1.
Arlecchino (opera)
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Arlecchino, oder Die Fenster is a one-act opera with spoken dialog by Ferruccio Busoni, with a libretto in German, composed in 1913. He completed the music for the opera while living in Zurich in 1916 and it is a number opera written in neo-classical style and includes ironic allusions to operatic conventions and situations typical of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It even includes a parody of a duel, the premiere performance was on 11 May 1917 at the Stadttheater, Zürich. Busonis two-act opera Turandot was also performed on the program as part of a double-bill, the first British staged performance of Arlecchino was in 1954 at Glyndebourne. However, Edward Clark had produced a version in London in 1939. The opera is in four movements with a representation of Arlecchino in each of them. ARLECCHINO als Sieger The roles in Arlecchino are derived from the Italian commedia dellarte and it is unusual in that the title role of Arlecchino is primarily a speaking role. The composer has said that Arlecchino has a tendency to ambiguity, ronald Stevenson has described it as an anti-opera, and an anti-war satire. Larry Sitsky describes the music as tightly integrated and largely based on the row appears as a fanfare at the commencement of the opera. And Henry Cowell has characterised this composition as the opera to betray knowledge of Schoenbergs early style before Wozzeck. Because Arlecchino was too short in duration for an evenings entertainment. Orchestra,2 flutes,2 oboes,2 clarinets,2 bassoons,3 horns,2 trumpets,3 trombones, timpani,3 percussion, the opera, which is in one act, consists of a prologue and four movements. It is set in Bergamo, Italy, around about the 18th century, prologue, Arlecchino, in mask and motley costume, appears in front of the curtain to the sound of a fanfare and delivers a brief speech about the ensuing action. The curtain rises to reveal a meandering and hilly street in the upper city, the door to Matteos house is front left, the entrance and sign of a wine pub are further along the street, upper right. First movement, Arlecchino as Rogue 1, ser Matteo, the tailor, sits in front of his house sewing and silently reading. He becomes more animated and begins to read aloud in Italian the story of the love of Paolo. Ironically, through a window above, Arlecchino can be making love to Matteos beautiful young wife. Matteo thinks of Don Juan as he contemplates the prospect of the two lovers being condemned to hell, and the orchestra softly quotes the Champagne Aria from Mozarts Don Giovanni
2.
Slapstick
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Slapstick is a style of humor involving exaggerated physical activity which exceeds the boundaries of normal physical comedy. The term arises from a device developed during the broad, physical comedy style known as Commedia dellarte in 16th Century Italy, the physical slap stick remains a key component of the plot in the traditional and popular Punch and Judy puppet show. The name slapstick originates from the Italian language word batacchio or bataccio — called the stick in English — a club-like object composed of two wooden slats used in commedia dellarte. When struck, the batacchio produces a loud smacking noise, though little force transfers from the object to the person being struck, actors may thus hit one another repeatedly with great audible effect while causing very little actual physical damage. Along with the bladder, it was among the earliest special effects. Slapstick comedys history is measured in centuries, shakespeare incorporated many chase scenes and beatings into his comedies, such as in his play The Comedy of Errors. In Punch and Judy shows, a large slapstick is wielded by Punch against the other characters, british comedians who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches include Charlie Chaplin, Stan Laurel, George Formby and Dan Leno. American producer Hal Roach described Fred Karno as not only a genius and we in Hollywood owe much to him. Slapstick is also common in Disneys Goofy shorts, MGMs Tom and Jerry, silent slapstick comedy was also popular in early French films and included films by Max Linder and Charles Prince. In England, slapstick was an element of the Monty Python comedy troupe and in television series such as Fawlty Towers. Slapstick has remained an art form to the present day. Laughter List of slapstick comedy topics Slapstick film Comedy film Physical comedy Stage combat Schadenfreude
3.
Maurice Sand
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Jean-François-Maurice-Arnauld, Baron Dudevant, better known as Maurice Sand, was a French illustrator and writer. Maurice Sand also experimented in other subjects, including painting, geology. He was the son of Baron Casimir Dudevant and his wife, Maurice Sand studied under Eugène Delacroix. In addition to his numerous novels, Sand is best remembered for his study of commedia dellarte. André Beauvray, Paris, Lévy,1870 Mademoiselle de Cérignan, Paris, Michel-Lévy frères,1874 Masques et bouffons, texte et dessins, préf
4.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
5.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
6.
Old French
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Old French was the Gallo-Romance dialect continuum spoken from the 9th century to the 14th century. In the 14th century, these came to be collectively known as the langues doïl. The mid-14th century is taken as the period to Middle French. The areal of Old French in contemporary terms corresponded to the parts of the Kingdom of France, Upper Burgundy. As part of the emerging Gallo-Romance dialect continuum, the langues doïl were contrasted with the langue doc, in these examples, we notice a clear consequence of bilingualism, that sometimes even changed the first syllable of the Latin words. Pope estimated that perhaps still 15% of the vocabulary of modern French derives from Germanic sources, at the third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language, since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. The second-oldest document in Old French is the Eulalia sequence, which is important for reconstruction of Old French pronunciation due to its consistent spelling. The Capetians langue doïl, the forerunner of modern standard French, did not begin to become the common speech of all of France, however, until after the French Revolution. In the Late Middle Ages, the Old French dialects diverged into a number of distinct langues doïl, during the Early Modern period, French now becomes established as the official language of the Kingdom of France throughout the realm, also including the langue doc-speaking territories in the south. Old French gives way to Middle French in the mid-14th century, the earliest extant French literary texts date from the ninth century, but very few texts before the 11th century have survived. The first literary works written in Old French were saints lives, the Canticle of Saint Eulalie, written in the second half of the 9th century, is generally accepted as the first such text. The first of these is the area of the chansons de geste. More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in three hundred manuscripts. The oldest and most celebrated of the chansons de geste is The Song of Roland, a fourth grouping, not listed by Bertrand, is the Crusade cycle, dealing with the First Crusade and its immediate aftermath. Jean Bodels other two categories—the Matter of Rome and the Matter of Britain—concern the French romance or roman, around a hundred verse romances survive from the period 1150–1220. From around 1200 on, the tendency was increasingly to write the romances in prose, the most important romance of the 13th century is the Romance of the Rose which breaks considerably from the conventions of the chivalric adventure story. The Occitan or Provençal poets were called troubadours, from the word trobar to find, lyric poets in Old French are called trouvères. By the late 13th century, the tradition in France had begun to develop in ways that differed significantly from the troubadour poets
7.
Zanni
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Zanni, Zani or Zane is a character type of Commedia dellarte best known as an astute servant and trickster. The Zanni comes from the countryside, the Zanni is known to be a dispossessed immigrant worker. Throughout time, the Zanni grew to be a figure who was first seen in commedia as early as the fourteenth century. The English word zany derives from this persona, the name Zanni is a Venetian variant of the name Gianni and was common in the Lombard-Venetian countryside which provided most of the servants to the wealthy nobles and merchants of Venice. In Italian it is specifically a name of someone whose identity is not of any importance and it is one of the oldest characters in Commedia dellarte but over the course of time became subdivided into a number of similar characters with more specific traits. These included Arlecchino, Pulcinella, Mezzettino and Truffaldino, as well as Beltrame, Arlecchino, for example, was more representative of a jester than an ordinary servant and was frequently depicted as very acrobatic. Zanni was shortened to Zan when used to provide further identification of an individual, for example, Zan Ganassa was the stage name of Alberto Naseli, who was one of the first actors specializing in Zanni roles to perform outside of Italy. The performance of a commedia actor relies on the acting itself, a scenario should be playable in different ways and seem different each time the audience sees it. The actors who play Zanni must be clever and equally talented, if the partner does not reply to him at the right moment or interrupts him in the wrong place, the actor’s “discourse falters and the liveliness of his wit is extinguished”. He must be acrobatic, able to walk on his hands and on stilts, dance, skip, in this respect, the Zanni is one of the most physically demanding of all the Masks. The Zanni’s costume usually consists of white baggy clothing and this was similar to the dress of peasants and farmworkers of the time. A specific type of Zanni, Brighella, wore accents of green to indicate his tricky, Arlecchino, however, was known for his irregular colored patches that eventually became the essence of the entire outfit. The Zanni are also known to sport a peaked hat and a wooden sword, the Zanni at first wore a full faced carnival mask, but because of the need for dialogue between Pantalone and the Zanni, the bottom of the mask was hinged and eventually cut away altogether. The longer the nose of the Zanni, the stupider he is said to be, a Zanni is known to take and briefly keep items that belong to someone else. Some items that the Zanni would keep would be bags, letters, valuables, the stance of Zanni has a “lowered centre of gravity” either from the earth or from carrying heavy bags and chairs. Zanni’s back is arched when he stands up and his knees are bent, the support knee is bent and the other leg is extended with his toe pointed. He switches his feet a lot while speaking or listening within the same position, Zanni’s elbows are usually bent and arms half lifted. In commedia, Zanni has a variety of at least six different types of walks and these walks include The Little Zanni, The Big Zanni, Zanni Running, Zanni Jubilant, Vain Zanni, and Soldier Zanni
8.
Commedia dell'arte
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Commedia dellarte translates to theatre of the professional and is known as the first form of professional theatre. Commedia dellarte also is considered commedia alla maschera, commedia improvviso, a commedia, such as The Tooth Puller, is both scripted and improvised. Characters entrances and exits are scripted, a special characteristic of commedia dellarte are the lazzi. A lazzo is a joke or something foolish or witty, another characteristic of commedia dellarte is pantomime, which is mostly used by the character Arlecchino. The characters of the commedia usually represent fixed social types, stock characters, such as old men, devious servants. The main categories of characters include servants, old men, lovers. The characters are exaggerated real characters, such as a know it all doctor called Il Dottore, many troupes were formed to perform commedia dellarte, including I Gelosi, Confidenti Troupe, Desioi Troupe, and Fedeli Troupe. Commedia dellarte was often performed outside on platforms or in areas such as a piazza. The form of theatre originated in Italy, but travelled throughout Europe, the commedia genesis may be related to carnival in Venice, where by 1570 the author/actor Andrea Calmo had created the character Il Magnifico, the precursor to the vecchio Pantalone. In the Flaminio Scala scenario for example, Il Magnifico persists and is interchangeable with Pantalone, while Calmos characters were not masked, it is uncertain at what point the characters donned the mask. However, the connection to carnival would suggest that masking was a convention of carnival and was applied at some point, the tradition in Northern Italy is centered in Mantua, Florence, and Venice, where the major companies came under the aegis of the various dukes. Concomitantly, a Neapolitan tradition emerged in the south and featured the prominent stage figure Pulcinella, Pulcinella has been long associated with Naples, and derived into various types elsewhere—the most famous as the puppet character Punch in England. Although commedia dellarte flourished in Italy during the Mannerist period, there has been a tradition of trying to establish historical antecedents in antiquity. While we can detect formal similarities between the commedia dellarte and earlier theatrical traditions, there is no way to establish certainty of origin, some date the origins to the period of the Roman Republic or the Empire. The Atellan Farces of the Roman Empire featured crude types wearing masks with grossly exaggerated features, some historians argue that Atellan stock characters, Pappus, Maccus+Buccus, and Manducus, are the primitive versions of the Commedia characters Pantalone, Pulcinella, and il Capitano. More recent accounts establish links to the medieval jongleurs, and prototypes from medieval moralities, the first recorded commedia dellarte performances came from Rome as early as 1551. This view may be somewhat romanticized since records describe the Gelosi performing Tassos Aminta, for example, by the mid-16th century, specific troupes of commedia performers began to coalesce, and by 1568 the Gelosi became a distinct company. In keeping with the tradition of the Italian Academies, I Gelosi adapted as their impress the two-faced Roman god Janus, Janus symbolized both the comings and goings of this traveling troupe, and the dual nature of the actor who impersonates the other
9.
Actor
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An actor is a person who portrays a character in a performance. Simplistically speaking, the person denominated actor or actress is someone beautiful who plays important characters, the actor performs in the flesh in the traditional medium of the theatre, or in modern mediums such as film, radio, and television. The analogous Greek term is ὑποκριτής, literally one who answers, the actors interpretation of their role pertains to the role played, whether based on a real person or fictional character. Interpretation occurs even when the actor is playing themselves, as in forms of experimental performance art, or, more commonly, to act, is to create. Formerly, in societies, only men could become actors. When used for the stage, women played the roles of prepubescent boys. The etymology is a derivation from actor with ess added. However, when referring to more than one performer, of both sexes, actor is preferred as a term for male performers. Actor is also used before the name of a performer as a gender-specific term. Within the profession, the re-adoption of the term dates to the 1950–1960s. As Whoopi Goldberg put it in an interview with the paper, Im an actor – I can play anything. The U. K. performers union Equity has no policy on the use of actor or actress, an Equity spokesperson said that the union does not believe that there is a consensus on the matter and stated that the. subject divides the profession. In 2009, the Los Angeles Times stated that Actress remains the term used in major acting awards given to female recipients. However, player remains in use in the theatre, often incorporated into the name of a group or company, such as the American Players. Also, actors in improvisational theatre may be referred to as players, prior to Thespis act, Grecian stories were only expressed in song, dance, and in third person narrative. In honor of Thespis, actors are commonly called Thespians, the exclusively male actors in the theatre of ancient Greece performed in three types of drama, tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play. Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the Romans, as the Western Roman Empire fell into decay through the 4th and 5th centuries, the seat of Roman power shifted to Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire. Records show that mime, pantomime, scenes or recitations from tragedies and comedies, dances, from the 5th century, Western Europe was plunged into a period of general disorder
10.
Tristano Martinelli
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Tristano Martinelli, called Dominus Arlecchinorum, the Master of Harlequins, was an Italian actor in the commedia dellarte tradition. He is probably the first actor to use the name Harlequin for the secondo zanni role, Martinelli was active in France in 1584 to 1585, where he presumably first acted in his Arlequin role. There is no mention of the Arlequin, Arlecchino, or Harlequin character prior to Martinellis time in Paris, for the carnival of 1584, he picked a name taken from French folklore, the devil Herlequin, for his performance to a Parisian audience. His character wore a costume of colourful patches, and a hare-tail on his cap to indicate cowardice, a black leather half-mask, a moustache. It is also plausible that Martinelli used a tail or plume to imitate the style of the Bergamask people native to the region where Arlecchino is typically depicted as being from and he chose the name Harlequin after the name of the popular French devil character it resembled. The name Herlequin likely came from Helle-kin, an Old French derivative of the Germanic Erlkönig, or from Schar der Hölle, Martinelli became attached to the Mantuan court of Duke Ferdinando I Gonzaga, with a regular stipend, about 1596–97. Within a few years he was overseeing all the acting troupes in the Gonzaga territories. Martinelli, in service of the Duke, acted as police and a tax collector for the actors and other street performers and merchants. It was also declared that Arlecchino would act as a supervisor for public events as the Dukes personal representative and he was the most famous harlequin of his generation, pressed to divide his time between Mantua and the court of France. Martinelli played Arlecchino for several companies, including La Compagnia Dei Desiosi, La Compagnia Degli Accesi. He is documented as having toured in Italy, France, Spain, Austria and he and his brother, Drusiano are first recorded in Spain as early as 1587, along with Drusianos wife. They joined with a troupe called I Accesi by 1599 and played for Henri IV in 1601, on their way to Paris, I Accesi were held in Turin for quite a while, as the Savoyard Duke was so enamored with their performance. Marie de Medici urged him to return to Paris in 1611, after some careful advance publicity he arrived in Paris, Louis XIII was willing to hold the child at the christening of one of Martinellis children in 1614. They returned to Italy in 1614, where Martinelli remained until 1620, Martinelli returned in 1621 to play for the court of Louis XIII and remained in Paris through 1624, going so far as to accompany the King to Fontainebleau and back. His company is recorded to have had 10-11 members in 1921, I Fideli, likely the last company Martinelli worked with, lasted into the 1640s included among its ranks Francesco Andreinis first wife, Virginia Ramponi. Martinelli is known to have addressed himself later in life as Dominus Arlequinorum, Martinelli commissioned numerous dramatic portraits of himself, three of which he sent to France when wishing to return to that country in 1626. One may have been Portrait of an Actor by Domenico Fetti, fettis Portrait of an Actor Reconsidered, The Burlington Magazine, vol. The Art of Commedia, A Study in the Commedia dellArte, 1560-1620, amsterdam & New York, Rodopi B. V. pp.103
11.
Tricky slave
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The tricky slave is a stock character. He is a clever, lower-class person who brings about the ending of a comedy for the lovers. Besides the actual slaves of classical theater, he appears as the scheming valet in Renaissance comedy. The zanni of Commedia dellarte are often slaves, as are Puss-in-Boots in Perraults fairy tale, Jeeves in P. G. Wodehouses work. In fairy tales, the function is often fulfilled by fairy godmothers, talking animals. Northrop Frye identified him as a portion of the Myth of Spring comedy. A female version of the slave would be Morgiana, a clever slave girl from Ali Baba. As reward, Ali frees her and Morgiana marries Cassims son, in contrast to these positive depictions, the tricky slave is portrayed as the antagonist in another Arabian Nights tale, The Three Apples, an early example of a murder mystery. After the murderer reveals himself near the middle of a story, within this flashback, a slave convinces him of his wifes infidelity, thus leading to her murder
12.
Columbina
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Columbina is a stock character in the Commedia dellArte. She is Harlequins mistress, a comic servant playing the tricky slave type, rudlin and Crick use the Italian spelling Colombina in Commedia dellarte, A Handbook for Troupes. The role of the serviette was originally that of a entracte dancer, women were not allowed to be part of the story that was being played out on stage, but they were allowed to have a dance in-between the action. Eventually these women became the buxom and gossipy servants of characters that were allowed on stage. Eventually they became the counterparts to the Zanni characters and she was very down to earth and could always see the situation for what it actually was. She was very infrequently without something to say to or about someone and she is dressed in a ragged and patched dress, appropriate to a hired servant. These characters were usually played unmasked, but with bonnets and she was also known to wear heavy makeup around her eyes and carry a tambourine, which she could use to fend off the amorous advances of Pantalone. There is record of Colombina using numerous disguises to trick Arlecchino, where most other characters are content with one disguise, Gheraldis Colombian has several different disguises to confuse Arlecchino and to keep the audience on their toes. She was often the only functional intellect on the stage, columbina aided her mistress, the innamorata, to gain the affections of her one true love. She is sometimes the lover of Harlequin, but not always and she may be a flirtatious and impudent character, indeed a soubrette. Colombian became the most common used to describe the sobretta character especially as Colombine in France. Some of the people made this character famous were Silvia Roncagli was the first women recorded doing a seretta role named Francheschina in c1570. Caterina Biancolelli was one of the most famous serettas whose name was Colombina, there is record of the famous playwright Molière having attended many performances of la comédie italienne, or comedian dellarte. He is even referenced in a performance by Angelo Costantini of his show Une Vie de Scaramouche he references the writer and poet. This might suggest that the servant character in many of Molières plays such as Dorine in his play Tartuffe, Pierrot Harlequinade Caterina Bianconelli Media related to Colombina at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Columbine at Wikimedia Commons Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Columbine
13.
Pierrot
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Performing unmasked, with a whitened face, he wears a loose white blouse with large buttons and wide white pantaloons. Sometimes he appears with a frilled collaret and a hat, usually with a crown and wide round brim. But most frequently, since his reincarnation under Jean-Gaspard Deburau, he wears neither collar nor hat, the defining characteristic of Pierrot is his naïveté, he is seen as a fool, often the butt of pranks, yet nonetheless trusting. It was a generally buffoonish Pierrot that held the European stage for the first two centuries of his history. For Jules Janin and Théophile Gautier, Pierrot was not a fool but an avatar of the post-Revolutionary People, struggling, sometimes tragically, in short, Pierrot became an alter-ego of the artist, specifically of the famously alienated artist of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Much of that mythic quality still adheres to the sad clown of the postmodern era and he is sometimes said to be a French variant of the sixteenth-century Italian Pedrolino, but the two types have little but their names and social stations in common. Both are comic servants, but Pedrolino, as a so-called first zanni, often acts with cunning and daring and his origins among the Italian players in France are most unambiguously traced to Molières character, the lovelorn peasant Pierrot, in Don Juan, or The Stone Guest. In 1673, probably inspired by Molières success, the Comédie-Italienne made its own contribution to the Don Juan legend with an Addendum to The Stone Guest and he acquires there a very distinctive personality. He seems an anomaly among the busy social creatures that surround him, he is isolated, Columbine laughs at his advances, his masters who are in pursuit of pretty young wives brush off his warnings to act their age. His is a voice, and his estrangement, however comic. But the character seems to have regarded as unimportant by this company. His real life in the theater in the century is to be found on the lesser stages of the capital. Sometimes he spoke gibberish, sometimes the audience itself sang his lines and this holds true even when sophisticated playwrights, such as Alain-René Lesage and his collaborators, Dorneval and Fuzelier, began to contribute more regular plays to the Foires. The broad satirical streak in Lesage often rendered him indifferent to Pierrots character, and sometimes the most opposed to his personality. Besides making him a valet, a roasting specialist, a chef, a hash-house cook, in not a few of the early Foire plays, Pierrots character is therefore quite badly defined. In the main, Pierrots inaugural years at the Foires were rather degenerate ones, an important factor that probably hastened his degeneration was the multiplicity of his fairground interpreters. Not only actors but also acrobats and dancers were quick to seize on his role, but in the 1720s, Pierrot at last came into his own. It was also in the 1720s that Alexis Piron loaned his talents to the Foires, the retirement of Hamoche in 1733, writes Barberet, was fatal to Pierrot
14.
Trickster
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Hansen that the term trickster was probably first used in this context by Daniel G. Brinton in 1885. Tricksters are archetypal characters who appear in the myths of different cultures. Lewis Hyde describes the trickster as a boundary-crosser, the trickster crosses both physical and often breaks societal rules. Tricksters. violate principles of social and natural order, playfully disrupting normal life, often, the bending/breaking of rules takes the form of tricks or thievery. Tricksters can be cunning or foolish or both, the trickster openly questions and mocks authority. They are usually male characters, and are fond of breaking rules, boasting, all cultures have tales of the trickster, a crafty creature who uses cunning to get food, steal precious possessions, or simply cause mischief. In some Greek myths Hermes plays the trickster and he is the patron of thieves and the inventor of lying, a gift he passed on to Autolycus, who in turn passed it on to Odysseus. In Slavic folktales, the trickster and the hero are often combined. Frequently the trickster figure exhibits gender and form variability, in Norse mythology the mischief-maker is Loki, who is also a shape shifter. Loki also exhibits gender variability, in one case even becoming pregnant and he becomes a mare who later gives birth to Odins eight-legged horse Sleipnir. Nevertheless, the Biblical narrative clearly takes Jacobs side and the reader is invited to laugh, in The Trickster and the Paranormal, G. P. Hansen lists Mercury in Roman mythology, and Eshu in Yoruba mythology as examples of the trickster archetype, in a wide variety of African language communities, the rabbit is the trickster. In West Africa, the spider is often the trickster, the trickster or clown is an example of a Jungian archetype. In modern literature the trickster survives as an archetype, not necessarily supernatural or divine. Often too, the trickster is distinct in a story by his acting as a sort of catalyst, in that his antics are the cause of other characters discomfiture, a once-famous example of this was the character Froggy the Gremlin on the early childrens television show Andys Gang. A cigar-puffing puppet, Froggy induced the adult humans around him to engage in ridiculous, in later folklore, the trickster/clown is incarnated as a clever, mischievous man or creature, who tries to survive the dangers and challenges of the world using trickery and deceit as a defense. He also is known for entertaining people as a clown does, for example, many typical fairy tales have the king who wants to find the best groom for his daughter by ordering several trials. No brave and valiant prince or knight manages to win them, until a poor, with the help of his wits and cleverness, instead of fighting, he evades or fools monsters and villains and dangers with unorthodox manners
15.
Devil in Christianity
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In mainstream Christianity, the Devil is a mythological figure and a fallen angel who rebelled against God. The devil is often identified as the serpent in the Garden of Eden and he is also identified as the accuser of Job, the tempter of the Gospels, Leviathan and the dragon in the Book of Revelation. In Christianity, the title Satan, the opposer, is a title of various entities, Satan later became the name of the personification of evil. Christian tradition and theology changed Satan from an appointed by God to test mens faith to Gods godlike fallen opponent. Traditionally, Christians have understood the devil to be the author of lies, however, the devil can go no further than the word of Christ the Logos allows, resulting in the problem of evil. Liberal Christianity often views the devil metaphorically and this is true of some Conservative Christian groups too, such as the Christadelphians and the Church of the Blessed Hope. Much of the lore of the devil is not biblical, instead. In Gods rebuke to the serpent, he tells it And I will put enmity between thee and the woman and between thy seed and her seed, it shall bruise thy head and thou shalt bruise his heel. Christian scriptures are often interpreted to identify the serpent with the Devil, the deuterocanonical Book of Wisdom says, But by the envy of the devil, death entered the world and they who are in his possession experience it. Christian teaching about the Satan, to whom God proposes his servant Job is that he appears in the court to challenge Job. This is one of two Old Testament passages, along with Zechariah 3, where Hebrew ha-Satan becomes Greek ho diabolos in the Greek Septuagint used by the early Christian church. Zechariahs vision of recently deceased Joshua the High Priest depicts a dispute in the throne room between Satan and the Angel of the Lord. Goulder views the vision as related to opposition from Sanballat the Horonite, when the Bible was translated into Latin, the name Lucifer appeared as a translation of Morning Star, or the planet Venus, in Isaiah 14,12. Isaiah 14, 1-23 is a passage concerned with the plight of Babylon and this is because the Babylonian king was considered to be of godly status and of symbolic divine parentage. At some point the reference to Lucifer was interpreted as a reference to the moment Satan was thrown from Heaven. And despite the clarity of the chapter as a whole, the 12th verse continues to be put forth as proof that Lucifer was the name of Satan before the fall, thus Lucifer became another name for Satan and has remained so, owing to popular tradition. The Hebrew Bible word for the devil, which was translated to Lucifer in English, is הילל. Later, for reasons, Christian demonologists appeared to designate Satan, Lucifer
16.
Passion Play
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The Passion Play or Easter pageant is a dramatic presentation depicting the Passion of Jesus Christ, his trial, suffering and death. It is a part of Lent in several Christian denominations. The development of the Passion Play was about the same as that of the Easter Drama and it originated in the ritual of the Church, which prescribes, among other things, that the Gospel on Good Friday should be sung in parts divided among various persons. Thus, the Benedictbeurn Passion Play is still composed of Latin ritual sentences in prose and of church hymns. Yet even this oldest of the Passion Plays already shows a tendency to break away from the ritual and to adopt a more dramatic form. From these humble beginnings the Passion Play developed very rapidly, since in the century it was at a stage of development which could not have been reached except by repeated practice. From this second period we have the Vienna Passion, the St. Gall Passion, the oldest Frankfort Passion, all four Plays, as they are commonly called, are written in rhyme, principally in German. The oldest Frankfort Passion play, that of Canon Baldemar von Peterwell, of this play only the Ordo sive Registrum has come down to us, a long roll of parchment for the use of the director, containing stage directions and the first words of the dialogues. The plays based on this list of directions lead us to the period in which the Passion Play reached its highest development, during this period the later Frankfort Passion Play, the Alsfelder, and the Friedberger originated. Nearly all these Passion Plays have some relation to those coming from the Tyrol, some contributing to, others taking from and these, again, are founded upon the Tyrolese Passion play which originated during the transition period of the fourteenth to the fifteenth century. Historian J. E. Wackernell, with the aid of the plays that have reached us, has reconstructed this period, in Tyrol the Passion Plays received elaborate cultivation, at Bolzano they were presented with great splendour and, in 1514, lasted no less than seven days. Here, too, the innovation of placing the female roles in the hands of women was introduced, the citizens and civil authorities considered it a point of honour to render the production as rich and diversified as possible. Ordinarily the preparations for the play were in the hands of a spiritual brotherhood, people of the most varied classes took part in the production, and frequently the number of actors was as high as two hundred and even greater. If was undoubtedly no small task to drill the performers, particularly since the stage arrangements were very primitive. The stage was a structure, almost as broad as it was long, elevated but slightly above the ground. A house formed the background, an attached to the house represented Heaven. Under the balcony three crosses were erected, sometimes the stage was divided into three sections by doors. Along the sides of the stage, taken lengthwise, stood the houses required for the production, they were indicated by fenced-in spaces, or by four posts upon which a roof rested
17.
Harlequinade
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Harlequinade is a British comic theatrical genre, defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as that part of a pantomime in which the harlequin and clown play the principal parts. It developed in England between the 17th and mid-19th centuries and it was originally a slapstick adaptation or variant of the Commedia dellarte, which originated in Italy and reached its apogee there in the 16th and 17th centuries. Originally a mime act with music and stylised dance, the harlequinade later employed some dialogue, early in its development, it achieved great popularity as the comic closing part of a longer evening of entertainment, following a more serious presentation with operatic and balletic elements. An often elaborate magical transformation scene, presided over by a fairy, connected the unrelated stories, changing the first part of the pantomime, and its characters, into the harlequinade. In the late 18th and 19th centuries, the became the larger part of the entertainment. During the 16th century, Commedia dellarte spread from Italy throughout Europe, in English versions, harlequinades differed in two important respects from the Commedia original. First, instead of being a rogue, Harlequin became the central figure, secondly, the characters did not speak, this was because of the large number of French performers who played in London, following the suppression of unlicensed theatres in Paris. Although this constraint was only temporary, English harlequinades remained primarily visual, by the early years of the 18th century, Italian night scenes presented versions of Commedia traditions in familiar London settings. From these, the standard English harlequinade developed, depicting the eloping lovers Harlequin and Columbine, pursued by the girls father, Pantaloon. The basic plot remained essentially the same for more than 150 years, in 1716 John Weaver, the dancing master at Drury Lane, presented The Loves of Mars and Venus – a new Entertainment in Dancing after the manner of the Antient Pantomimes. At Lincolns Inn, John Rich presented and performed as Harlequin in similar productions, armed with a magic sword or bat, Richs Harlequin treated his weapon as a wand, striking the scenery to sustain the illusion of changing the setting from one locale to another. Objects, too, were transformed by Harlequins magic bat, Richs productions were a hit, and other producers, like David Garrick began producing their own pantomimes. For the rest of the century this pattern persisted in London theatres, when producers ran short of plots from Greek or Roman mythology they turned to British folk stories, popular literature, and, by 1800, nursery tales. But whatever the story shown in the first part of the entertainment, at the end of the first part, stage illusions were employed in a spectacular transformation scene, initiated by a fairy, turning the pantomime characters into Harlequin, Columbine and their fellows. In the early 19th century, the comic performer Joseph Grimaldi turned the role of Clown from a rustic booby into the star of metropolitan pantomime. Two developments in 1800, both involving Grimaldi, greatly changed the characters, For the pantomime Peter Wilkins, or Harlequin in the Flying World. Clown traded in his tatty servants costume for a flamboyant, colourful one, in Harlequin Amulet, or, The Magick of Mona, later the same year, Harlequin was modified, becoming an increasingly stylised romantic character leaving the mischief and chaos to Grimaldis Clown. Clown now appeared in a range of roles, from the rival suitor to household cook or nurse, in the 19th century, theatrical presentations typically ran for four hours or more, with the pantomime and harlequinade concluding the evening after a long drama
18.
John Rich (producer)
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John Rich was an important director and theatre manager in 18th-century London. He opened the New Theatre at Lincolns Inn Fields, which he managed until he opened the Theatre Royal and he managed Covent Garden until 1761, putting on ever more lavish productions. He introduced pantomime to the English stage and played a dancing, the British idea of the Harlequin character was heavily inspired by Rich’s idea of a silent character. Rich’s choice of being a silent character was influenced by his unappealing voice, Richs theatre specialized in what contemporaries called spectacle. Today we might call them special effects and his stagings would endeavour to present actual cannon shots, animals, and multiple illusions of battle. Rich began his work as “Lun” the Harlequin character in 1717, wearing a leotard with diamond shaped patches, by 1728, Rich was synonymous with lavish productions. Rich performed multiple roles as the character type while the Company Manager at Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Rich was praised for his movement style, allowing each limb to tell a story in shows, lewis Theobald was working for Rich on writing pantomimes. When Alexander Pope wrote the first version of The Dunciad, and even more in the second and third editions, Rich appears as a symptom of the disease of the age. In his Dunciad Variorum of 1732, he makes John Rich the angel of the goddess Dulness, Immortal Rich. How calm he sits at ease Mid snows of paper, and fierce hail of pease, And proud his mistress orders to perform, Rides in the whirlwind, yet, at the same time,1728 was the year that Rich produced John Gays Beggars Opera. The play ran so successfully, with 62 performances, that it was said the play made Gay rich and Rich gay. John Gay was a friend of Popes and a frequent collaborator of his. Richs success with Beggars Opera allowed him to open his own theatre and this was the first of three theatres on the site, now known as the Royal Opera House. Rich commissioned some of the landscape artists of his day to paint the scenery for Covent Garden. Rich received a 75% share in the Lincolns Inn Fields theatre from his father, Christopher Rich, at that time, the theatre was, by no means, ready for use, as it was still under construction. By that point, Rich had already begun acting in plays and his father had set the reputation and direction of the Lincolns Inn Theatre during the War of the Theatres in the 1690s, and John Rich continued it. In particular, John Rich exaggerated the theatricality of the Restoration spectacular by creating a new form of hireling drama designed strictly to generate opulent stagecraft, after becoming majority owner of Lincolns Inn Fields, his control grew as he sought to get the rest of the shares
19.
Pantomime
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Pantomime, is a type of musical comedy stage production, designed for family entertainment. It was developed in England and is performed throughout the United Kingdom, generally during the Christmas and New Year season and, to a lesser extent. It is a form of theatre, in which the audience is expected to sing along with certain parts of the music. Pantomime has a theatrical history in Western culture dating back to classical theatre. It developed partly from the 16th century commedia dellarte tradition of Italy, as well as other European and British stage traditions, such as 17th-century masques, an important part of the pantomime, until the late 19th century, was the harlequinade. Outside Britain the word pantomime is used to mean miming. The Roman pantomime drew upon the Greek tragedy and other Greek genres from its inception, although the art was instituted in Rome, the English word came to be applied to the performance itself. Music was supplied by flute and the pulse of an iron-shod shoe, performances might be in a private household, with minimal personnel, or else lavish theatrical productions involving a large orchestra and chorus and sometimes an ancillary actor. The dancer danced all the roles, relying on masks, stock poses and gestures, Pantomime differed from mime by its more artistic nature and relative lack of farce and coarse humour, though these were not absent from some productions. Precursors of pantomime also included the masque, which grew in pomp, the development of English pantomime was also strongly influenced by the continental commedia dellarte, a form of popular theatre that arose in Italy in the Early Modern Period. Each scenario used some of the stock characters. These included the innamorati, the vecchi such as Pantalone, and zanni such as Arlecchino, Colombina, Scaramouche, Italian masque performances in the 17th century sometimes included the Harlequin character. In the 17th century, adaptations of the characters became familiar in English entertainments. From these, the standard English harlequinade developed, depicting the eloping lovers Harlequin and Columbine, pursued by the girls father Pantaloon and his comic servants Clown, in English versions, by the 18th century, Harlequin became the central figure and romantic lead. The basic plot of the harlequinade remained essentially the same for more than 150 years, tavern Bilkers, by John Weaver, the dancing master at Drury Lane, is cited as the first pantomime produced on the English stage. The same year he produced a pantomime on the subject of Perseus, after this, pantomime was regular feature at Drury Lane. In 1717 at Lincolns Inn, actor and manager John Rich introduced Harlequin into the theatres pantomimes under the name of Lun and he gained great popularity for his pantomimes, especially beginning with his 1724 production of The Necromancer, or, History of Dr. Faustus. These early pantomimes were silent, or dumb show, performances consisting of only dancing, spoken drama was only allowed in London only in the two patent theatres until Parliament changed this restriction in 1843
20.
Joseph Grimaldi
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Joseph Grimaldi was an English actor, comedian and dancer, who became the most popular English entertainer of the Regency era. Grimaldi originated catchphrases such as Here we are again, which continue to feature in modern pantomimes. Born in London to a father, Grimaldi began to perform as a child. After a brief schooling, he appeared in various low-budget productions and he took leading parts in Valentine and Orson and The Talisman, or, Harlequin Made Happy, the latter of which brought him wider recognition. Towards the end of the 1790s, Grimaldi starred in a version of Robinson Crusoe. Many productions followed, but his career at Drury Lane was becoming turbulent, in his new association with the Covent Garden theatre, he appeared at the end of the same year in Harlequin or Mother Goose, which included perhaps his best known portrayal of Clown. Grimaldis residencies at Covent Garden and Sadlers Wells ran simultaneously, and he became known as Londons leading Clown and comic entertainer and his popularity in London led to a demand for him to appear in provincial theatres throughout England, where he commanded large fees. Grimaldis association with Sadlers Wells came to an end in 1820, after numerous injuries over the years from his energetic clowning, his health was also declining rapidly, and he retired in 1823. He appeared occasionally on stage for a few years thereafter, in his last years, Grimaldi lived in relative obscurity and became a depressed, impoverished alcoholic. He outlived both his wife and his son, Joseph Samuel, dying at home in Islington in 1837. Grimaldi was born in Clare Market, London, into a family of dancers and his great-grandfather, John Baptist Grimaldi, was a dentist by trade and an amateur performer, who in the 1730s moved from Italy to England. There he performed the role of Pantaloon opposite John Richs Harlequin, John Baptists son, Grimaldis paternal grandfather, Giovanni Battista Grimaldi, began performing at an early age and spent much of his career in Italy and France. According to Grimaldis biographer Andrew McConnell Stott, Giovanni was held in the Paris Bastille as the result of a scandalous performance. After his release, Giovanni moved to London in 1742, where John Baptist introduced him to John Rich, Giovanni then defrauded Rich and fled to the continent, Grimaldis father, Joseph Giuseppe Grimaldi, an actor and dancer, also made his way to London in around 1760. His first London appearance was at the Kings Theatre and he was later engaged by David Garrick to play Pantaloon in pantomimes at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, earning high praise, and eventually became the ballet master there. Grimaldis mother, Rebecca Brooker, was born in Holborn in 1764 and she was apprenticed to Giuseppe Grimaldi in 1773 as a dancer and public speaker, and she became his mistress shortly afterwards, even though she was under 14 and he was about 60. Grimaldis father was a philanderer who had at least ten children with three different women. In 1778, he divided his time between two London addresses occupied by his mistresses, Brooker and Anne Perry, both women gave birth that year, Perry to a daughter named Henrietta and Brooker to Joseph
21.
Victorian England
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
22.
Payne Brothers
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Harry Payne and Frederick Payne were members of a popular Victorian era of British pantomime entertainers. They were billed as The Payne Brothers, Fred Payne became known for portraying Harlequin, and Harry became famous as Clown in the Harlequinade that followed Victorian pantomimes. Together, the brothers appeared in Gilbert and Sullivans first collaboration, Thespis, Gilbert made references to the brothers in two of his Bab Ballads. Harry and Fred Payne were the sons of William Henry Schofield Payne, the classic pantomime artist who was a master of dumb show or comic mime, and who invented much of the Harlequinade action. Known as the King of Pantomime, he trained with Joseph Grimaldi and the great Harlequin, Jack Bologna, at Sadlers Wells Theatre, and starred at Covent Garden in the 1830s and 40s. The dancing of the Payne Brothers was so celebrated that W. S. Gilbert referred to it in two of his comic Bab Ballads, The Bishop of Rum-ti-Foo and The Bishop of Rum-ti-Foo Again. When the Paynes appeared in The Grand Duchess at the Gaiety in 1871, Harry Payne began his career playing Harlequin at Covent Garden. In 1859 he was playing a bear, and he had to take over as Clown in the middle of a performance when Richard Flexmore collapsed and he was so successful in the role that he remained as Covent Gardens Clown until the 1870s. In 1892 Punch said of him, Mr. Harry Payne was described by George Grossmith as the best clown in my time, Harry Payne opened each Boxing Day Harlequinade at Drury Lane with a somersault followed by a cheerful Here we are again. Harry Payne was responsible for the creation of one of the biggest Christmas crackers ever to be made in the Victorian era and he was appearing as the Clown in a Drury Lane pantomime when the cracker was delivered. Harry Payne died at the age of 62 and was buried in Highgate Cemetery, the Times said of him, Mr. Payne was at once an actor, a singer, and an accomplished humourist. Probably he owed something to the tuition of his father … whose mimetic feats he would seek to emulate as much as the conditions of pantomime entertainments would permit. When his father, W H Payne, appeared as Baron Pompolino in Drury Lanes Cinderella in 1865, Fred Payne played his valet, the two provided with several scenes in which their inimitable pantomimic acting is seen to advantage. It would be difficult to find anything more truly humorous of its kind, than a combination of a fantastic hornpipe and an equally fantastic minuet, danced by Mr. Frederick Payne in the Barons kitchen. After the elephant, comes Donato – the great one-legged dancer, Payne senior appeared with both his sons in Saint George and the Dragon at Covent Garden in 1864. Fred continued to perform with his father into the 1870s, they appeared together in 1874 in Cinderella at The Crystal Palace as Pompolino, with his brother Harry, Fred appeared regularly at the Theatre Royal, Manchester. He died, aged 39, at Finsbury Park, London, a Society Clown, Reminiscences by George Grossmith. The Routledge Dictionary of Historical Slang, Thespis – A Gilbert & Sullivan Enigma
23.
Erlking
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Erlking is a name from Danish and German folklore for the figure of a spirit or king of the fairies. While early stories feature the Erlkings daughter as a malevolent figure, Goethes poem Der Erlkönig, sometimes also associated is the character of Herrequin, a 9th-century count of Boulogne of proverbial wickedness. The derivation from either eller- or herla- has not been resolved, alternative suggestions have also been made, Halling suggested a connection with a Turkic and Mongolian god of death or psychopomp, known as Erlik Chan. The origin of the name Herla would be erilaz, also found in the name of the Heruli In German, the name was re-interpreted and associated with Erle and this form is now primarily known due to the 1782 ballad by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Der Erlkönig. In this context, the term is sometimes rendered in English as Erl-king. Johann Gottfried von Herder introduced this character into German literature in Erlkönigs Tochter and it was based on the Danish folk ballad Hr. Oluf han rider Sir Oluf he rides published in the 1739 Danske Kæmpeviser, the story portrays Sir Oluf riding to his marriage but being entranced by the music of the elves. An elf maiden, in Herders translation the Elverkonges daughter, appears and he refuses and spurns her offers of gifts and gold. Angered, she strikes him and sends him on his way, the following morning, on the day of his wedding, his bride finds him lying dead under his scarlet cloak. Although inspired by Herders ballad, Goethe departed significantly from both Herders rendering of the Erlking and the Scandinavian original, the antagonist in Goethes Der Erlkönig is, as the title suggests, the Erlking himself rather than his daughter. Goethes Erlking differs in ways as well, his version preys on children, rather than adults of the opposite sex. Goethes Erlking is much akin to the Germanic portrayal of elves and valkyries – a force of death rather than simply a magical spirit. In Angela Carters short story The Erl-King, contained within the 1979 collection The Bloody Chamber and she is seduced by him before discovering his malicious intentions, and finally manages to escape by strangling him with his own hair. Charles Kinbote, a character in Vladimir Nabokovs 1962 novel, Pale Fire, one allusion is in his commentary to line 275 of fellow character John Shades eponymous poem. In the case of this commentary, the word invokes homosexual ancestors of the last king of Zembla, the novel contains at least one other reference by Kinbote to alderkings. In Jim Butchers Dresden Files, there is a called the Erlking, modelled after the leader of the Wild Hunt. In the author John Connollys short story collection Nocturnes, there is a known as the Erlking who attempts to abduct the protagonist. Music by Schubert - free recording and free score Danish text of Hr
24.
Alichino (devil)
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Alichino is one of the devils in the Inferno of Dante Alighieris Divine Comedy. Alichino is a member of the Malebranche, whose mission is to guard Bolgia Five in the Eighth Circle, alichinos name is commonly regarded as a garbled version of the Italian word for harlequin, Arlecchino, perhaps for his flying attempt to catch Bonturo Dati in his escape. His most, and only, significant contribution to the plot is when he persuades the other devils to leave Bonturo Dati alone, Bonturo is supposed to summon other sinners from the lake of boiling pitch, on request by Dante. But Bonturo doesnt call at his friends, instead, he fools the devils and escapes back to the lake, and Alichino tries in vain to catch him. This causes a fight between Alichino and Calcabrina, which causes them to fall into the lake, the other devils put the blame on Virgil and Dante, though and hunt them vexed. The following strophes depict when Bonturo fools the devils, Read everything about Alichino and Malebranche in Divine Comedy at Wikisource, canto XXII and XXIII
25.
Normandy
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Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. Administratively, Normandy is divided into five departments, Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne and it covers 30,627 km², forming roughly 5% of the territory of France. Its population of 3.37 million accounts for around 5% of the population of France, Normans is the name given to the inhabitants of Normandy, and the region is the homeland of the Norman language. The historical region of Normandy comprised the region of Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the départements, or departments of Mayenne. For a century and a following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman. Archaeological finds, such as paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Celts invaded Normandy in successive waves from the 4th to the 3rd century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, there were nine different Celtic tribes living in Normandy. The Romanisation of Normandy was achieved by the methods, Roman roads. Classicists have knowledge of many Gallo-Roman villas in Normandy, in the late 3rd century, barbarian raids devastated Normandy. Coastal settlements were raided by Saxon pirates, Christianity also began to enter the area during this period. In 406, Germanic tribes began invading from the east, while the Saxons subjugated the Norman coast, the Roman Emperor withdrew from most of Normandy. As early as 487, the area between the River Somme and the River Loire came under the control of the Frankish lord Clovis, the Vikings started to raid the Seine Valley during the middle of the 9th century. As early as 841, a Viking fleet appeared at the mouth of the Seine, after attacking and destroying monasteries, including one at Jumièges, they took advantage of the power vacuum created by the disintegration of Charlemagnes empire to take northern France. The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Norwegian Viking leader Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson, Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks, Charles the Simple, through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he, the name Normandy reflects Rollos Viking origins. The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and they became the Normans – a Norman-speaking mixture of Saxons and indigenous Franks and Celts. Besides the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent conquests of Wales and Ireland, Norman families, such as that of Tancred of Hauteville, Rainulf Drengot and Guimond de Moulins played important parts in the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Crusades. They also carved out a place for themselves and their descendants in the Crusader states of Asia Minor, the 14th century Norman explorer Jean de Béthencourt established a kingdom in the Canary Islands
26.
Wild Hunt
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The Wild Hunt is a European folk myth involving a ghostly or supernatural group of huntsmen passing in wild pursuit. Seeing the Wild Hunt was thought to presage some catastrophe such as war or plague, people encountering the Hunt might also be abducted to the underworld or the fairy kingdom. In some instances, it was believed that peoples spirits could be pulled away during their sleep to join the cavalcade. Grimm popularised the term Wilde Jagd for the phenomenon, based on the comparative approach based on German folklore, the phenomenon is often referred to as Wilde Jagd or Wildes Heer. In Germany, where it was known as the Wild Army, or Furious Army, its leader was given various identities, including Wodan, Knecht Ruprecht, Berchtold. The Wild Hunt is also known from post-medieval folklore, in England, it was known as Herlaþing, Wodens Hunt, Herods Hunt, Cains Hunt, the Devils Dandy Dogs, Gabriels Hounds, and Ghost Riders. In Wales, a folk myth is known as Cŵn Annwn. In Scandinavia, the Wild Hunt is known as Oskoreia or Asgårdsreia, in France, it was known as Mesnée dHellequin, in Canada it becomes Chasse-galerie. In West Slavic Central Europe it is known as divoký hon or štvaní, Dziki Gon or Dziki Łów, the concept of the Wild Hunt was first documented by the German folklorist Jacob Grimm, who first published it in his 1835 book Deutsche Mythologie. It was in work that he popularised the term Wilde Jagd for the phenomenon. Grimms methodological approach was rooted in the idea – common in nineteenth-century Europe – that modern folklore represented a fossilized survival of the beliefs of the distant past. In developing his idea of the Wild Hunt, he mixed together recent folkloric sources with textual evidence dating to the Medieval and Early Modern periods. This approach came to be criticized within the field of folkloristics during the 20th century, as emphasis was placed on the dynamic. Grimm believed that this figure was sometimes replaced by a female counterpart. In his words, not only Wuotan and other gods, but heathen goddesses too, may head the furious host and he added his opinion that this female figure was Wodens wife. Discussing martial elements of the Wild Hunt, Grimm commented that it marches as an army, hutton nevertheless believed that this approach could be fundamentally challenged. In England, the historical figures St, the huntsmen were black, huge, and hideous, and rode on black horses and on black he-goats, and their hounds were jet black, with eyes like saucers, and horrible. Reliable witnesses were said to have given the number of huntsmen as twenty or thirty, and it is said, in effect, that this went on for nine weeks, ending at Easter
27.
Adam de la Halle
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Adam de la Halle, also known as Adam le Bossu was a French-born trouvère, poet and musician. He was a member of the Confrérie des jongleurs et bourgeois dArras, Adams other nicknames, le Bossu dArras and Adam dArras, suggest that he came from Arras, France. The sobriquet the Hunchback was probably a name, Adam himself points out that he was not one. His father, Henri de la Halle, was a well-known Citizen of Arras, and Adam studied grammar, theology, father and son had their share in the civil discords in Arras, and for a short time took refuge in Douai. Adam had been destined for the church, but renounced this intention, and married a certain Marie, who figures in many of his songs, rondeaux, motets and jeux-partis. Afterwards he joined the household of Robert II, Count of Artois, and then was attached to Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX, whose fortunes he followed in Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Italy. At the court of Charles, after Charles became king of Naples, Adam wrote his Jeu de Robin et Marion, Adams shorter pieces are accompanied by music, of which a transcript in modern notation, with the original score, is given in Coussemakers edition. His Jeu de Robin et Marion is cited as the earliest French play with music on a secular subject, the pastoral, which tells how Marion resisted the knight, and remained faithful to Robert the shepherd, is based on an old chanson, Robin maime, Robin ma. It consists of dialogue varied by refrains already current in popular song, the melodies to which these are set have the character of folk music, and are more spontaneous and melodious than the more elaborate music of his songs and motets. Fétis considered Le Jeu de Robin et Marion and Le Jeu de la feuillée forerunners of the comic opera. An adaptation of Le Jeu Robin et Marion, by Julien Tiersot, was played at Arras by a company from the Paris Opéra-Comique on the occasion of a festival in 1896 in honour of Adam de le Hale. His other play, Le jeu Adan or Le jeu de la Feuillee, is a drama in which he introduces himself, his father. His known works include thirty-six chansons, forty-six rondets de carole, eighteen jeux-partis, fourteen rondeaux, five motets, one rondeau-virelai, one ballette, one dit damour, Le jeu de Robin et Marion,13 rondeaux. Pro Musica Antiqua, Brussels, Safford Cape, conductor, recorded June 23,1953, in the Palais des Academies, Brussels. Research Period, The Central Middle Ages, Series A, Troubadours, Trouvères and Minnesingers, Series B, Music of the Minstrels, Series C, Early Polyphony before 1300. LP recording,1 disc, analog, monaural, 33⅓ rpm,12 in, Le jeu de Robin et Marion. CD recording,1 disc, digital, stereo, 4¾ in, Le jeu de Robin et Marion. Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, Thomas Binkley, cond, recorded May 1987 at the Barfüsserkirche in Basel, Switzerland
28.
Bayeux
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Bayeux is a commune in the Calvados department in Normandy in northwestern France. Bayeux is the home of the Bayeux Tapestry, which depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England, Bayeux is a sub-prefecture of Calvados. It is the seat of the arrondissement of Bayeux and of the canton of Bayeux, Bayeux is located 7 kilometres from the coast of the English Channel and 30 km north-west of Caen. The city, with elevations varying from 32 to 67 metres above sea level – with an average of 46 metres – is bisected by the River Aure, Bayeux is located at the crossroads of RN13 and the train route Paris-Caen-Cherbourg. The city is the capital of the Bessin, which extends north-west of Calvados, the city was known as Augustodurum in the Roman Empire. It means the durum dedicated to Augustus, Roman Emperor, the Celtic word duron, Latinised as durum, was probably used to translate the Latin word forum. In the Late Empire it took the name of the Celtic tribe who lived here, the Bodiocassi, Latinized in Bajocassi, Bajocasses, Bodiocassi has been compared with Old Irish Buidechass with blond locks. Any settlement was more confined to scattered Druid huts along the banks of the Aure. Cemeteries have been found on the nearby Mount Phaunus indicating the area as a Druid centre, titus Sabinus, a lieutenant of Julius Caesar, subjected the Bessin region to Roman domination. The town is mentioned by Ptolemy, writing in the reign of Antoninus Pius under the name Noemagus Biducassium, the main street was already the heart of the city. A pair of spas under the Church of St. Lawrence and the Dairy Street Post Office, in 1990 a closer examination of huge blocks discovered in the cathedral in the 19th century indicated the presence of an old Roman building. Bayeux was built on a crossroads between Lisieux and Valognes, developing first on the west bank of the river, by the end of the 3rd century a walled enclosure surrounded the city until it was removed in the 18th century. Its layout is visible and can be followed today. The citadel of the city was located in the southwest corner, an important city in Normandy, Bayeux was part of the coastal defence of the Roman Empire against the pirates of the region and a Roman Legion was stationed there. The city was destroyed during the Viking raids of the late 9th century but was rebuilt in the early 10th century under the reign of Bothon. In the middle of the 10th century Bayeux was controlled by Hagrold, the 11th century saw the creation of five villages beyond the walls to the north east evidence of its growth during Ducal Normandy. William the Conquerors half brother Odo, Earl of Kent completed the cathedral in the city, however the city began to lose prominence when William placed his capital at Caen. When King Henry I of England defeated his brother Robert Curthose for the rule of Normandy, under Richard the Lionheart, Bayeux was wealthy enough to purchase a municipal charter
29.
Pantalone
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Pantalone, spelled Pantaloon in English, is one of the most important principal characters found in commedia dellarte. With his exceptional greed and status at the top of the social order and his full name, including family name, is Pantalon de Bisognosi, Italian for Pantalone of the Needy. Pantalone originated as part of a master/servant duo and was the original il Magnifico stock character, goldoni, in his memoirs, named Pantalone as one of the four primary Commedia dellArte characters. Among other things, Pantalone is a character of Venetians, one theory of where his name derives from Saint Pantaleon, the other theory of where his name derives is from Ventian merchants who were called Piantaleoni. While the theories of the St Pantaleone and the lion of St Mark are common, the name Pantaloon generally means old fool or dotard. The role of Pantalone is usually entirely in the Venetian dialect. The character of Pantalone is entirely based on currency and ego, for he has the highest regards for his intelligence, with little else to occupy his thoughts after a life as a tradesman or merchant, Pantalone is the metaphorical representation of money in the commedia world. While the social standing of merchants may have changed throughout the centuries, Pantalone is usually the father to one of the innamorati, another stock character found in commedia. He is driven to keep his child and their respective lover apart, Pantalone is presented either as a widower or bachelor, and despite his age, makes numerous passes at the women within the commedia world, though he is always rejected. Pantalone never forgets a deal and his merit is based on actions and he is also described as being petty, and he never forgets or forgives even the smallest things. Pantalone is characterized as loving his money and having emotional extremes, with his sinister and often inhumane treatment towards his fellows, Pantalone is perceived to be a pivotal part of commedia. His importance is represented in almost every production, often placing him at the beginning of the comedy. In a commedia comedy, many zanni or lazzi routines will begin by an action delivered by Pantalone himself, Pantalone is described as being too self-absorbed to notice and interact much with the audience, but he is so obvious that it serves the same purpose. The traditional Pantalone stance is that of a old man. While it would generally be assumed the position may be one of an elderly old man. He walks with his hips forward, allowing him to make larger strides when he walks, the hunched shape restricts his legs, which are bent and turned out at the knees. The feet have the heels together with the toes facing apart and his hands and feet move quickly, though his body is stiff, and his head is constantly moving. When he walks, his feet should be picked up more than would occur naturally, Pantalone is slow moving, and he has bouts of agility when there is high emotion, but it is followed by asthmatic breathing and panting
30.
Mantua
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Mantua is a city and commune in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua became Italian Capital of Culture, as chosen by the Italian Government on 27 October 2015, in 2017, Mantua will also be European Capital of Gastronomy, included in the Eastern Lombardy District. In 2007, Mantuas centro storico and Sabbioneta were declared by UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site. Mantuas historic power and influence under the Gonzaga family has made it one of the artistic, cultural, and especially musical hubs of Northern Italy. Mantua is noted for its significant role in the history of opera, the city is known for its architectural treasures and artifacts, elegant palaces. It is the place where the composer Monteverdi premiered his opera LOrfeo and it is the nearest town to the birthplace of the Roman poet Virgil, who was commemorated by a statue at the lakeside park Piazza Virgiliana. Mantua is surrounded on three sides by artificial lakes, created during the 12th century, as the defence system. These lakes receive water from the Mincio River, a tributary of the Po River which descends from Lake Garda, the three lakes are called Lago Superiore, Lago di Mezzo, and Lago Inferiore. A fourth lake, Lake Pajolo, which served as a defensive water ring around the city. These dated, without interruption, from Neolithic times to the Bronze Age and the Gallic phases, and ended with Roman residential settlements, which could be traced to the 3rd century AD. Mantua was a settlement which was first established about the year 2000 BC on the banks of River Mincio. In the 6th century BC, Mantua was an Etruscan village which, the name may derive from the Etruscan god Mantus. This new Roman territory was populated by soldiers of Augustus. Mantuas most famous ancient citizen is the poet Virgil, or Publius Vergilius Maro, after the fall of the western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Mantua was invaded in turn by Goths, Byzantines, Longobards, and Franks. In the 11th century, Mantua became a possession of Boniface of Canossa, the last ruler of that family was the countess Matilda of Canossa, who, according to legend, ordered the construction of the precious Rotonda di San Lorenzo in 1082. The Rotonda still exists today and was renovated in 2013, free Imperial City of Mantua After the death of Matilda of Canossa, Mantua became a free commune and strenuously defended itself from the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1198, Alberto Pitentino altered the course of River Mincio, three of these lakes still remains today and the fourth one, which ran through the centre of town, was reclaimed in the 18th century. Podesteria Rule From 1215, the city was ruled under the podesteria of the Gallic-Guelph Rambertino Buvalelli, during the struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, Pinamonte Bonacolsi took advantage of the chaotic situation to seize power of the podesteria in 1273
31.
Nationalmuseum
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Nationalmuseum is the national gallery of Sweden, located on the peninsula Blasieholmen in central Stockholm. The museums benefactors include King Gustav III and Carl Gustaf Tessin, the museum also has an art library, open to the public and academics alike. The current building, built between 1844 and 1866, was inspired by North Italian Renaissance architecture and it is the design of the German architect Friedrich August Stüler, who also designed the Neues Museum in Berlin. The relatively closed exterior, save for the entrance, gives no hint of the spacious interior dominated by the huge flight of stairs leading up to the topmost galleries. The museum was enlarged in 1961 to accommodate the museum workshops, the present restaurant was instated in 1996. The museum building closed for renovation in 2013 and is scheduled to reopen in 2018, the Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis by Rembrandt Midvinterblot by Carl Larsson Vid bäcken by Peter Adolf Persson Hallwyl Palace Swedish Museum of National Antiquities Johan Mårtelius. Stockholm, Arkitektur Förlag AB. p.67
32.
Domino mask
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A domino mask is a small, often rounded mask covering only the eyes and the space between them. The masks have seen special prevalence since the 18th century, where they have become traditional wear in particular local manifestations of Carnival, Domino masks have found their way into a variety of high and popular art forms. The name in use to describe this partial mask derives from the Latin for dominus, for lord or master, Masks of this type became known as domini because they resembled French priests winter hoods, which were white on the inside and black on the outside. Domino masks are worn during Carnival, e. g. Domino masks have appeared in images in art. The image at right is La Femme au Masque, painting by Henri Gervex 1885, the subject is 22-year old Parisienne Marie Renard wearing only a domino mask. The mask is popular in superhero comics, where it is worn by costumed heroes. Harlequin La bottega dei Mascareri, see, accessed 13 October 2014, student Project, General Commonalities in the Masquerade, see, accessed 13 October 2014. History of Venetian Masks, at Masks of Venice retail site, see, accessed 13 October 2014
33.
Henry IV of France
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Henry IV, also known by the epithet Good King Henry, was King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon, baptised as a Catholic but raised in the Protestant faith by his mother Jeanne dAlbret, Queen of Navarre, he inherited the throne of Navarre in 1572 on the death of his mother. As a Huguenot, Henry was involved in the French Wars of Religion, barely escaping assassination in the St. Bartholomews Day massacre, and later led Protestant forces against the royal army. Henry, as Head of the House of Bourbon, was a direct descendant of Louis IX of France. Upon the death of his brother-in-law and distant cousin Henry III of France in 1589 and he initially kept the Protestant faith and had to fight against the Catholic League, which denied that he could wear Frances crown as a Protestant. To obtain mastery over his kingdom, after four years of stalemate, as a pragmatic politician, he displayed an unusual religious tolerance for the era. Notably, he promulgated the Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants and he was assassinated in 1610 by François Ravaillac, a fanatical Catholic, and was succeeded by his son Louis XIII. Considered a usurper by some Catholics and a traitor by some Protestants, an unpopular king immediately after his accession, Henrys popularity greatly improved after his death, in light of repeated victories over his enemies and his conversion to Catholicism. The Good King Henry was remembered for his geniality and his concern about the welfare of his subjects. He was celebrated in the popular song Vive le roi Henri, Henry was born in Pau, the capital of the joint Kingdom of Navarre with the sovereign principality of Béarn. His parents were Queen Joan III of Navarre and her consort, Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, although baptised as a Roman Catholic, Henry was raised as a Protestant by his mother, who had declared Calvinism the religion of Navarre. As a teenager, Henry joined the Huguenot forces in the French Wars of Religion, on 9 June 1572, upon his mothers death, he became King of Navarre. At Queen Joans death, it was arranged for Henry to marry Margaret of Valois, daughter of Henry II, the wedding took place in Paris on 18 August 1572 on the parvis of Notre Dame Cathedral. On 24 August, the Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre began in Paris, several thousand Protestants who had come to Paris for Henrys wedding were killed, as well as thousands more throughout the country in the days that followed. Henry narrowly escaped death thanks to the help of his wife and he was made to live at the court of France, but he escaped in early 1576. On 5 February of that year, he formally abjured Catholicism at Tours and he named his 16-year-old sister, Catherine de Bourbon, regent of Béarn. Catherine held the regency for nearly thirty years, Henry became heir presumptive to the French throne in 1584 upon the death of Francis, Duke of Anjou, brother and heir to the Catholic Henry III, who had succeeded Charles IX in 1574. Because Henry of Navarre was the senior agnatic descendant of King Louis IX, King Henry III had no choice
34.
Bologna
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Bologna is the largest city of the Emilia-Romagna Region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, located in the heart of an area of about one million. The first settlements back to at least 1000 BC. The city has been a centre, first under the Etruscans. Home to the oldest university in the world, University of Bologna, founded in 1088, Bologna is also an important transportation crossroad for the roads and trains of Northern Italy, where many important mechanical, electronic and nutritional industries have their headquarters. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city, Bologna is home to numerous prestigious cultural, economic and political institutions as well as one of the most impressive trade fair districts in Europe. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, the city of Bologna was selected to participate in the Universal Exposition of Shanghai 2010 together with 45 other cities from around the world. Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country, after a long decline, Bologna was reborn in the 5th century under Bishop Petronius. According to legend, St. Petronius built the church of S. Stefano. After the fall of Rome, Bologna was a stronghold of the Exarchate of Ravenna in the Po plain. In 728, the city was captured by the Lombard king Liutprand, the Germanic conquerors formed a district called addizione longobarda near the complex of S. Stefano. Charlemagne stayed in this district in 786, traditionally said to be founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered to be the first university. The university originated as a centre of study of medieval Roman law under major glossators. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca among its students, the medical school is especially famous. In the 12th century, the families engaged in continual internecine fighting. Troops of Pope Julius II besieged Bologna and sacked the artistic treasures of his palace, in 1530, in front of Saint Petronio Church, Charles V was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII. Then a plague at the end of the 16th century reduced the population from 72,000 to 59,000, the population later recovered to a stable 60, 000–65,000. However, there was also great progress during this era, in 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the centre of the University
35.
Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral
36.
Giambattista Andreini
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Giambattista Andreini was an Italian actor and playwright. Born in Florence to stage stars Isabella Andreini and Francesco Andreini and he was a favourite with Louis XIII, and also with the public, especially as the young lover. His wife Virginia Ramponi-Andreini, whom he married in 1601, was also a celebrated actress and he left a number of plays full of extravagant imagination. The best known are LAdamo, The Penitent Magdalene, and The Centaur, from the first of these three volumes, which are extremely rare, Italians have often asserted that Milton, travelling at that time in their country, took the idea of Paradise Lost. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Andreini
37.
Pulcinella
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Pulcinella was raised by two fathers, Maccus and Bucco, who were as different as two parents could be. Maccus is described as being witty, sarcastic, rude. This duality manifested itself in both the way Pulcinella is shaped and the way he acts, physically, the characteristics he inherited from his fathers attributed to his topheavy, chicken-like shape. He inherited his humpback, his large, crooked nose, and his potbelly, large cheeks, and gigantic mouth come from Bucco. Due to this duality of parental lineage, Pulcinella can be portrayed as both a servant and master depending on the scenario, upper Pulcinella is more like Bucco, with a scheming nature, an aggressive sensuality, and great intelligence. Lower Pulcinella, however, favors Maccus, and is described by Pierre Louis Duchartre as being a dull. This juxtaposition of proud, cunning thief from the class and loud. Duality is the name of the game with Pulcinella and he either plays dumb, though he is very much aware of the situation or- he acts as though he is the most intelligent and competent, though he is woefully ignorant. He is incessantly trying to rise above his station, though he does not intend to work for it and he is a social chameleon, who tries to get those below him to think highly of him, but is sure to appease those in positions of power. Pulcinellas closing couplet translates to I am Prince of everything, Lord of land, except for my public whose faithful servant I remain. However, because his world is often that of a servant, nevertheless, he is always on the side of the winner, though he often doesnt decide this until after theyve won. No matter his initial intent, Pulcinella always manages to win, if something ends poorly, another thing is successful. If he is put out in a sense, he is rewarded in another and this often accidental triumph is his normal. Another important characteristic of Pulcinella is that he fears nothing, consequences are of no mind to him, as he will be victorious no matter what. It is said that he is so wonderful to watch because he does what audience members would do were not afraid of the consequences. Pulcinella is, however, the ultimate self-preservationist, looking out for himself in most every situation, antonio Fava, a world-renowned maskmaker and Maestro of Commedia dellarte is particularly fond of the character in both performance and study due to his influence and continuity throughout history. Of him, Fava explained that Pulcinella, a man without dignity, is nevertheless indespensable to us all, none of his countless bosses could ever escape from the awkward tangle of troubles in which they find themselves. Pulcinella is everyones saviour, saved by no one and this accidental helpfulness is key to his success
38.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
39.
Pantomimeteatret
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The Pantomime Theatre is an open-air theatre located in the Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen, Denmark. As indicated by the name, it is used for pantomime theatre in the classical Italian commedia dellarte tradition which is performed daily. Besides this original function, the leads a second life as a venue for ballet. When the Tivoli Gardens first opened in 1874, a theatre was already found at the site of the current building just inside the main entrance. It was made out of timber and painted canvas and after a series of rebuilding and major repairs, dahlerup had never been to China but he sought inspiration from pictures of buildings, borrowed from an engineer who had been stationed in the Far East. The technical side of the project was constructed by the director and Pierrot Niels Hendrik Volkersen and timber. It is a toy-like Historicist theatre built in Chinese style and noted for its mechanical front curtain that takes five men to operate, the repertoire consists of a mixture of traditional pantomimes, ballet performances and contemporary and more experimental performances. The pantomime tradition of the theatre is a mixture of elements that are apparently quite unrelated. When the peacock folds down its wings, the stage is set somewhere in old Copenhagen, at the home of stodgy Cassander who lives alone with his beautiful daughter. It remains unclear what has happened to her mother, Cassander is assisted by his servant, Pierrot, who has a white face like the clown he really is. Like the characters, the music comes from different sources. It includes Strauss, Mozart and Gounod – and, needless to say, lumbye, Tivoli’s in-house composer at one time. The music has been selected to underpin the plot and movements of each pantomime, the programme also include ballet performances, including examples of the distinctive Danish Bournonville style and modern dance. HM Queen Magrethe created costumes and scenography several times, including for ballets based on Hans Christian Andersens The Little Match Girl, choreographers who have created works for the Pantomimeteatret include Dinna Bjørn, Louise Midjord, Paul James Rooney and Ian Rowe. Since 2003 the programme has also involved more contemporary genre like jazz dance and hip hop pantomimes
40.
Tivoli Gardens
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Tivoli Gardens is a famous amusement park and pleasure garden in Copenhagen, Denmark. The park opened on 15 August 1843 and is the second-oldest operating amusement park in the world, after Dyrehavsbakken in nearby Klampenborg, also in Denmark. The amusement park was first called Tivoli & Vauxhall, Tivoli alluding to the Jardin de Tivoli in Paris and it is also mentioned in various books, like Number the Stars by Lois Lowry. Tivolis founder, Georg Carstensen, obtained a charter to create Tivoli by telling King Christian VIII that when the people are amusing themselves. The monarch granted Carstensen use of roughly 15 acres of the glacis outside Vesterport for an annual rent. Therefore, until the 1850s, Tivoli was outside the city, after dark, colored lamps illuminated the gardens. On certain evenings, specially designed fireworks could be reflected in Tivolis lake. Composer Hans Christian Lumbye was Tivolis musical director from 1843 to 1872, Lumbye was inspired by Viennese waltz composers like the Strauss family, and became known as the Strauss of the North. Many of his compositions are inspired by the gardens, including Salute to the Ticket Holders of Tivoli, Carnival Joys. The Tivoli Symphony Orchestra still performs many of his works, in 1874, Chinese style Pantomimeteatret took the place of an older smaller theatre. The audience stands in the open, the stage being inside the building, the theatres curtain is a mechanical peacocks tail. From the very beginning, the theatre was the home of Italian pantomimes, the absence of spoken dialogue is an advantage, as Tivoli is now an international tourist attraction. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Tivoli also hosted human exhibitions, in 1943, Nazi sympathisers burnt many of Tivolis buildings, including the concert hall, to the ground. Temporary buildings were constructed in their place and the park was back in operation after a few weeks, Tivoli is always evolving without abandoning its original charm or traditions. It will continue to grow as long as there is left in the world. In Swedish, tivoli has become synonymous with any amusement park, the park is best known for its wooden roller coaster, Rutschebanen, or as some people call it, Bjergbanen, built in 1914. It is one of worlds oldest wooden coasters that is still operating today. An operator controls the ride by braking down the hills so it wont gain too much speed and it is an ACE Coaster Classic
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The dictionary definition of harlequin at Wiktionary
Media related to Harlequin at Wikimedia Commons
"Harlequin". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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