Nations security, energize the economy and their most visible missions include, Planning, designing, building, and operating locks and dams. Other civil engineering projects include flood control, beach nourishment, design and construction of flood protection systems through various federal mandates. Design and construction management of military facilities for the Army, Air Force, Army Reserve and Air Force Reserve and other Defense and Federal agencies. The history of United States Army Corps of Engineers can be traced back to 16 June 1775, colonel Richard Gridley became General George Washingtons first chief engineer, however, it was not until 1779 that Congress created a separate Corps of Engineers. One of its first tasks was to build fortifications near Boston at Bunker Hill, the first Corps of Engineers was mostly composed of French subjects who had been hired by General Washington from the service of Louis XVI. that the said Corps. Shall be stationed at West Point in the State of New York, until 1866, the superintendent of the United States Military Academy was always an officer of engineer. During the first half of the 19th century, West Point was the major and, for a while, the General Survey Act of 1824 authorized the use of Army engineers to survey road and canal routes. Separately authorized on 4 July 1838, the U. S and it was merged with the Corps of Engineers on 31 March 1863, at which point the Corps of Engineers also assumed the Lakes Survey District mission for the Great Lakes. In 1841, Congress created the Lake Survey, the survey, based in Detroit, Mich. was charged with conducting a hydrographical survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes and preparing and publishing nautical charts and other navigation aids. The Lake Survey published its first charts in 1852, in the mid-19th century, Corps of Engineers officers ran Lighthouse Districts in tandem with U. S. Naval officers. The Army Corps of Engineers played a significant role in the American Civil War, many of the men who would serve in the top leadership in this institution were West Point graduates who rose to military fame and power during the Civil War. Some of these men were Union Generals George McClellan, Henry Halleck, George Meade, and Confederate generals Robert E. Lee, Joseph Johnston, the versatility of officers in the Army Corps of Engineers contributed to the success of numerous missions throughout the Civil War. They were responsible for building pontoon and railroad bridges, forts and batteries, the destruction of supply lines. The Army Corps of Engineers served as a function in making the war effort logistically feasible. This method of building trenches was known as the zigzag pattern, from the beginning, many politicians wanted the Corps of Engineers to contribute to both military construction and works of a civil nature. During World War II the mission grew to more than 27,000 military, included were aircraft, tank assembly, and ammunition plants, camps for 5.3 million soldiers, depots, ports, and hospitals, as well as the Manhattan Project, and the Pentagon
38.
Fort Hamilton Historic District
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The Fort Hamilton Historic District is a historic district including all of Rose Island in Newport, Rhode Island. The district includes Rose Island Light and an early U. S. military fortification designed in part by Major Louis de Tousard, the fort was named after Alexander Hamilton. The earliest fortifications on Rose Island were built in 1780 during the American Revolutionary War around the time of the Battle of Rhode Island. Later construction took place from 1798 to 1801 but was largely unfinished except for a long barracks building used by the U. S. Infantry. The Secretary of Wars report on fortifications for December 1811 describes Fort Hamilton as an unfinished work of masonry of four bastions. In the 19th century Fort Hamilton was used as a station for the port of Newport. During World War II anti-aircraft guns were added to the island. The fort was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001, National Register of Historic Places listings in Newport County, Rhode Island Wade, Arthur P. Artillerists and Engineers, The Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortifications, 1794-1815. RI-58, Fort Hamilton, Rose Island, Newport vicinity, Newport County, rI-58-A, Fort Hamilton, Bomb-Proof Barracks, Rose Island, Newport vicinity, Newport County, RI HAER No. RI-58-B, Fort Hamilton, Northwest Circular Bastion, Rose Island, Newport vicinity, Newport County, rI-58-C, Fort Hamilton, Southwest Circular Bastion, Underneath Rose Island Lighthouse, Newport vicinity, Newport County, RI HAER No. RI-57, Rose Island Lighthouse, Rose Island, Newport vicinity, Newport County, RI
39.
Rose Island (Rhode Island)
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Rose Island is an 18. 5-acre island in Narragansett Bay off Newport, Rhode Island, United States. It is allegedly named Rose Island because at low tide the island appears to be shaped like a rose, the Island is only accessible by boat. The island and its lighthouse are run by the private, non-profit Rose Island Lighthouse Foundation, the Native American name for Rose Island was Conockonoquit. Fortifications were constructed during the American Revolution on the island, in 1798, the U. S. government began constructing Fort Hamilton on Rose Island, but never completed the fort. The stone barracks from the fort still remain, the U. S. Navy used Rose Island to store explosives during World Wars I and II as part of the Naval Torpedo Station. The government stopped using the island after World War II and declared it government surplus, the abandoned fort was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 as Fort Hamilton Historic District. Built in 1870, the Rose Island Light served as an aid to navigation for a century, in 1984, a group of citizens started the Newport Lighthouse Foundation to preserve the light. As of 2008, it has restored to its Victorian appearance. Visitors may pay to stay at the lighthouse for a night or one week as keepers, Rose Island Lighthouse Foundation Military History Frederic Denlson, Narragansett Sea and Shore, George L. Seavey, Rhode Islands Coastal Natural Areas
40.
Oliver Wolcott
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Oliver Wolcott, Sr. was an American politician. He was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and also the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Connecticut and he was a major general for the Connecticut Militia in the Revolutionary War serving under George Washington. Wolcott was born in Windsor, Connecticut, the youngest of fourteen children of the colonial governor Roger Wolcott and he attended Yale College, graduating in 1747 as the top scholar in his class. Upon graduation, New York governor George Clinton granted Wolcott a captain’s commission to raise a company to fight in the French. Serving as captain, Wolcott served on the northern frontier defending the Canadian border against the French until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, at the end of the war, Wolcott moved to newly settled Goshen in northwestern Connecticut to practice and study medicine with his brother, Alexander. He then moved to Litchfield and became a merchant and was appointed by his father sheriff of the newly created Litchfield County, Connecticut and he married Lorraine Collins of Guilford, Connecticut, on January 21,1755. They had five children, Oliver, Oliver, Jr. Laura, Mariann, Wolcott had two careers during the war years, one of Connecticut’s principal delegates to the Continental Congress and a militia officer. Wolcott participated in the American Revolutionary War as brigadier general and then major general in the Connecticut militia, as a representative in the Continental Congress, Wolcott was a strong advocate for independence. Early in the struggle with Great Britain, Wolcott made it clear that the colonists would not give up their rights. In February 1776, Wolcott himself stated, “Our difference with Great Britain has become very great… What matters will issue in, I cannot say, Wolcott saw extensive militia service during the American Revolution. On August 11,1776, Connecticut officials ordered him to march the Seventeenth Regiment of militia to New York, upon arriving at Washington’s camp, Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull appointed Wolcott brigadier general in command of all the state’s militia regiments in New York. Along with support to Washington, Wolcott led 300—400 volunteers from his brigade to help General Horatio Gates, in May 1779, Wolcott was promoted to major general in command of all Connecticut Militia. That summer he saw combat in protecting the coastline from Tryon’s raids and he was largely unsuccessful in his combat with Major General William Tryon. ”Apart from his role as a militia officer, he was active in congress and his home was extremely busy during the war. General George Washington at Woloctts home and bullets were manufactured for the war efforts, the Continental Congress appointed Wolcott Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and he was elected to the Congress in 1775. He became seriously ill in 1776 and did not sign the Declaration of Independence until some time later, at the beginning of the Revolution, Congress had made Wolcott a commissioner of Indian affairs to persuade the northern Indian nations to remain neutral. His qualifications for this came from his early experience on the northern front of the French. Now he was asked along with Richard Butler and Arthur Lee, beyond his post war diplomatic role, Wolcott aspired to higher office. He was elected Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut as a Federalist in 1786 and he was reelected to the position, holding the office until his death at the age of seventy-one
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