1.
Richard Evans (portrait painter)
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Richard Evans, was an English portrait-painter and copyist, a pupil and later assistant of Sir Thomas Lawrence. When young he was a friend of the Birmingham-born artist David Cox, who would lend ink landscape drawings to Evans. When Cox moved to London in 1804, Evans and another aspiring artist friend, Charles Barber and they both took lodgings near Cox, and all three would go out sketching together. For some years Evans was a pupil and assistant of Sir Thomas Lawrence, for whom he painted drapery and backgrounds, campbell shelved his plan for lack of fresh material. In 1814 Evans visited the Louvre in Paris, and was one of the first Englishmen to copy the pictures there and he exhibited at the Royal Academy for the first time in 1816, showing a portrait of the aeronaut James Sadler. In the same year he went to Haiti where he head of the new school of drawing and painting set up by King Henri Christophe at his palace of Sans-Souci. He arrived on Haiti on 21 September, in the company of Prince Saunders and he painted portraits of the Haitian royal family, his first portrait of the king being sent as a gift to William Wilberforce. In 1818 Evans exhibited pictures catalogued as His Majesty Henry Christophe, King of Hayti and Prince Victor Henry and he spent some time in Italy, copying the old masters and painting portraits. Travelling overland via Paris they arrived in Rome on 10 August, after a fortnight, Etty moved on to Naples, leaving Evans in Rome. Etty wrote in a letter that an arrangement has made that would preclude my staying with him. but I must ever feel much obliged to him. He has gone about with me, and shown me things I should not otherwise have seen and they travelled separately for a while, Evans basing himself in Rome, but also visiting Milan. While Etty spent seven months in Venice, Evans and Etty were reunited in Florence in the summer of 1823 and after spending two months in Venice finally left for England in October. While In Rome Evans experimented with fresco-painting, and on leaving the city one of his attempts – depicting Ganymede feeding the Eagle – to the servant who cleaned his studio. Years afterwards he found it hanging in the South Kensington Museum, Evans continued to be a frequent exhibitor at the Royal Academy until 1845, mostly of portraits. He also showed six subject pictures at the British Institution between 1831 and 1856 and he continued to paint until the end of his life, and executed a large picture of The Death of Æsculapius when over 85 years of age. He died at Southampton, where he had lived for more than 25 years, in November 1871 and he presented some of the casts of antique statuary, which he had collected in Rome to the Hartley Institute, Southampton. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Evans. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Evans
2.
Norwich
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Norwich is a city on the River Wensum in East Anglia and lies about 100 miles north-east of London. It is the administrative centre for East Anglia and county town of Norfolk. During the 11th century, Norwich was the largest city in England after London and it remained the capital of the most populous English county until the Industrial Revolution. The urban area of Norwich had a population of 213,166 according to the 2011 Census, the parliamentary seats cross over into adjacent local-government districts. A total of 132,512 people live in the City of Norwich, Norwich is the fourth most densely populated local-government district in the East of England, with 3,480 people per square kilometre. In May 2012, Norwich was designated Englands first UNESCO City of Literature, the capital of the Iceni tribe was a settlement located near to the village of Caistor St. Edmund on the River Tas approximately 8 kilometres to the south of modern-day Norwich. Following an uprising led by Boudica around AD60 the Caistor area became the Roman capital of East Anglia named Venta Icenorum, literally the market place of the Iceni. According to a rhyme, the demise of Venta Icenorum led to the development of Norwich, Caistor was a city when Norwich was none. There are two suggested models of development for Norwich, the ancient city was a thriving centre for trade and commerce in East Anglia in 1004 AD when it was raided and burnt by Swein Forkbeard the Viking king of Denmark. Mercian coins and shards of pottery from the Rhineland dating from the 8th century suggest that trade was happening long before this. Between 924 and 939, Norwich became fully established as a town, the word Norvic appears on coins across Europe minted during this period, in the reign of King Athelstan. The Vikings were a cultural influence in Norwich for 40–50 years at the end of the 9th century. At the time of the Norman Conquest the city was one of the largest in England, the Domesday Book states that it had approximately 25 churches and a population of between 5, 000–10,000. It also records the site of an Anglo-Saxon church in Tombland, the site of the Saxon market place and the later Norman cathedral. Norwich continued to be a centre for trade, the River Wensum being a convenient export route to the River Yare and Great Yarmouth. Quern stones and other artefacts from Scandinavia and the Rhineland have been found during excavations in Norwich city centre and these date from the 11th century onwards. Norwich Castle was founded soon after the Norman Conquest, the Domesday Book records that 98 Saxon homes were demolished to make way for the castle. In 1096, Herbert de Losinga, Bishop of Thetford, began construction of Norwich Cathedral, the chief building material for the Cathedral was limestone, imported from Caen in Normandy
3.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
4.
Ambleside
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Ambleside is a town in Cumbria, in North West England. Historically within the county of Westmorland, it is situated at the head of Windermere, the town is within the Lake District National Park. Ambleside is administered by South Lakeland District Council and forms part of the Lakes civil parish, ‘Steamers’ run to Bowness-on-Windermere and Lakeside offering fine views of the lake and surrounding mountains. Ambleside is a base for hiking, mountaineering and mountain biking and it has a number of hotels, guest houses, pubs and restaurants as well as shops. In particular, there are a number of shops selling equipment for walkers and climbers in the town, Ambleside is also home to the headquarters of Brathay Exploration Group, a youth charity based just beyond Clappersgate on the road to Hawkshead. The album CSI, Ambleside, by Birkenhead-based band Half Man Half Biscuit, is named after the town, Ambleside features an oceanic climate, but being within the Lake District it does experience higher annual rainfall than the average for the North-West of England. Parts of the town have been flooded on numerous occasions, with the River Rothay breaking its banks during Storm Desmond in December 2015, the towns name is derived from the Old Norse Á-mel-sǽtr which literally translates as river – sandbank – summer pasture. To the south of Ambleside is the Roman fort of Galava, in 1650 the town was granted a charter to hold a market. In the reign of James II, another charter was granted for the town to collect tolls, the towns Market Place became the commercial centre for agriculture and the wool trade. The old packhorse trail between Ambleside and Grasmere was the route between the two towns before the new turnpike road was completed in 1770. Smithy Brow at the end of the trail was where pack ponies were re-shod after their journey, with the coming of the turnpikes, the packhorse trains were superseded by horse-drawn stagecoaches, which regularly travelled between Keswick and Kendal via Ambleside. William Wordsworth worked in Ambleside, as Distributor of Stamps for Westmorland, from 1813 and this government position induced Shelley to write a sonnet of mild reprimand, To Wordsworth, but it gave Wordsworth the financial security to pursue his poetry. In 1842, he became the Poet Laureate and resigned his office as Stamp Distributor, Ambleside & District Golf Club was founded in 1903. The German artist Kurt Schwitters lived in Ambleside for two years until his death in 1947 and he had been interned in the Isle of Man during World War II after moving to England to escape the Nazis. The railway engineer Edward Bury and his wife Priscilla Susan Bury lived at Ambleside, Bridge House was built over Stock Ghyll more than 300 years ago, probably as a summer house and apple store for Ambleside Hall. It was purchased by people in 1926 and given to the National Trust. Listed Grade I, the building is now used as a centre for the National Trust. The building was depicted by the Victorian landscapist Lewis Pinhorn Wood in his late 19th century work The Cobblers Shop on the Bridge
5.
Social theorist
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Social theories are frameworks of empirical evidence used to study and interpret social phenomena. A tool used by scientists, social theories relate to historical debates over the most valid and reliable methodologies. Certain social theories attempt to strictly scientific, descriptive. Conflict theories, by contrast, present ostensibly normative positions, Тhe origins of social theory are difficult to pinpoint, but debates frequently return to ancient Greece. From these foundations in Western philosophy arose Enlightenment social contract theory, sociological positivism, today, social science is used as an umbrella term to refer to sociology, economics, political science, jurisprudence, and other disciplines. Social theory is interdisciplinary and draws ideas from fields as diverse as anthropology. Social theory of a nature, or authorship based outside of academic social and political science. Similarly, cultural criticism may be associated both with formal cultural and literary scholarship, as well as other non-academic or journalistic forms of writing, the origins of the term are ancient and are derived from two words, ‘social’ from the Latin socius and ‘theory’ from the Greek theoria. Social thought provides general theories to explain actions and behavior of society as a whole, encompassing sociological, political, Social theory is used to make distinctions and generalizations among different types of societies, and to analyze modernity as it has emerged in the past few centuries. Classical social theory has generally been presented from a perspective of Western philosophy, Ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle and Plato, did not see a distinction between politics and society. The concept of society did not come until later, during the Enlightenment period. The term, société, was probably first used as key concept by Rousseau in discussion of social relations, the earliest proto-social scientific observations are to be found in the founding texts of Western philosophy, as well as in the non-European thought of figures such as Confucius. Prior to the enlightenment, social theory took largely narrative and normative form, expressed as stories and fables, it may be assumed the pre-Socratic philosophers and religious teachers were the precursors to social theory proper. Saint Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas concerned themselves exclusively with the idea of the just society, St. Augustine describes late Ancient Roman society but through a lens of hatred and contempt for what he saw as false Gods, and in reaction theorized City of God. Similarly, in China, Master Kong envisaged a just society that went beyond his contemporary society of the Warring States, later on, also in China, Mozi recommended a more pragmatic sociology, but ethical at base. He is thus considered by many to be the forerunner of sociology, ibn Khaldun, an influential Muslim scholar, described in Muqaddimah, published in 1377, two types of societies, the city or town-dweller and the mobile, nomadic societies. Montesquieu, in The Spirit of Laws, was possibly the first to suggest an explanation for history. Another innovative aspect of Montesquieus thinking was that he included changes in mores and manners as part of his explanation of political, jean-Jacques Rousseau in this time played a significant role in social theory
6.
Whigs (British political party)
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The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Whigs origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy. The Whigs played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760. The Whig Supremacy was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714, the Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession, and local offices. The Partys hold on power was so strong and durable, historians call the period from roughly 1714 to 1783 the age of the Whig Oligarchy. The first great leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government through the period 1721–1742, his protégé was Henry Pelham, who led from 1743 to 1754. Both parties were founded on rich politicians, more than on votes, there were elections to the House of Commons. The Whig Party slowly evolved during the 18th century, later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the royal family. The term Whig was originally short for whiggamor, a term meaning cattle driver used to describe western Scots who came to Leith for corn. In the reign of Charles I the term was used during Wars of the Three Kingdoms to refer derisively to a faction of the Scottish Covenanters who called themselves the Kirk Party. It was then applied to Scottish Presbyterian rebels who were against the Kings Episcopalian order in Scotland, Whig was a term of abuse applied to those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. The fervent Tory Samuel Johnson often joked that the first Whig was the Devil, the Whigs, under Lord Shaftesburys leadership, wished to exclude the Duke of York from the throne due to his Catholicism, his favouring of monarchical absolutism and his connections to France. They believed the Duke, if allowed to inherit the throne, would endanger the Protestant religion, liberty, the first Exclusion Bill was supported by a substantial majority on its second reading in May 1679. In response, King Charles prorogued Parliament and then dissolved it and this new parliament did not meet for thirteen months, because Charles wanted to give passions a chance to die down. When it met in October 1680, an Exclusion Bill was introduced and passed in the Commons without major resistance, Charles dissolved Parliament in January 1681, but the Whigs did not suffer serious losses in the ensuing election. The next Parliament first met in March, at Oxford, but Charles dissolved it only after a few days, when he made an appeal to the country against the Whigs, and determined to rule without Parliament. In February, Charles had made a deal with the French King Louis XIV, without Parliament, the Whigs gradually crumbled, mainly due to the Rye House Plot
7.
Sociology
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Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology
8.
Auguste Comte
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Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte was a French philosopher who founded the discipline of praxeology and the doctrine of positivism. He is sometimes regarded as the first philosopher of science in the sense of the term. Comte was an influence on 19th-century thought, influencing the work of social thinkers such as Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill. Comtes social theories culminated in his Religion of Humanity, which presaged the development of religious humanist. Comte may have coined the word altruisme, Auguste Comte was born in Montpellier, Hérault on 19 January 1798. After attending the Lycée Joffre and then the University of Montpellier, the École Polytechnique was notable for its adherence to the French ideals of republicanism and progress. The École closed in 1816 for reorganization, however, and Comte continued his studies at the school at Montpellier. When the École Polytechnique reopened, he did not request readmission, following his return to Montpellier, Comte soon came to see unbridgeable differences with his Catholic and monarchist family and set off again for Paris, earning money by small jobs. In 1824, Comte left Saint-Simon, again because of unbridgeable differences, Comte published a Plan de travaux scientifiques nécessaires pour réorganiser la société. But he failed to get an academic post and his day-to-day life depended on sponsors and financial help from friends. Debates rage as to how much Comte appropriated the work of Saint-Simon, Comte married Caroline Massin in 1825. In 1826, he was taken to a mental health hospital, in the time between this and their divorce in 1842, he published the six volumes of his Cours. Comte developed a friendship with John Stuart Mill. From 1844, he fell deeply in love with the Catholic Clotilde de Vaux, although because she was not divorced from her first husband, after her death in 1846 this love became quasi-religious, and Comte, working closely with Mill developed a new Religion of Humanity. John Kells Ingram, an adherent of Comte, visited him in Paris in 1855 and he published four volumes of Système de politique positive. His final work, the first volume of La Synthèse Subjective, was published in 1856 and his apartment from 1841–1857 is now conserved as the Maison dAuguste Comte and is located at 10 rue Monsieur-le-Prince, in Paris 6th arrondissement. Comte first described the perspective of positivism in The Course in Positive Philosophy. These texts were followed by the 1848 work, A General View of Positivism, the first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the physical sciences already in existence, whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science
9.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
10.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
11.
Coronation of Queen Victoria
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The coronation of Queen Victoria took place on 28 June 1838, just over a year after she succeeded to the throne at the age of 18. The procession by coach of 1831 was again adopted in 1838, the budget stressed the procession and there was no coronation banquet, according to The Gentlemans Magazine it was the longest coronation procession since that of Charles II in 1660. There was very little rehearsal, although the Queen was persuaded by Lord Melbourne, several of the congregation reported that, in the words of Benjamin Disraeli, those with parts to play were always in doubt as to what came next, and you saw the want of rehearsal. The whole coronation service lasted five hours and involved two changes of dress for the Queen, at points in the service when they were not needed at the Coronation Theatre, the royal party retreated to St. When he attempted again to ascend the steps, I advanced to the edge, the reaction of the diarist Charles Greville, who was present, was typical of the wider public, fell down as he was getting up the steps of the throne. Her first impulse was to rise, and when afterwards he came again to do homage she said, May I not get up and meet him. And then rose from the throne and advanced one or two of the steps to prevent his coming up, an act of graciousness and kindness which made a great sensation. It is, in fact, the union of naïveté, kindness, nature, good-nature, with propriety and dignity. The quality of the music did nothing to dispel the lacklustre impression of the ceremony. The music was directed by Sir George Smart, who attempted to conduct and play the organ simultaneously, smarts fanfares for the State Trumpeters were described as a strange medley of odd combinations by one journalist. Thomas Attwood had been working on a new coronation anthem but had died three months before the event and it was never completed, not everyone was critical however, the Bishop of Rochester wrote that the music was all that it was not in 1831. It was impressive and compelled all to realize that they were taking part in a religious service - not merely in a pageant, the streets were full of people & there were preparations of all kinds. I was received at the Abbey by Ld Melbourne, the Duke of Norfolk, Sir William Woods & Sir Benjamin Stevenson, All the arrangements are splendidly & very conveniently carried out. Ld M. made me try the 2 Thrones, which was fortunate, as they were both too low, Came home at 5, — great crowds in the streets, & all. The preparations for fairs, balloons, &c – in the Parks quite changes the aspect of the place, & the Camps of the Artillery, with all their white tents, had a very pretty effect. I am very glad I went to the Abbey as I shall now know exactly where I am to go & what I have to do and we spoke for a long time about the Coronation & all I had to do. I said I felt very agitated & as if something awful were going to happen to me tomorrow, at which he smiled Spoke of the Bishops, Ld M. said He is very maladroit in all those things, adding, in speaking of the Coronation, Oh. You will like it, when you are there, I observed I was glad to think he would be near me, as then I always felt so much safer
12.
Margaret Oliphant
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Margaret Oliphant Wilson Oliphant, was a Scottish novelist and historical writer, who usually wrote as Mrs. Oliphant. Her fictional works encompass domestic realism, the novel and tales of the supernatural. The daughter of Francis W. Wilson, a clerk, and his wife, Margaret Oliphant, she was born at Wallyford, near Musselburgh, East Lothian, as a girl, she constantly experimented with writing. In 1849 she had her first novel published, Passages in the Life of Mrs. Margaret Maitland and this dealt with the Scottish Free Church movement, with which Mr. and Mrs. Wilson both sympathised, and met with some success. It was followed by Caleb Field in 1851, the year in which she met the publisher William Blackwood in Edinburgh and was invited to contribute to the famous Blackwoods Magazine. In May 1852, she married her cousin, Frank Wilson Oliphant, at Birkenhead, for the sake of his health they moved in January 1859 to Florence, and then to Rome, where Frank Oliphant died. His wife, left almost entirely without resources, returned to England and she had now become a popular writer, and worked with amazing industry to sustain her position. Unfortunately, her life was full of sorrow and disappointment. In January 1864 her only remaining daughter Maggie died in Rome, in 1866 she settled at Windsor to be near her sons who were being educated at Eton. That year, her cousin, Annie Louisa Walker, came to live with her as a companion-housekeeper. This was her home for the rest of her life, the ambitions she cherished for her sons were unfulfilled. With the last of her children lost to her, she had and her health steadily declined, and she died at Wimbledon, London, on 25 June 1897. In the 1880s she was the mentor of the Irish novelist Emily Lawless. During this time Oliphant wrote several works of fiction, including the long ghost story A Beleaguered City and several short tales, including The Open Door. Oliphant, during a difficult life, wrote more than 120 works, including novels, books of travel and description, histories. A Widows Tale and Other Stories and her biographies of Edward Irving and her cousin Laurence Oliphant, together with her life of Sheridan in the English Men of Letters series, show vivacity and a sympathetic touch. She also wrote biographies of Francis of Assisi, French historian Count de Montalembert and her Autobiography and Letters, which present a touching picture of her domestic anxieties, appeared in 1899. Only parts were written with an audience in mind, she had originally intended the Autobiography for her son
13.
Unitarianism
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Unitarians believe that Jesus was inspired by God in his moral teachings and is a savior but a human being rather than a deity. Unitarianism is also known for the rejection of several other Western Christian doctrines, including the doctrines of sin, predestination. Unitarians in previous centuries accepted the doctrine of punishment in an eternal hell, Unitarianism might be considered a part of Protestantism depending on ones stance or viewpoint, perhaps it being described a part of Nontrinitarianism, or both, is more accurate. The Unitarian movement was not called Unitarian initially and it began almost simultaneously in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and in Transylvania in the mid-16th century. Among the adherents were a significant number of Italians, in England, the first Unitarian Church was established in 1774 on Essex Street, London, where todays British Unitarian headquarters are still located. In J. Gordon Meltons Encyclopedia of American Religions, it is classified among the family of churches. Unitarianism is a noun and follows the same English usage as other theologies that have developed within a religious movement. In that case it would be a belief system not necessarily associated with the Unitarian religious movement. Although these groups are unitarians in the sense, they are not in the proper sense. To avoid confusion, this article is about Unitarianism as a religious movement, for the generic form of unitarianism, see Nontrinitarianism. Recently some religious groups have adopted the 19th-century term biblical unitarianism to distinguish their theology from Unitarianism and these likewise have no direct relation to the Unitarian movement. The term Unitarian is sometimes applied today to those who belong to a Unitarian church, in the past, the vast majority of members of Unitarian churches were Unitarians also in theology. Over time, however, some Unitarians and Unitarian Universalists moved away from the traditional Christian roots of Unitarianism, for example, in the 1890s the American Unitarian Association began to allow non-Christian and non-theistic churches and individuals to be part of their fellowship. As a result, people who held no Unitarian belief began to be called Unitarians because they were members of churches that belonged to the American Unitarian Association, after several decades, the non-theistic members outnumbered the theological Unitarians. A similar, though much smaller, phenomenon has taken place in the Unitarian churches in the United Kingdom, Canada, and other countries. Unitarian theology, therefore, is distinguishable from the system of modern Unitarian and Unitarian Universalist churches. This article includes information about Unitarianism as a theology and about the development of theologically Unitarian churches, for a more specific discussion of Unitarianism as it evolved into a pluralistic liberal religious movement, see Unitarian Universalism. Unitarianism, both as a theology and as a family of churches, was defined and developed in Poland, Transylvania, England, Wales
14.
Deacon
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Deacon is a ministry in Christian Churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. In many traditions the diaconate, the term for an office, is a clerical office. The word deacon is derived from the Greek word diákonos, which is a standard ancient Greek word meaning servant, waiting-man, minister, or messenger. One commonly promulgated speculation as to its etymology is that it literally means through the dust, female deacons are mentioned by Pliny the Younger in a letter to the emperor Trajan dated c. The title deaconess is not found in the Bible, however, a woman, Phoebe, is mentioned at Romans 16, 1–2 as a deacon of the church in Cenchreae. Nothing more specific is said about her duties or authority, the exact relationship between male and female deacons varies. A biblical description of the qualities required of a deacon, and of his household, can be found in 1 Timothy 3, prominent historical figures who played major roles as deacons and went on to higher office include Saint Athanasius of Alexandria, Thomas Becket and Reginald Pole. On June 8, A. D.536 a serving Roman deacon was raised to Pope and his father, Pope Agapetus, had died and the office had been vacant for over a month. The title is used for the president, chairperson, or head of a trades guild in Scotland. The diaconate is one of the orders in the Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox. The other major orders are those of bishop and presbyter, the diaconate continued in a vestigial form as a temporary, final step along the course toward ordination to priesthood. In Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican churches, deacons assist priests in their pastoral and administrative duties and they have a distinctive role in the liturgy of the Eastern and Western Churches. In the Eastern Church, deacons have a profound presence in the Divine Liturgy. In the Western Church, Pope St. Today, deacons are also granted permission to preach, beginning around the fifth century, there was a gradual decline in the permanent diaconate in the Latin church. It has however remained a part of the Eastern Catholic Churches. These men are known as permanent deacons in contrast to those continuing their formation, there is no sacramental or canonical difference between the two, however, as there is only one order of deacons. The permanent diaconate formation period in the Roman Catholic Church varies from diocese to diocese as it is determined by the local ordinary, although they are assigned to work in a parish by the diocesan bishop, once assigned, deacons are under the supervision of the parish pastor. Unlike most clerics, permanent deacons who also have a profession have no right to receive a salary for their ministry
15.
Octagon Chapel, Norwich
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The Octagon Chapel is a Unitarian Chapel located in Colegate in Norwich, Norfolk, England. It is home to a liberal religious community, welcoming people of all religious faiths. The congregation is a member of the General Assembly of Unitarian, the chapel is a grade II* listed building. Completed in 1756 by the architect Thomas Ivory, it is perfectly octagonal, originally built as one of the very first Methodist Churches in the world, the building now serves the Unitarian Community. Theophilus Browne was appointed minister here in 1809, but was paid to leave the following year, william Taylor and novelist, Lord Mayor R. H. Mottram, John and Susannah Taylor all worshipped here. Composer Edward Taylor was organist for a while, and in 1812 published a collection of Psalm, Unitarians have no dogma or creed, and take inspiration from all religious teachings, as well as from science and the arts. A sense of community is what the Octagon is all about and there are a variety of groups, bring and share lunches Women’s Group Mens Group Craft Group Social Responsibility Group The Octagon hosts special ceremonies to mark lifes big transitions. Unitarians believe that everyone has the right to truth and meaning for themselves, so these ceremonies should be relevant. Services are not bound by tradition but are free to express the truths of the people concerned. The Octagon is proud of its musical heritage, Octagon Unitarian Chapel website The Octagon Chapel on the Norfolk Churches website Unitarians in Britain Octagon Music Series & Octagon Singers
16.
Martineau family
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The Martineau Family is a political dynasty associated mainly with Birmingham, England. Several of its members have been Lord Mayor of Englands second city, the family were prominent Unitarians, to the extent that a room in Londons Essex Hall, the headquarters building of the British Unitarians, was named after them. Several of the Martineaus are buried in Key Hill Cemetery, either in the grave or separately. The Martineaus came from a Huguenot immigrant background, and were noted in the medical, intellectual, the founder, Gaston Martineau, was a surgeon in Dieppe, and moved to Norwich after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes of 1685. They were initially Calvinist dissenters, who brought their children up as bilingual in French, gastons grandson David Martineau II was the third generation of surgeons, and had five sons who made up the male line of Martineaus. By the fourth generation the family was divided into Anglicans and Unitarians, the eldest of the five sons was Philip Meadows Martineau. A surgeon, Martineau was one of the most distinguished lithotomists of his day, from the ruins of Carrow Abbey, Martineau also constructed on his estate a small gothic priory with windows of ancient stained glass. By 1879, this estate had been sold, the second son, David Martineau, was a dyer who went into the sugar business. The third, Peter Finch Martineau, was a dyer in Norwich, the fourth son, John Martineau of Stamford Hill, had 14 children, including John Martineau the engineer. The fifth son, Thomas, is mentioned below, Thomas Martineau, a manufacturer of textiles, was the fifth son of David Martineau II. He spent his life in Norwich, where he was a deacon of its Unitarian church, Thomas died on 21 June 1826 and is buried at Rosary Cemetery, the first non-denominational burial ground in the United Kingdom. Thomas and Elizabeth Martineaus eldest child was a daughter, Elizabeth, who married Dr Thomas Greenhow, a doctor in Newcastle. The Greenhows daughter Frances married into the Lupton family of Leeds, Frances was an educationalist and worked to expand educational opportunities for girls. Their eldest son was Thomas, a surgeon who founded an eye infirmary, now part of the Norfolk. Thomas and Elizabeth Martineaus son Robert became a magistrate, town councillor and he hired John Barnsley to build a mansion in Edgbaston, with a large wing for his mother, who lived there till her death in 1848, and another for his own family. Barnsley had already built most of Birminghams grand Victorian and Edwardian public buildings and their best known child was their sixth, Harriet, the political author and a pioneer sociologist. She sometimes stayed with her mother and her brother Robert. The three of them, and other members of the family, are buried together in the Martineau vault at the Key Hill Cemetery and their seventh child, James, was a religious philosopher and a professor at Manchester New College
17.
Huguenots
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Huguenots are the ethnoreligious group of French Protestants who follow the Reformed tradition. It was used frequently to members of the French Reformed Church until the beginning of the 19th century. The term has its origin in 16th-century France, Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and western parts of France. As Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of political concessions, a series of religious conflicts followed, known as the French Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The Huguenots were led by Jeanne dAlbret, her son, the future Henry IV, the wars ended with the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots substantial religious, political, and military autonomy. Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s prompted the abolishment of their political and they retained religious provisions of the Edict of Nantes until the rule of Louis XIV. Nevertheless, a minority of Huguenots remained and faced continued persecution under Louis XV. By the death of Louis XV in 1774, French Calvinism was almost completely wiped out, persecution of Protestants officially ended with the Edict of Versailles, signed by Louis XVI in 1787. Two years later, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 and they also spread to the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa, the Dutch East Indies, the Caribbean, New Netherland, and several of the English colonies in North America. Small contingents of families went to Orthodox Russia and Catholic Quebec, a term used originally in derision, Huguenot has unclear origins. Geneva was John Calvins adopted home and the centre of the Calvinist movement, the label Huguenot was purportedly first applied in France to those conspirators involved in the Amboise plot of 1560, a foiled attempt to wrest power in France from the influential House of Guise. The move would have had the effect of fostering relations with the Swiss. Thus, Hugues plus Eidgenosse by way of Huisgenoten supposedly became Huguenot, a version of this complex hypothesis is promoted by O. I. A. Roche, who writes in his book, The Days of the Upright, A History of the Huguenots, that Huguenot is, a combination of a Dutch and a German word. Gallicised into Huguenot, often used deprecatingly, the word became, Some disagree with such double or triple non-French linguistic origins, arguing that for the word to have spread into common use in France, it must have originated in the French language. The Hugues hypothesis argues that the name was derived by association with Hugues Capet, king of France and he was regarded by the Gallicans and Protestants as a noble man who respected peoples dignity and lives. Janet Gray and other supporters of the hypothesis suggest that the name huguenote would be equivalent to little Hugos. It was in place in Tours that the prétendus réformés habitually gathered at night
18.
Carrow Abbey
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Carrow Abbey is a former Benedictine priory in Bracondale, northeast Norwich, England. The village on the used to be called Carrow and gives its name to Carrow Road. Granted by charter of King Stephen, it was founded ca,1146, and became a Grade I listed building in 1954. The actual date of the foundation is not clear. King Stephen, by charter, gave his lands in the fields of Norwich, and a meadow adjoining the land charged to God and the Church of St. Mary and St. John, of Norwich, and the nuns serving there. Stephen directed that such nuns should found their church on such land and they were to hold such lands as freely as the king himself did. The Benedictine nunnery, usually called Carrow Abbey, though only a priory, was founded for a prioress and nine black nuns and it was not, however, till June of King Johns 7th year of reign that the nuns obtained their amended charter. The anchoress Julian of Norwich was said to have received her training at the priory in the 1350/60s, in 1416 a dispute arose over ownership between the Prioress of Carrow and the Prior of Holy Trinity. The involved parties were Robert de Burnham, Prior of Holy Trinity of County Norwich, the Prior further stated that Carrowe was in the parish of Bracondale which is in the County of Norfolk and was never in the City of Norwich. The court ruled in favor of the Prioress stating that Carrow was a parcel of the City of Norwich, wills from the 15th century document many alternate spellings, such as Carhoe, or Carhowe, or Carehowe, or Carrowe. Between 1529 and 1539 there were eight, two priests, and eight women-servants, the value of the lead, bells, and buildings was estimated at £145. In 1538 it was granted to Sir John Shelton, who lived there briefly until his death the following year, by 1712 it was in the possession of Nathaniel Axtell who, in his Monasticon Anglicanum, discusses some of the priorys obituaries. Axtell belonged to St. Julians and All Saints in Norwich, by 1811, the estate, the building, lands and manor of Carrow, had been purchased by the Martineau family who could trace their descent from a Huguenot refugee. This distinguished medical family found a haven in Norwich from religious persecution, by 1811, Bracondale Woods and the adjacent Carrow Abbey Estate were both owned by eminent Norwich surgeon Philip Meadows Martineau. Martineau had earlier purchased the adjoining Bracondale Estate in 1793 and then built Bracondale Hall, from the ruins of Carrow Abbey, Martineau also constructed on his estate a small gothic priory with windows of ancient stained glass. By 1879, Carrow Abbey was in the ownership of the firm J &J Colman who continued to own the estate for many decades, between 1899 and 1909 they carried out considerable renovation work to the Abbey, including adding a new wing. It was at Carrow Abbey in July 1900, that the Colman family played host to royalty, Carrow Abbey became a Grade I listed building on 26 May 1954. Carrow Abbey has often been the subject of paintings, one of which is of the members of the Carrow Abbey hunt
19.
James Martineau
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James Martineau was an English religious philosopher influential in the history of Unitarianism. For 45 years he was Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy and Political Economy in Manchester New College, many portraits of Martineau, including one painted by George Frederick Watts, are held at Londons National Portrait Gallery. In 2014, the revealed that its patron, Catherine. The Duchess great-great-grandfather, Francis Martineau Lupton, was Dr James Martineaus grandnephew, prime Minister Gladstone said of Martineau, he is beyond question the greatest of living thinkers. One of his children was the watercolourist Edith Martineau, the seventh of eight children, James Martineau was born in Norwich, England, where his father Thomas was a cloth manufacturer and merchant. His mother, Elizabeth Rankin, was the eldest daughter of a sugar refiner, the Martineau family were descended from Gaston Martineau, a Huguenot surgeon and refugee, who married Marie Pierre in 1693, and settled in Norwich. His son and grandson—respectively the great-grandfather and grandfather of James Martineau—were surgeons in the same city, many of the family were active in Unitarian causes, so much so that a room in Essex Hall, the headquarters of British Unitarianism, was eventually named after them. Essex Hall held a statue of Martineau, whose niece, Frances Lupton, had worked to open up opportunities for women. He was sent to Bristol to the academy of Dr. Lant Carpenter, under whom he studied for two years. On leaving he was apprenticed to an engineer at Derby, where he acquired a store of exclusively scientific conceptions. Martineaus conversion followed, and in 1822 he entered the dissenting academy Manchester College, here he woke up to the interest of moral and metaphysical speculations. Of his teachers, one, the Rev, the other, the Rev. Martineaus ministerial career was suddenly cut short in 1832 by difficulties growing out of the regium donum, which had on the death of the senior minister fallen to him. His conscience did, however, allow him to both the Coronation of Queen Victoria in 1837 and the her Golden Jubilee half a century later. A year prior to the coronation, at St James Palace, from Dublin, he was called to Liverpool. He lodged in a owned by Joseph Williamson. It was during his 25 years in Liverpool that he published his first work, Rationale of Religious Enquiry and this position, and the principalship, he held for 45 years. In 1853 the college moved to London, and four years later he followed it there, in 1866, the Chair of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at University College, London, fell vacant when the liberal nonconformist Dr John Hoppus retired. Martineau, however, sidestepped Grotes opposition, much as Hoppus had learnt to do during his Professorship, Martineau was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1872
20.
Wet nurse
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A wet nurse is a woman who breast feeds and cares for anothers child. Wet nurses are employed when the mother is unable or chooses not to nurse the child herself, wet-nursed children may be known as milk-siblings, and in some cultures the families are linked by a special relationship of milk kinship. Mothers who nurse each others babies are engaging in an act known as cross-nursing or co-nursing. A wet nurse can help when a natural mother is unable or chooses not to feed the infant. Before the development of baby formulas in the 20th century, when a mother was unable to breastfeed her baby, there are many reasons why a mother is unable to lactate or to produce sufficient breast milk. Reasons include the serious or chronic illness of the mother and her treatment which creates a difficulty to nursing. Additionally, a mothers taking drugs may necessitate a wet nurse if a drug in any way changes the content of the mothers milk. There was also an increased need for wet nurses under circumstances when the rates of infant abandonment by mothers, some women choose not to breastfeed for social reasons. Many of these women were found to be of the upper class, some women chose to hire wet nurses purely to escape from the confining and time-consuming chore of breastfeeding. Wet nurses have also used when a mother cannot produce sufficient breast milk, i. e. the mother feels incapable of adequately nursing her child. Wet nurses tend to be common in places where maternal mortality is high. A woman can act as a wet-nurse if she is lactating. It was once believed that a wet-nurse must have recently undergone childbirth and this is not necessarily true, as regular breast suckling can elicit lactation via a neural reflex of prolactin production and secretion. Some adoptive mothers have been able to establish lactation using a breast pump so that they could feed an adopted infant, dr Gabrielle Palmer states, Wet nursing is an ancient practice, common to many cultures. It has been linked to class, where monarchies, the aristocracy. Lactation inhibits ovulation in women, thus the practice has a rational basis. Poor women, especially those who suffered the stigma of giving birth to a child, sometimes had to give their baby up, temporarily or permanently. Many cultures feature stories, historical or mythological, involving superhuman, supernatural, human, the Bible refers to Deborah, a nurse to Rebekah wife of Isaac and mother of Jacob and Esau, who appears to have lived as a member of the household all her days
21.
Ear trumpet
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Ear trumpets are tubular or funnel-shaped devices which collect sound waves and lead them into the ear. They serve as hearing aids, resulting in a strengthening of the energy impact to the eardrum. Ear trumpets were made of metal, silver, wood. The use of ear trumpets for the partially deaf dates back to the 17th century, the earliest description of an ear trumpet was given by the French Jesuit priest and mathematician, Jean Leurechonin his work Recreations mathématiques. Polymath Athanasius Kircher also described a device in 1650. By the late 18th century, their use was becoming increasingly common, collapsible conical ear trumpets were made by instrument makers on a one-off basis for specific clients. Well known models of the period included the Townsend Trumpet, the Reynolds Trumpet, the first firm to begin commercial production of the ear trumpet was established by Frederick C. As well as producing ear trumpets, Rein also sold hearing fans and these instruments helped amplify sounds, while still being portable. However, these devices were bulky and had to be physically supported from below. Later, smaller, hand-held ear trumpets and cones were used as hearing aids, Rein was commissioned to design a special acoustic chair for the ailing King of Portugal, John VI of Portugal in 1819. The throne was designed with ornately carved arms that looked like the open mouths of lions and these holes acted as the receiving area for the acoustics, which were transmitted to the back of the throne via a speaking tube, and into the kings ear. Finally in the late 1800s, the horn, which was a tube that had two ends, a cone that captured sound, and was eventually made to fit in the ear. Johann Nepomuk Mälzel began manufacturing ear trumpets in the 1810s and he notably produced ear trumpets for Ludwig van Beethoven, who was starting to go deaf at the time. These are now kept in the Beethoven Museum in Bonn, toward the late 19th century, hidden hearing aids became increasingly popular. Rein pioneered many designs, including his acoustic headbands, where the hearing aid device was artfully concealed within the hair or headgear. Reins Aurolese Phones were headbands, made in a variety of shapes, Hearing aids were also hidden in couches, clothing, and accessories. This drive toward ever increasing invisibility was often more about hiding the individuals disability from the public than about helping the individual cope with his problem, Rein and Son of London ended its ear trumpet manufacturing activity in 1963, as the last company of its kind. A Pinard horn is a type of stethoscope used by midwives that is designed similarly to an ear trumpet and it is a wooden cone about 8 inches long
22.
Unitarian Association
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The British and Foreign Unitarian Association was the major Unitarian body in Britain from 1825. The BFUA was founded as an amalgamation of three societies, the Unitarian Book Society for literature, The Unitarian Fund for mission work. Its offices were shared with the Sunday School Association at Essex Street, at the end of 1826 the Association acquired the Monthly Repository magazine, formerly edited by Robert Aspland. The Association contracted the French historian Gaston Bonet-Maury to write a history of French radical Protestantism, in March 1876 Robert Spears resigned from the Association in objection to proposals to publish the works of Theodore Parker. Another magazine, the Unitarian Herald, ran from 1861 to 1889, the Unitarian Fund for the Promotion of Unitarianism by means of Popular Preaching was founded in 1806, largely by laypeople. It gave money to congregations that needed it and employed Richard Wright as an itinerant missionary, Foreign Secretaries of the Association included Sir John Bowring, till 1832, then Edward Tagart. The Association for the Protection of the Civil Rights of Unitarians was established in 1819. A, liberty and Religion, by Dr. S. H. Mellon. A centenary history of the BFUA, published 1925
23.
Adam Smith
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Adam Smith FRSA was a Scottish economist, philosopher, and author. He was a philosopher, a pioneer of political economy. He is best known for two works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and An Inquiry into the Nature. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, after graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote, in his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith laid the foundations of free market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, he developed the concept of division of labour, Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by Tory writers in the moralising tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time, the minor planet 12838 Adamsmith was named in his memory. Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in the County of Fife and his father, also Adam Smith, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet, advocate, and prosecutor and also served as comptroller of the Customs in Kirkcaldy. In 1720 he married Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry and his father died two months after he was born, leaving his mother a widow. The date of Smiths baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723, and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth, Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, in 1740 Smith was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition. Adam Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, according to William Robert Scott, The Oxford of time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework. Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, near the end of his time there, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown
24.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
25.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
26.
James Mill
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James Mill was a British historian, economist, political theorist, and philosopher. He is counted among the founders of Ricardian school and was the father of John Stuart Mill and his influential History of British India contains a complete denunciation and rejection of Indian culture and civilisation. He divided Indian history into three parts, Hindu, Muslim and British, James Milne, later known as James Mill, was born at Northwater Bridge, in the parish of Logie Pert, Angus, Scotland, the son of James Milne, a shoemaker and small farmer. He then entered the University of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself as a Greek scholar, in October 1798, he was ordained as a minister of the Church of Scotland, but met with little success. From 1790 to 1802, in addition to holding various tutorships, from 1803 to 1806, he was editor of an ambitious periodical called the Literary Journal, which professed to give a summary view of all the leading departments of human knowledge. During this time he edited the St Jamess Chronicle, belonging to the same proprietor. In 1804, he wrote a pamphlet on the corn trade, in 1805, he published a translation of An Essay on the Spirit and Influence of the Reformation of Luther, a C. F. Villerss work on the Reformation, an attack on the vices of the papal system. About the end of year he began his The History of British India. In that year he also married Harriet Burrow, whose mother and he then took a house in Pentonville, where his eldest son, John Stuart Mill, was born in 1806. In 1808, he acquainted with Jeremy Bentham, and was for many years his chief companion. He adopted Benthams principles in their entirety, and determined to devote all his energies to bringing them before the world, between 1806 and 1818, he wrote for the Anti-Jacobin Review, the British Review and The Eclectic Review, but there is no means of tracing his contributions. In 1808, he began to write for the Edinburgh Review, to which he contributed steadily till 1813, his first known article being Money and he also wrote on Spanish America, China, Francisco de Miranda, the East India Company, and the Liberty of the Press. In the Annual Review for 1808 two articles of his are traced—a Review of Foxs History, and an article on Benthams Law Reforms, in 1811 he co-operated with William Allen, a Quaker and chemist, in a periodical called the Philanthropist. He contributed largely to every issue – his principal topics being Education, Freedom of the Press, and Prison Discipline. He made powerful onslaughts on the Church in connection with the Bell and Lancaster controversy, in 1818, The History of British India was published, and obtained a great and immediate success. It brought about a change in the authors fortunes, the year following he was appointed an official in the India House, in the important department of the examiner of Indian correspondence. He gradually rose in rank until he was appointed, in 1830, head of the office, with a salary of £1900 and his great work, the Elements of Political Economy, appeared in 1821
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Jeremy Bentham
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Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism, Bentham defined as the fundamental axiom of his philosophy the principle that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and he advocated individual and economic freedom, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual acts. He called for the abolition of slavery, the abolition of the penalty. He has also known in recent years as an early advocate of animal rights. Though strongly in favour of the extension of legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights. On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected, and then to be preserved as an auto-icon. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on display at University College London. Because of his arguments in favour of the availability of education. However, he played only a direct part in its foundation. Bentham was born in Houndsditch, London, to a family that supported the Tory party. He was reportedly a child prodigy, he was found as a sitting at his fathers desk reading a multi-volume history of England. He had one surviving sibling, Samuel Bentham, with whom he was close. He attended Westminster School and, in 1760, at age 12, was sent by his father to The Queens College, Oxford and he trained as a lawyer and, though he never practised, was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of the English legal code, among his many proposals for legal and social reform was a design for a prison building he called the Panopticon. Although the prison was never built, the concept had an important influence on generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher Michel Foucault argued that the Panopticon was paradigmatic of several 19th-century disciplinary institutions, Bentham became convinced that his plans for the Panopticon had been thwarted by the King and an aristocratic elite acting in their own interests. More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the Pool of London and this resulted in the Thames Police Bill of 1798, which was passed in 1800
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David Ricardo
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David Ricardo was a British political economist. He was one of the most influential of the economists, along with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith. Born in London, England, Ricardo was the third of 17 children of a Sephardic Jewish family of Portuguese origin who had relocated from the Dutch Republic. His father, Abraham Ricardo, was a successful stockbroker and he began working with his father at the age of 14. At age 21, Ricardo eloped with a Quaker, Priscilla Anne Wilkinson and this religious difference resulted in estrangement from his family, and he was led to adopt a position of independence. His father disowned him and his mother never spoke to him again. Following this estrangement he went into business for himself with the support of Lubbocks and Forster and he made the bulk of his fortune as a result of speculation on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo. Prior to the battle, Ricardo posted an observer to convey early results of the outcome and he then deliberately created the mistaken impression the French had won by initially openly selling British securities. Following this panic he moved to buy British securities at a steep discount, the Sunday Times reported in Ricardo’s obituary, published on 14 September 1823, that during the Battle of Waterloo Ricardo netted upwards of a million sterling, a huge sum at the time. He was appointed High Sheriff of Gloucestershire for 1818–19, in August 1818 he bought Lord Portarlington’s seat in Parliament for £4,000, as part of the terms of a loan of £25,000. His record in Parliament was that of an earnest reformer and he held the seat until his death four years later. Ricardo was a friend of James Mill. Other notable friends included Jeremy Bentham and Thomas Malthus, with whom Ricardo had a debate over such things as the role of landowners in a society. He also was a member of Malthus Political Economy Club, and he was one of the original members of The Geological Society. His sister was author Sarah Ricardo-Porter and he voted with opposition in support of the liberal movements in Naples,21 Feb. and Sicily,21 June, and for inquiry into the administration of justice in Tobago,6 June. He divided for repeal of the Blasphemous and Seditious Libels Act,8 May, inquiry into the Peterloo massacre,16 May and he adamantly supported the implementation of free trade. He voted against renewal of the duties,9 Feb. He voted silently for parliamentary reform,25 Apr.3 June and he again voted for criminal law reform,4 June
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Thomas Robert Malthus
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Thomas Robert Malthus FRS was an English cleric and scholar, influential in the fields of political economy and demography. Malthus himself used only his name, Robert. Populations had a tendency to grow until the class suffered hardship and want and greater susceptibility to famine and disease. Malthus wrote in opposition to the view in 18th-century Europe that saw society as improving. As an Anglican cleric, Malthus saw this situation as divinely imposed to teach virtuous behaviour, Malthus criticized the Poor Laws for leading to inflation rather than improving the well-being of the poor. He supported taxes on imports, because food security was more important than maximizing wealth. His views became influential, and controversial, across economic, political, social, pioneers of evolutionary biology read him, notably Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. The seventh child of Henrietta Catherine and Daniel Malthus, Robert Malthus grew up in The Rookery, petersen describes Daniel Malthus as a gentleman of good family and independent means. A friend of David Hume and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the young Malthus received his education at home in Bramcote, Nottinghamshire, and then at the Warrington Academy from 1782. Warrington was an academy, then at the end of its existence. Malthus entered Jesus College, Cambridge in 1784, there he took prizes in English declamation, Latin and Greek, and graduated with honours, Ninth Wrangler in mathematics. He took the MA degree in 1791, and was elected a Fellow of Jesus College two years later, in 1789, he took orders in the Church of England, and became a curate at Oakwood Chapel in the parish of Wotton, Surrey. Malthus came to prominence for his 1798 essay on population growth, in it, he argued that population multiplies geometrically and food arithmetically, therefore, whenever the food supply increases, population will rapidly grow to eliminate the abundance. He wrote the text in reaction to the optimism of his father. Malthus also constructed his case as a response to writings of William Godwin. The Essay gave rise to the Malthusian controversy during the next decades, the content saw an emphasis on the birth rate and marriage rates. The neo-Malthusian controversy, or related debates of many later, has seen a similar central role assigned to the numbers of children born. In 1799 Malthus made a European tour with William Otter, a college friend, travelling part of the way with Edward Daniel Clarke and John Marten Cripps, visiting Germany
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Population control
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Population control is the practice of artificially altering the size of any population. Population control can be influenced by a variety of factors, humans can greatly influence the size of animal populations they directly interact with. It is for relatively common to spay or neuter dogs. Spaying - removing the ovaries and uterus of a female animal - medical term = ovariohysterectomy, neutering - removing the testes of a male animal - medical term = orchiectomy. Various humans activities all impact various animal populations, population control may involve culling, translocation, or manipulation of the reproductive capability. The growth of a population may be limited by factors such as food supply or predation. The main biotic factors that affect population growth include, Food- both the quantity and the quality of food are important. Snails, for example, cannot reproduce successfully in an environment low in calcium, predators- as a prey population becomes larger, it becomes easier for predators to find prey. If the number of predators suddenly falls, the species might increase in number extremely quickly. Competitors- other organisms may require the resources from the environment. Competition for territory and for mates can drastically reduce the growth of individual organisms, parasites- These may cause disease, and slow down the growth and reproductive rate of organisms within a population. Important Abiotic factors affecting population growth include, Temperature- Higher temperatures speed up enzyme-catalyzed reactions, oxygen availability- affects the rate of energy production by respiration. Light may also control breeding cycles in animals and plants, toxins and pollutants- tissue growth can be reduced by the presence of, for example, sulphur dioxide, and reproductive success may be affected by pollutants such as estrogen like substances. Animal euthanasia is used as a final resort to controlling animal populations. Neutering is another option available to control animal populations, the annual Spay Day USA event was established by the Doris Day Animal League to promote the neutering of pets, especially those in animal shelters, so that the population remains controllable. Several efforts have made to control the population of ticks
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Henry Hallam
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Henry Hallam FRS FRSE FSA was an English historian. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, he practised as a barrister on the Oxford circuit for years before turning to history. Although he took no part in politics himself, he was acquainted with the band of authors. In an 1828 review of Constitutional History, Robert Southey claimed that the work was biased in favour of the Whigs, Hallam was a fellow of the Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum. In 1830 he received the medal for history founded by George IV. The only son of Rev John Hallam, canon of Windsor and dean of Bristol, Henry Hallam was born on 9 July 1777 and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, graduating in 1799. He was, however, a supporter of many popular movements—particularly of that which ended in the abolition of the slave trade. Hallams earliest literary work was undertaken in connection with the Whig periodical, the Edinburgh Review and his first major work, View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, was published in 1818, and was followed nine years later by The Constitutional History of England. Introduction to the Literature of Europe, in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries appeared in 1837. A volume of notes to his Middle Ages was published in 1843. These works represent nearly all of Hallams career, Hallam was a fellow of the Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum. In 1830 he received the medal for history founded by George IV. Hallam described his work Middle Ages as a series of dissertations for the period from the 5th to the 15th century. The work consists of nine chapters, the histories of France, Italy, Spain, Germany. Others deal with major features of medieval society, the feudal system, the ecclesiastical system. The last chapter sketches society, commerce, manners, and literature in the Middle Ages. The Quarterly Review for 1828 contains an article on the Constitutional History, written by Robert Southey, full of reproach. It was his distant treatment of Charles I, Thomas Cranmer, Hallam, like Thomas Babington Macaulay, ultimately referred political questions to the standard of Whig constitutionalism
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Harriet Taylor Mill
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Harriet Taylor Mill was a British philosopher and womens rights advocate. Her extant corpus of writing can be found in The Complete Works of Harriet Taylor Mill and she is largely remembered for her influence upon her second husband, John Stuart Mill, one of the pre-eminent thinkers of the 19th century. Taylor was attracted to Mill, who treated her as an intellectual equal, Mill was impressed with Taylor, asking her to read and comment on the latest book he was working on. In 1833 she lived in a residence from her husband. John Taylor agreed to Harriets friendship with Mill in exchange for the external formality of her residing as his wife in his house, over the next few years Harriet Taylor and John Stuart Mill exchanged essays on issues such as marriage and womens rights. The surviving essays reveal that Taylor held more radical views than Mill on these matters, Taylor was attracted to the socialist philosophy promoted by Robert Owen in books such as The Formation of Character and A New View of Society. In her essays Taylor especially criticised the effect of womens economic dependence upon men. After John Taylor died in 1849, Taylor and Mill waited two years before marrying in 1851, Taylor was hesitant to create greater scandal than the pair already had. Mills marriage proposal is a model of equality and she wrote a number of essays, including several on domestic violence and The Enfranchisement of Women, published in 1851. Except for a few articles in the Unitarian journal Monthly Repository and she did, however, read and comment on all the material produced by John Stuart Mill. In his autobiography, Mill claimed Harriet as the joint author of most of the books and he added, when two persons have their thoughts and speculations completely in common it is of little consequence, in respect of the question of originality, which of them holds the pen. Together, they wrote Early Essays on Marriage and Divorce, published in 1832, the debate about the nature and extent of her collaboration is ongoing. It ought to be so with everything I publish, for the half of it all is yours. The reasons for her reluctance may include the response to a philosophical text published by Mill only or as a coauthored work. J. S. Mill called her a contributor to much of his work, especially On Liberty, which he later dedicated to her when it was published in 1859. Harriet Taylor Mill died in the Hotel dEurope in Avignon, France, on 3 November 1858 after developing severe lung congestion and her daughter Helen Taylor, who would become a well-known feminist, completed the writing of The Subjection of Women with Mill. Upon her death, Mill wrote, History of feminism List of suffragists and suffragettes Womens suffrage in the United Kingdom Rossi, sentiment and Intellect, The Story of John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor Mill, in Rossi, Alice S. Essays on Sex Equality. Http, //harriettaylormill. com Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Catalogue of Harriet Taylor Mills correspondence, Works by or about Harriet Taylor Mill in libraries
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Henry Hart Milman
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The Very Reverend Henry Hart Milman was an English historian and ecclesiastic. He was born in London, the son of Sir Francis Milman, 1st Baronet. Educated at Eton and at Brasenose College, Oxford, his university career was brilliant, in 1816 he was ordained, and two years later became parish priest of St Marys, Reading. In 1821 Milman was elected professor of poetry at Oxford, and in 1827 he delivered the Bampton lectures on The character and conduct of the Apostles considered as an evidence of Christianity. In 1835, Sir Robert Peel made him Rector of St Margarets, Westminster, and Canon of Westminster and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1864. Milman was buried in the crypt of St. Pauls Cathedral, when the Chapel of the Order of the British Empire was created, the original tomb was replaced by a slab in the floor. Milman made his appearance as a dramatist with his tragedy Fazio and he also wrote Samor, the Lord of The Bright City, the subject of which was taken from British legend, the bright city being Gloucester. In subsequent poetical works he was successful, notably the Fall of Jerusalem and The Martyr of Antioch. The influence of Byron is seen in his Belshazzar, another tragedy, Anne Boleyn, followed in 1826. His poetical works were published in three volumes in 1839, in consequence, the author was attacked and his preferment was delayed. In 1838 he had edited Edward Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Milman wrote the hymn, Ride On, Ride On in Majesty. By his wife, Mary Ann, a daughter of Lieut. -General William Cockell, Milman had four sons and his nephew, Robert Milman, was Bishop of Calcutta from 1867 until his death, and was the author of a Life of Torquato Tasso. H. C. G. Matthew, Milman, Henry Hart, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004, online edn, Oct 2006. W. M. Parker, Dean Milman and the Quarterly Review, Quarterly Review,293, 30–43 Works by Henry Hart Milman at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Henry Hart Milman at Internet Archive
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Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton
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Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton, FRS was an English poet, patron of literature and politician. Milnes was born in London, the son of Robert Pemberton Milnes, of Fryston Hall, Castleford, West Yorkshire, and he was educated privately, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1827. After graduating with an M. A. in 1831, Milnes travelled abroad and he went to Italy and Greece, and published in 1834 a volume of Memorials of a Tour in some Parts of Greece, describing his experiences. Milnes returned to London in 1837, and was elected to Parliament as member for Pontefract as a Conservative, in parliament he interested himself particularly in the question of copyright and the conditions of reformatory schools. He left Prime Minister Sir Robert Peels party over the Corn Law controversy and his easy good nature had the effect that his political career was viewed with less seriousness by his contemporaries than it might otherwise have been. In 1848, he went to Paris to see something of the revolution, on his return he wrote, as a ‘Letter to Lord Lansdowne, ’1848. In 1863, Palmerston elevated Milnes to the peerage as Baron Houghton, of Great Houghton in the West Riding of the County of York. George W. E. Russell said of him, As years advanced he became not less Liberal, Milnes literary career was often influenced by church matters. He wrote a tract in 1841, which was praised by John Henry Newman and he took part in the discussion about Essays and Reviews, defending the tractarian position in One Tract More. He published two volumes of verse in 1838, Memorials of Residence upon the Continent and Poems of Many Years, Poetry for the People in 1840 and Palm Leaves in 1844. He also wrote a Life and Letters of Keats in 1848, Milnes ballads were among the most popular of their day. In 1868, Lord Houghton was elected to the Royal Society, in 1870, he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. Despite his piety, he had apparently an almost unsurpassed collection of literature, which he bequeathed to the British Library. A man whom his biographer Saunders said, had many fine tastes and some coarse ones, Milnes has been considered an author of The Rodiad. However, his chief distinctions were his sense of literary merit in others, and he was surrounded by the most brilliant men of his time, many of whom he had been the first to acclaim. His reputation rests largely on the part he played, as a man of influence in society and in moulding public opinion on literary matters, in connection with his large circle of talented friends. He secured a pension for Tennyson, helped to make Ralph Waldo Emerson known in Britain and he helped David Gray by writing a preface for The Luggie. He helped to obtain a job for Coventry Patmore at the British Museum and he was, in the traditional sense, a patron of literature, who never abused the privileges of his position
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Sydney Smith
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Sydney Smith was an English wit, writer and Anglican cleric. Born in Woodford, Essex, England, Smith was the son of merchant Robert Smith and Maria Olier, who suffered from epilepsy. His father, described as a man of ingenuity and activity, very clever, odd by nature. Smith himself attributed much of his own personality to his French blood. He was the second of four brothers and one sister, all remarkable for their talents. Two of the brothers, Robert Percy and Cecil, were sent to Eton, but he was sent with the youngest to Winchester College, where he rose to be captain of the school. He and his brother so distinguished themselves that their school-fellows signed a round-robin refusing to try for the college if the Smiths were allowed to contend for them any more. In 1789, Smith became a scholar of New College, Oxford and he planned to read for the bar, but his father disagreed and he was reluctantly compelled to take holy orders. He was ordained at Oxford in 1796 and became curate of the village of Netheravon, Smith did much for the inhabitants, providing the means for the rudiments of education and thus making better things possible. The squire of the parish, Michael Hicks-Beach, invited the new curate to dine and it was arranged that they should go to the University of Weimar in Germany, but war prevented them and in stress of politics said Smith, we put into Edinburgh in 1798. While his pupil attended lectures, Smith studied moral philosophy under Dugald Stewart as well as medicine and he also preached in the Episcopal chapel, attracting large audiences. In 1800, Smith published his first book, Six Sermons, preached in Charlotte Street Chapel, Edinburgh and they settled at 46 George Street, Edinburgh, where Smith made numerous friends, among them the future Edinburgh Reviewers. Towards the end of his five years residence in Edinburgh, in a house in Buccleuch Place, I was appointed editor, he says in the preface to the collection of his contributions, and remained long enough in Edinburgh to edit the first number of the Edinburgh Review. The motto I proposed for the Review was Tenui musam meditamur avena. —We cultivate literature on a little oatmeal. But this was too near the truth to be admitted, and so we took our present grave motto✱ from Publius Syrus, of whom, none of us, I am sure, had ever read a single line. He continued to write for the Review for the quarter of a century. Smith left Edinburgh for good in 1803, and settled in London, where he became known as a preacher, a lecturer. His success as a preacher was such there was often not standing-room in Berkeley Chapel, Mayfair
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John Stuart Mill
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John Stuart Mill was an English philosopher, political economist and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory, political theory, Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by his predecessor Jeremy Bentham, and contributed significantly to the theory of the scientific method. A member of the Liberal Party, he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for womens suffrage. John Stuart Mill was born on Rodney Street in the Pentonville area of London, the eldest son of the Scottish philosopher, historian and economist James Mill, John Stuart was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place. He was given a rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings. Mill was a precocious child. He describes his education in his autobiography, at the age of three he was taught Greek. By the age of eight, he had read Aesops Fables, Xenophons Anabasis, and the whole of Herodotus and he had also read a great deal of history in English and had been taught arithmetic, physics and astronomy. At the age of eight, Mill began studying Latin, the works of Euclid, and algebra and his main reading was still history, but he went through all the commonly taught Latin and Greek authors and by the age of ten could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father also thought that it was important for Mill to study, one of Mills earliest poetic compositions was a continuation of the Iliad. In his spare time he enjoyed reading about natural sciences and popular novels, such as Don Quixote. In the following year he was introduced to political economy and studied Adam Smith and David Ricardo with his father, Ricardo, who was a close friend of his father, used to invite the young Mill to his house for a walk in order to talk about political economy. At the age of fourteen, Mill stayed a year in France with the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, the mountain scenery he saw led to a lifelong taste for mountain landscapes. The lively and friendly way of life of the French also left an impression on him. In Montpellier, he attended the courses on chemistry, zoology, logic of the Faculté des Sciences. While coming and going from France, he stayed in Paris for a few days in the house of the renowned economist Jean-Baptiste Say, there he met many leaders of the Liberal party, as well as other notable Parisians, including Henri Saint-Simon. Mill went through months of sadness and pondered suicide at twenty years of age, according to the opening paragraphs of Chapter V of his autobiography, he had asked himself whether the creation of a just society, his lifes objective, would actually make him happy. His heart answered no, and unsurprisingly he lost the happiness of striving towards this objective, eventually, the poetry of William Wordsworth showed him that beauty generates compassion for others and stimulates joy
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Edward Bulwer-Lytton
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Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton PC, was an English novelist, poet, playwright, and politician. He was immensely popular with the public and wrote a stream of bestselling novels which earned him a considerable fortune. He coined the phrases the great unwashed, pursuit of the almighty dollar, the pen is mightier than the sword, dweller on the threshold, and he had two elder brothers, William Earle Lytton Bulwer and Henry, later Lord Dalling and Bulwer. When Edward was four his father died and his moved to London. He was a delicate, neurotic child and was discontented at a number of boarding schools, but he was precocious and Mr Wallington at Baling encouraged him to publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature work, Ishmael and Other Poems. In 1822 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he met John Auldjo, in 1825 he won the Chancellors Gold Medal for English verse. In the following year he took his B. A. degree and printed, for private circulation and he purchased a commission in the army, but sold it without serving. In August 1827, against his mothers wishes, he married Rosina Doyle Wheeler, when they married his mother withdrew his allowance and he was forced to work for a living. They had two children, Lady Emily Elizabeth Bulwer-Lytton, and Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton who became Governor-General and his writing and political work strained their marriage while his infidelity embittered Rosina, in 1833 they separated acrimoniously and in 1836 the separation became legal. Three years later, Rosina published Cheveley, or the Man of Honour, in June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she indignantly denounced him at the hustings. He retaliated by threatening her publishers, withholding her allowance, finally he had her committed to a mental asylum. But, after a public outcry she was released a few weeks later and this incident was chronicled in her memoir, A Blighted Life. For years she continued her attacks upon her husband’s character, the death of Bulwer-Lyttons mother in 1843 greatly saddened him. His own exhaustion of toil and study had been completed by great anxiety and grief, on 20 February 1844, in accordance with his mothers will, he changed his surname from Bulwer to Bulwer-Lytton and assumed the arms of Lytton by royal licence. His widowed mother had done the same in 1811, but, his brothers remained plain Bulwer. When King Otto of Greece abdicated in 1862, he was offered the crown of Greece, in 1866 Bulwer-Lytton was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton. According to the Fulham Football Club, he resided in the original Craven Cottage. Bulwer-Lytton had long suffered with a disease of the ear and for the last two or three years of his life he lived in Torquay nursing his health
38.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
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Elizabeth Barrett Browning was one of the most prominent English poets of the Victorian era, popular in Britain and the United States during her lifetime. Born in County Durham, the eldest of 12 children, Elizabeth Barrett wrote poetry from about the age of six and her mothers collection of her poems forms one of the largest collections extant of juvenilia by any English writer. At 15 she became ill, suffering intense head and spinal pain for the rest of her life, later in life she also developed lung problems, possibly tuberculosis. She took laudanum for the pain from an age, which is likely to have contributed to her frail health. In the 1830s Elizabeth was introduced to society through her cousin. Her first adult collection of poems was published in 1838 and she wrote prolifically between 1841 and 1844, producing poetry, translation and prose and she campaigned for the abolition of slavery and her work helped influence reform in the child labour legislation. Her prolific output made her a rival to Tennyson as a candidate for poet laureate on the death of Wordsworth, Elizabeths volume Poems brought her great success, attracting the admiration of the writer Robert Browning. Their correspondence, courtship and marriage were carried out in secret, following the wedding she was indeed disinherited by her father. The couple moved to Italy in 1846, where she would live for the rest of her life and they had one son, Robert Barrett Browning, whom they called Pen. She died in Florence in 1861, a collection of her last poems was published by her husband shortly after her death. Elizabeths work had a influence on prominent writers of the day, including the American poets Edgar Allan Poe. She is remembered for such poems as How Do I Love Thee. some of Elizabeth Barretts family had lived in Jamaica since 1655. Their wealth derived mainly from Edward Barrett, owner of 10,000 acres in the estates of Cinnamon Hill, Cornwall, Cambridge, Elizabeths maternal grandfather owned sugar plantations, mills, glassworks and ships that traded between Jamaica and Newcastle. What the family believed to be their genealogy in relation to Jamaica is unclear, the family wished to hand down their name, stipulating that Barrett should always be held as a surname. In some cases inheritance was given on condition that the name was used by the beneficiary, given this strong tradition, Elizabeth used Elizabeth Barrett Moulton Barrett on legal documents and before she was married often signed herself Elizabeth Barrett Barrett or EBB. Elizabeths father chose to raise his family in England while his business enterprises remained in Jamaica, the fortune of Elizabeths mothers line, the Graham Clarke family, also derived in part from slave labour, and was considerable. Elizabeth Barrett Moulton-Barrett was born on 6 March 1806, in Coxhoe Hall and her parents were Edward Barrett Moulton Barrett and Mary Graham Clarke, Elizabeth was the eldest of 12 children. All lived to adulthood except for one girl, who died at the age of three, when Elizabeth was eight, the children all had nicknames, Elizabeth was Ba
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Sarah Austin (translator)
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Sarah Austin was an English editor, linguist and translator from German. Born Sarah Taylor in Norwich, England in 1793, she was the youngest child of John Taylor and her education was overseen by her mother, Susannah Taylor. She became conversant in Latin, French, German and Italian and her six brothers and sisters included Edward Taylor, a singer and music professor, John Taylor, a mining engineer, Richard Taylor, a printer and editor and publisher of scientific works. Family friends included Dr James Alderson and his daughter Amelia Opie, Henry Crabb Robinson, Sarah grew up to be an attractive woman. She caused some surprise by marrying John Austin on 24 August 1819, during the first years of their married life they lived a wide social life in Queens Square, Westminster. John Stuart Mill testified the esteem which he felt for her by the title of Mutter, jeremy Bentham was also in their circle. She travelled widely, for instance to Dresden and Weimar, according to a modern scholar, Austin tended to be austere, reclusive, and insecure, while she was very determined, ambitious, energetic, gregarious, and warm. Indeed her affections were so starved that in the early 1830s she had a most unusual affair with Hermann Pückler-Muskau and it was conducted solely by an exchange of letters and she did not meet her correspondent until their passions had cooled. The only child of the Austins marriage, Lucie was likewise a translator of German works and her 1843 translation of Stories of the Gods and Heroes of Greece by Barthold Georg Niebuhr was erroneously ascribed to her mother. The family history was recorded in Three Generations of English Women, by Sarah Taylors granddaughter, Austins literary translations were a principal means of financial support for the couple. She also did much to promote her husbands works during his life, in 1833, she published Selections from the Old Testament, arranged under heads to illustrate the religion, morality, and poetry of the Hebrew Scriptures. Her own criticisms are few, but highly relevant, in 1834, Austin translated The Story without an End by Friedrich Wilhelm Carové, which was often reprinted. In the same year she translated the famous report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia, addressed by Victor Cousin to Count Montalivet, in the preface she pleads eloquently for the cause of national education. Society, she says, is no longer a calm current, in such a state of things who can deny the absolute necessity of national education. One of her last publications consisted of two letters addressed to the Athenæum, on girls schools and on the training of working women, speaking of the old village schools, she admits that the teachers possessed little book lore. They were often widows better versed in the toils and troubles of life than in chemistry or astronomy, in 1827 Mrs Austin left with her husband for Germany and settled in Bonn. In the autumn of 1836 she accompanied her husband to Malta, on their return from that island, she and her husband returned to Germany. Thence they passed to Paris, where remained until they were driven home by the revolution of 1848
40.
Charles Lyell
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Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet, FRS was a British lawyer and the foremost geologist of his day. Principles of Geology also challenged theories popularized by Georges Cuvier, which were the most accepted and circulated ideas about geology in England at the time and he also coined the currently-used names for geological eras, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. He incorrectly conjectured that icebergs may be the emphasis behind the transport of glacial erratics, Lyell was one of the first to believe that the world is older than 300 million years, on the basis of its geological anomalies. He was a friend of Charles Darwin, and contributed significantly to Darwins thinking on the processes involved in evolution. He helped to arrange the publication in 1858 of papers by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace on natural selection. He later published evidence from geology of the man had existed on Earth. Lyell was born 14 November 1797 in Scotland about 15 miles north of Dundee in Kinnordy and he was the eldest of ten children. Lyells father, also named Charles Lyell, was a lawyer and botanist of minor repute, the house/place of his birth is located in the north-west of the Central Lowlands in the valley of the Highland Boundary Fault. Round the house, in the valley, is farmland. His familys second home was in a different geological and ecological area, he spent much of his childhood at Bartley Lodge in the New Forest. Lyell entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1816, and attended William Bucklands lectures and he graduated BA second class in classics, December 1819, and M. A.1821. After graduation he took up law as a profession, entering Lincolns Inn in 1820 and he completed a circuit through rural England, where he could observe geological phenomena. In 1821 he attended Robert Jamesons lectures in Edinburgh, and visited Gideon Mantell at Lewes, in 1823 he was elected joint secretary of the Geological Society. As his eyesight began to deteriorate, he turned to geology as a full-time profession and his first paper, On a recent formation of freshwater limestone in Forfarshire, was presented in 1822. In 1832, Lyell married Mary Horner in Bonn, daughter of Leonard Horner, the new couple spent their honeymoon in Switzerland and Italy on a geological tour of the area. During the 1840s, Lyell travelled to the United States and Canada, after the Great Chicago Fire, Lyell was one of the first to donate books to help found the Chicago Public Library. In 1866, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Lyells wife died in 1873, and two years later Lyell himself died as he was revising the twelfth edition of Principles and he is buried in Westminster Abbey
41.
Jane Welsh Carlyle
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Jane Welsh Carlyle was the wife of essayist Thomas Carlyle. Their long marriage was close but tempestuous, complicated by other relationships on both sides, though these appear to have been platonic, as their own was believed to have been. Jane had first been introduced to Thomas by her tutor, who was in love with her and her closest romantic relationship seems to have been with feminist author Geraldine Jewsbury, though she resented Jewsbury’s free love life. Jane’s many passionate letters to her caught the interest of Virginia Woolf, Jane had been introduced to Carlyle by her tutor Edward Irving, with whom she came to have a mutual romantic attraction. The couple married in 1826 and for the first six years lived on a farm in Scotland, Thomas was always busy writing and Jane remained dutiful in doing the housework. Their voluminous correspondence has been published, and the show that the couples affection for each other was marred by frequent quarrels. Samuel Butler once wrote, It was very good of God to let Carlyle and Mrs Carlyle marry one another, Carlyles biographer James Anthony Froude posthumously published his opinion that the marriage remained unconsummated. Jane was also jealous of a friendship her husband had with the socialite, the friendship was non-sexual yet they still spent a lot of time together. Jane expressed her jealousy and anger in a letter dated in 1856, Jane had a long lasting relationship with fellow writer Geraldine Jewsbury. The two women first met when Thomas invited Geraldine to Cheyne Row, where Thomas and Jane lived, Geraldine had written to Thomas prior to the invitation admiring his work and also expressing her religious doubt. Geraldine was going through a time, but she also contacted Thomas in the hopes of entering the literary realm in England. When Geraldine and Jane met, their friendship turned out to be more of a romantic relationship and it is evident both women had feelings for each other, but there is no evidence of them being lesbian lovers. Jane always remained dutiful to her husband and neither had acted upon any romantic feelings and this caused a lot of jealousy between the two women as Jane always remained married to Thomas and Geraldine had lovers of her own. However, they both had feelings towards one another and that passion in expressed in their many letters to one another. They often had disagreements about common social issues of the era such as the place of men in womens lives, Geraldine wasnt opposed to marriage, but she thought man and woman should be equal in marriage, she didnt witness that with Jane and Thomas. Jane often tried to set up Geraldine with suitable bachelors in London, when they were on good terms, Jane helped Geraldine with many of her literary works. Jane helped edit two of Geraldines most popular novels, Zoe, the History of Two Lives and The Half Sisters, Jane was often burdened with the work, however, and also showed some jealousy over Geraldines literary success. She had trouble accepting how sociable Geraldine was and how many friends she had as well
42.
Thomas Carlyle
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Thomas Carlyle was a Scottish philosopher, satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher. Considered one of the most important social commentators of his time, a respected historian, his 1837 book The French Revolution, A History was the inspiration for Charles Dickens 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities, and remains popular today. Carlyles 1836 Sartor Resartus is a philosophical novel. A great polemicist, Carlyle coined the term the dismal science for economics and he also wrote articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, and his Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question remains controversial. Once a Christian, Carlyle lost his faith while attending the University of Edinburgh, in mathematics, he is known for the Carlyle circle, a method used in quadratic equations and for developing ruler-and-compass constructions of regular polygons. Carlyle was born in Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire and his parents determinedly afforded him an education at Annan Academy, Annan, where he was bullied and tormented so much that he left after three years. His father was a member of the Burgher secession church, in early life, his familys strong Calvinist beliefs powerfully influenced the young man. After attending the University of Edinburgh, Carlyle became a teacher, first in Annan and then in Kirkcaldy. His prose style, famously cranky and occasionally savage, helped cement an air of irascibility, Carlyles thinking became heavily influenced by German idealism, in particular the work of Johann Gottlieb Fichte. He established himself as an expert on German literature in a series of essays for Frasers Magazine and he also wrote a Life of Schiller. In 1826, Thomas Carlyle married fellow intellectual Jane Baillie Welsh, in 1827, he applied for the Chair of Moral Philosophy at St Andrews University but was not appointed. A residence provided by Janes estate was a house on Craigenputtock and he often wrote about his life at Craigenputtock – in particular, It is certain that for living and thinking in I have never since found in the world a place so favourable. Here Carlyle wrote some of his most distinguished essays, and began a friendship with the American essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson. In 1831, the Carlyles moved to London, settling initially in lodgings at 4 Ampton Street, in 1834, they moved to 5 Cheyne Row, Chelsea, which has since been preserved as a museum to Carlyles memory. He became known as the Sage of Chelsea, and a member of a circle which included the essayists Leigh Hunt. Here Carlyle wrote The French Revolution, A History, a study concentrating both on the oppression of the poor of France and on the horrors of the mob unleashed. By 1821, Carlyle abandoned the clergy as a career and focused on making a life as a writer and his first fiction was Cruthers and Jonson, one of several abortive attempts at writing a novel. Following his work on a translation of Goethes Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, he came to distrust the form of the realistic novel and so worked on developing a new form of fiction
43.
Florence Nightingale
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Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC was an English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing. She came to prominence while serving as a manager of nurses trained by her during the Crimean War and she gave nursing a highly favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of The Lady with the Lamp making rounds of wounded soldiers at night. Some recent commentators have asserted Nightingales achievements in the Crimean War were exaggerated by the media at the time, nevertheless, critics agree on the decisive importance of her follow-up achievements in professionalising nursing roles for women. In 1860, Nightingale laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her school at St Thomas Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of Kings College London, Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills and she also helped popularise the graphical presentation of statistical data. Much of her writing, including her work on religion. Florence Nightingale was born on 12 May 1820 into a rich, upper-class, well-connected British family at the Villa Colombaia, in Florence, Italy, and was named after the city of her birth. Florences older sister Frances Parthenope had similarly named after her place of birth, Parthenope. The family moved back to England in 1821, with Nightingale being brought up in the homes at Embley, Hampshire and Lea Hurst. Her parents were William Edward Nightingale, born William Edward Shore, williams mother Mary née Evans was the niece of Peter Nightingale, under the terms of whose will William inherited his estate at Lea Hurst, and assumed the name and arms of Nightingale. Fannys father was the abolitionist and Unitarian William Smith, in 1838, her father took the family on a tour in Europe where he was introduced to the English-born Parisian hostess Mary Clarke, with whom Florence bonded. She recorded that Clarkey was a hostess who did not care for her appearance. Her behaviour was said to be exasperating and eccentric and she had no respect for upper-class British women and she said that if given the choice between being a woman or a galley slave, then she would choose the freedom of the galleys. She generally rejected female company and spent her time with male intellectuals, however, Clarkey made an exception in the case of the Nightingale family and Florence in particular. She and Florence were to close friends for 40 years despite their 27-year age difference. Clarke demonstrated that women could be equals to men, an idea that Florence had not obtained from her mother, in her youth she was respectful of her familys opposition to her working as a nurse, only announcing her decision to enter the field in 1844
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Martineau, Harriet". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
