1.
Bluebook
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The Bluebook, A Uniform System of Citation, a style guide, prescribes the most widely used legal citation system in the United States. The Bluebook is compiled by the Harvard Law Review Association, the Columbia Law Review, the University of Pennsylvania Law Review, currently, it is in its 20th edition. It is so named because its cover is blue, the Bluebook is taught and used at a majority of U. S. law schools, and is also used in a majority of U. S. federal courts. Alternative legal citation style guides exist, including the Maroonbook and the ALWD Citation Manual, there are also several house citation styles used by legal publishers in their works. The U. S. Supreme Court uses its own unique style in its opinions, even though most of the justices. Furthermore, many courts have their own citation rules that take precedence over The Bluebook for documents filed with those courts. Some of the rules are simple modifications to The Bluebook system. In other states, notably New York, Texas, and Michigan, since 2008, California rules of court have allowed citations in Bluebook form as well as the states own style manual. An online subscription version of The Bluebook was launched in 2008, according to a recent study however, by two Yale librarians, Fred R. Shapiro and Julie Graves Krishnaswami, and their considerable archival research, Harvards and Griswolds claim is incorrect. They trace the origin of The Bluebook to a 1920 publication by Karl N. Llewellyn at Yale on how to write law journal materials for the Yale Law Journal, eventually, Harvard reversed course and joined the coalition by 1926. The cover of the 1926 A Uniform System of Citation was green, the color was brown from the second edition through the fifth edition. It was only with the edition that it became blue. In 1939, the cover of the book was changed from brown to a more patriotic blue allegedly to avoid comparison with an associated with Nazi Germany. The eleventh edition, published in 1967, was white with a blue border. The cover color returned to blue in the edition of 1976. The full text of the first through the editions are available on the official website. The Bluebook uses two different styles, the first is used by practitioners in preparing court documents and memoranda, while the second is used primarily in academic settings, such as law reviews and journals. The latter uses specific formatting to identify types of references, such as the use of caps for books, newspapers
2.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
3.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
4.
Harvard Law School
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Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance rate was 15. 4% in the 2013–14 admissions cycle, and its yield rate of 66. 2% was the second-highest of any law school in the United States. It is ranked first in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, Harvard Law admitted 16. 5% of applicants in its most recent class, compared to 9. 2% at Yale and 11. 2% at Stanford. With a current enrollment of 1,990, HLS has about as many students as its three closest-ranked peer institutions, first-ranked Yale, second-ranked Stanford, and fourth-ranked Chicago, combined. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, Harvards uniquely large class size and its prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world. According to Harvard Laws 2015 ABA-required disclosures,95. 33% of the Class of 2014 passed the Bar exam. Harvard Law Schools founding is linked to the funding of Harvards first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall. Today, it is home to the largest academic law library in the world, the current dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1,2009. The law school has 328 faculty members, Harvard Law Schools founding is traced to the establishment of a law department at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law the oldest continuously-operating law school in the nation, William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816, but did not begin classes until 1824, and also closed during the Civil War. Or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation shall judge to be best. ”The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938, the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair, deans Elena Kagan, royalls Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. The Royall family coat-of-arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves, was adopted as the school crest in 1936, topped with the university motto, in March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling, nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School, in 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice, at Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U. S. law schools
5.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
6.
University of Pennsylvania Law Review
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The University of Pennsylvania Law Review is a law review focusing on legal issues, published by an organization of second and third year J. D. students at the University of Pennsylvania Law School. It is the oldest law journal in the United States, having been published continuously since 1852, currently, seven issues are published each year with the last issue traditionally featuring papers from symposia held by the review each year. It is one of the four law reviews responsible for publication of the Bluebook and it is one of five official scholarly journals at the University of Pennsylvania Law School and the fifth most cited law journal in the world. In 1892, under the leadership of William Draper Lewis and George Wharton Pepper, it changed its name to the American Law Register, in 1895, Lewis became the first full-time dean of the University of Pennsylvania Law School and had the Law School take over the journal. The 1896 volume was the first volume to be edited by law students, the journal changed its name in 1908 to the University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register, and adopted its current name in 1945. In addition to publishing numerous works of scholarship, the law review has famously published a series of humorous asides. The most well known is The Common Law Origins of the Infield Fly Rule,123 U, the writing competition has two major parts, an editing portion and a writing portion. During the twenty-hour editing portion, contestants are required to correct a sample portion of a law review article prepared by the current board. Contestants have at their disposal a copy of the Bluebook and a packet of materials provided by the review. During the writing portion, contestants are required to create a cohesive, the sources cover a variety of topics, and the essay does not need to be law-related. Each year the review takes approximately fifty-five new members from the rising second-year class, the University of Pennsylvania Law Review is managed by a board of twenty members chosen from the rising 3L class in February of each year. Simandle, Dolores Sloviter, Marci Hamilton, Arthur Raymond Randolph, Mark G. Yudof, Daniel Garodnick, james T. Ringgold, Sunday Laws in the United States,40 Am. L. Reg.723 William J. Marbury, The Proposed Woman Suffrage Amendment, pa. L. Rev.403 Francis H. Bohlen, The Duty of a Landowner Toward Those Entering His Premises of Their Own Right,69 U. Pa. L. Rev.237 Margaret Center Klinglesmith, Amending the Constitution of the United States,73 U, pa. L. Rev.48 Robert von Moschzisker, Equity Jurisdiction in the Federal Courts,75 U. Pa. L. Rev.287 Ernest G. Black, pa. L. Rev.67 Arthur Allen Leff, Unconscionability and the Code-The Emperors New Clause,115 U. Pa. L. Rev.485 Herbert M. Silverberg, Law School Legal Aid Clinics, A Sample Plan, pa. L. Rev.970 Harold Leventhal, Environmental Decisionmaking and the Role of the Courts,122 U. Pa. L. Rev.509 Marvin E. Frankel, The Search for Truth, pa. L. Rev.1031 Henry Friendly, Some Kind of Hearing,123 U. Pa. L. Rev.1267 Aside, The Common Law Origins of the Infield Fly Rule,123 U, pa. L. Rev.1474 Michael J. Perry, The Disproportionate Impact Theory of Racial Discrimination,125 U
7.
Louis Brandeis
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Louis Dembitz Brandeis was an American lawyer and associate justice on the Supreme Court of the United States from 1916 to 1939. He was born in Louisville, Kentucky, to Jewish immigrant parents from Bohemia and he attended Harvard Law School, graduating at the age of twenty with the highest grade average in the law schools history. Brandeis settled in Boston, where he founded a law firm and he later published a book titled Other Peoples Money And How the Bankers Use It, suggesting ways of curbing the power of large banks and money trusts. He fought against powerful corporations, monopolies, public corruption, and mass consumerism, all of which he felt were detrimental to American values and culture. He also became active in the Zionist movement, seeing it as a solution to antisemitism in Europe and Russia, when his familys finances became secure, he began devoting most of his time to public causes and was later dubbed the Peoples Lawyer. He insisted on serving on cases without pay so that he would be free to address the issues involved. The Economist magazine calls him A Robin Hood of the law, in 1916, President Woodrow Wilson nominated Brandeis to become a member of the Supreme Court. His nomination was contested, partly because, as Justice William O. Douglas wrote. He was dangerous not only because of his brilliance, his arithmetic and he was dangerous because he was incorruptible. The fears of the Establishment were greater because Brandeis was the first Jew to be named to the Court. On June 1,1916 he was confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 47 to 22, to one of the most famous. His opinions were, according to scholars, some of the greatest defenses of freedom of speech. Louis Dembitz Brandeis was born on November 13,1856, in Louisville, Kentucky and his parents, Adolph Brandeis and Frederika Dembitz, both of whom were Ashkenazi Jews, emigrated to the United States from their childhood homes in Prague, Bohemia. They emigrated as part of their families for both economic and political reasons. In addition, the Habsburg Empire had imposed taxes on Jews. Family elders sent Adolph Brandeis to America to observe and prepare for his familys possible emigration and he spent a few months in the Midwest and was impressed by the nations institutions and by the tolerance among the people he met. He wrote home to his wife, Americas progress is the triumph of the rights of man, the Brandeis family chose to settle in Louisville partly because it was a prosperous river port. His earliest childhood was shaped by the American Civil War, which forced the family to seek safety temporarily in Indiana, the Brandeis family held abolitionist beliefs that angered their Louisville neighbors
8.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
9.
Ropes & Gray
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Ropes & Gray LLP is a global law firm with 11 offices located in the United States, Asia and Europe. The firm has more than 1,200 lawyers and professionals worldwide, and its clients include corporations and financial institutions, government agencies, universities and it was founded in 1865 in Boston, Massachusetts by John Codman Ropes and John Chipman Gray. Ropes & Gray also is recognized as a leader in several industries, including life sciences, health care, asset management, TMT. The firm was founded in 1865 by two Harvard Law School graduates, John Codman Ropes and John Chipman Gray, in 2003, the firm acquired New York City-based private equity law firm Reboul, MacMurray, Hewitt & Maynard. In 2005, the firm acquired New York-based intellectual property law firm Fish & Neave, the firm has offices in Boston, Chicago, Hong Kong, London, New York, San Francisco, Seoul, Shanghai, Silicon Valley, Tokyo and Washington, D. C. Chambers Global recognized Ropes & Gray in 31 practices, and the firm’s lawyers received 49 rankings in the 2016 edition of Chambers Global, Chambers UK recognized 15 lawyers in six Ropes & Gray practice areas, and Chambers Asia-Pacific recognized 23 Ropes & Gray lawyers in 20 practices. The firms work in Asia, which focuses on equity, M&A, life sciences. Ropes & Gray won in all three categories it was nominated in at the 2016 International Financial Law Review Asia Awards. ”The firm also took home “Restructuring Deal of the Year” for the restructuring of PT Berlian Laju Tanker. The deal was one of the largest private equity transactions of 2015, additionally, the annual China Business Law Awards named Ropes & Gray a “Firm of the Year” for compliance and anti-corruption in 2016. Ropes & Gray is highly ranked in several publications, including The Financial Times, Chambers, in 2016, it was ranked 13th on the AmLaw 100, which ranks firms by gross revenue. U. S. News / Best Lawyers named Ropes & Gray Law Firm of the Year for biotechnology, the firm also was among the 20 U. S. law firms with the most top-tier national rankings in the Best Law Firms survey. In 2013, Law360 named Ropes & Gray one of the five groups of the year for private equity, health law, securities litigation. Directors & Boards magazine named Ropes & Gray one of the top 10 U. S. law firms in dealing with corporate governance issues in its 2009 survey of Top Corporate Governance Law Firms. Ropes & Gray was named one of the top five securities litigation firms in the United States by Law360 in 2010,2011 and 2013, the firm also was named one of 14 standout securities litigation firms in a BTI Consulting Group survey of 240 corporate counsel nationwide in 2010. The Financial Times, in the first U. S. S, Supreme Court in Jones v. Harris, the seminal case on mutual funds advisor fees. Ropes & Gray was named a finalist for the top investment funds practice, in the 2013 Chambers USA, Ropes & Gray attorneys were recognized with 121 rankings across 43 areas of law. Ropes & Gray has ranked among the top two law firms to work for eight consecutive years, the firm is also ranked highly for its diversity. Additional Vault diversity category rankings included #1 for LGBT, #1 for Individuals with Disabilities, #2 for Minorities, #3 for Women, the firm also earned the top rating of 100 percent in the 2016 Corporate Equality Index, an annual survey administered by the Human Rights Campaign Foundation
10.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
11.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed many landmark bills. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
12.
Greek Revival architecture
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The Greek Revival was an architectural movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, predominantly in Northern Europe and the United States. A product of Hellenism, it may be looked upon as the last phase in the development of Neoclassical architecture, the term was first used by Charles Robert Cockerell in a lecture he gave as Professor of Architecture to the Royal Academy of Arts, London in 1842. With a newfound access to Greece, or initially the books produced by the few who had actually been able to visit the sites, archaeologist-architects of the period studied the Doric and Ionic orders. This was especially the case in Britain, Germany and the United States, Greek Revival architecture took a different course in a number of countries, lasting until the Civil War in America and even later in Scotland. Despite the unbounded prestige of ancient Greece amongst the elite of Europe. The monuments of Greek antiquity were known chiefly from Pausanias and other literary sources, visiting Ottoman Greece was difficult and dangerous business prior to the period of stagnation beginning with the Great Turkish War. Few Grand Tourists called on Athens during the first half of the 18th century and it would take until the expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti of 1751 by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett before serious archaeological inquiry began in earnest. Access to the originals in Greece itself only became easier after the Greek War of Independence ended in 1832, Lord Byrons participation, following James Stuarts travels to Greece in the early 1750s, intellectual curiosity quickly led to a desire to emulate. Stuart was commissioned after his return from Greece by George Lyttelton to produce the first Greek building in England, arguably the greatest British exponent of the style was Decimus Burton. In London twenty three Greek Revival Commissioners churches were built between 1817 and 1829, the most notable being St. Pancras church by William and Henry William Inwood. Such was the popularity of the Doric in Edinburgh that the city now enjoys a striking visual uniformity, nevertheless, Greek continued to be in favour in Scotland well into the 1870s in the singular figure of Alexander Thomson, known as Greek Thomson. In Germany, the Greek revival is predominantly found in two centres, Berlin and Munich, the earliest Greek building was the Brandenburg Gate by Carl Gotthard Langhans, who modelled it on the Propylaea. Ten years after the death of Frederick the Great, the Berlin Akademie initiated a competition for a monument to the king that would promote morality, similarly, in Munich von Klenzes Glyptothek and Walhalla were the fulfilment of Gillys vision of an orderly and moral German world. The purity and seriousness of the style was intended as an assertion of German national values and partly intended as a riposte to France. By comparison, the Greek revival in France was never popular with either the state or the public, what little there is started with Charles de Waillys crypt in the church of St Leu-St Gilles, and Claude Nicolas Ledouxs Barriere des Bonshommes. It would take until Laboustres Neo-Grec of the Second Empire for the Greek revival to flower briefly in France, the style was especially attractive in Russia, if only because they shared the Eastern Orthodox faith with the Greeks. The historic centre of Saint Petersburg was rebuilt by Alexander I of Russia, the Saint Petersburg Bourse on Vasilievsky Island has a temple front with 44 Doric columns. Leo von Klenzes expansion of the palace that is now the Hermitage Museum is another example of the style, following the Greek War of Independence, Romantic Nationalist ideology encouraged the use of historically Greek architectural styles in place of Ottoman or pan-European ones
13.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
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Austin Hall (Harvard University)
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Austin Hall is a classroom building of the Harvard Law School designed by noted American architect H. H. Richardson. The first building built for an American law school, it was also the first dedicated home of Harvard Law. It is located on the Harvard University campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the hall was built 1882–1884 in Romanesque Revival style. Single-story wings flank a heavy, two-story central mass, with the reading room extending rearwards to form an overall T shape, a central entryway framed with Romanesque triple arch is set deep within the buildings flat front facade, with an asymmetric stairway tower protruding forwards to its right. The building is faced with Longmeadow sandstone in striking polychrome patterns, the arches are of pale Ohio sandstone, as is the thick cornice band incised with a lengthy and sententious motto. As this curriculum has been imitated by other American law schools, the buildings second floor contains the Ames Courtroom, where students argue moot cases before panels of judges. A United States Supreme Court justice usually presides over the courts final round. The reading rooms interior has been judged particularly fine for its ornamented fireplace and tie beams carved with the heads of dragons, Harvard Law School walking tour Harvard Law School map
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Law school in the United States
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In the United States, a law school is an institution where students obtain a professional education in law after first obtaining an undergraduate degree. Law schools in the U. S. issue the Juris Doctor degree, which is a professional doctorate, although most law schools only offer the traditional three-year program, several U. S. law schools offer an Accelerated JD program. Other degrees that are awarded include the Master of Laws and the Doctor of Juridical Science degrees, most law schools are colleges, schools, or other units within a larger post-secondary institution, such as a university. Legal education is very different in the United States from that in other parts of the world. Some states that have non-ABA-approved schools or state-accredited schools have requirements that usually equal 90 credits toward a bachelors degree. Additional personal factors are evaluated through essays, short-answer questions, letters of recommendation, the standards for grades and LSAT scores vary from school to school. Though undergraduate GPA and LSAT score are the most important factors considered by law school admissions committees, interviews—either in person or via Skype—are sometimes used as optional or by-invite application components. Many law schools actively seek applicants from outside the pool to boost racial, economic. Most law schools now factor in extracurricular activities, work experience, a growing number of law school applicants have several years of work experience, and correspondingly fewer law students enter immediately after completing their undergraduate education. However, law schools generally only consider undergraduate and not post-collegiate transcripts when considering an applicant for admission and this is due to the fact that it is seen as a more uniform standard for judging academic performance. Many law schools offer scholarships and grants to many of their students. Some law schools condition scholarships on maintaining a certain GPA, as of 2013 there were 128,641 students enrolled in JD programs at the 204 approved ABA law schools. To sit for the bar exam, the vast majority of state bar associations requires that a law school be accredited by the American Bar Association. As of 2015, there are 205 ABA-accredited law schools award the J. D. divided between 200 with full accreditation and 5 with provisional accreditation. The Judge Advocate Generals Legal Center and School in Charlottesville, Virginia, program for military attorneys, is also ABA-accredited. Non-ABA approved law schools have much lower bar passage rates than ABA-approved law schools, in addition, individual state legislatures or bar examiners may maintain a separate accreditation system, which is open to non-ABA accredited schools. If that is the case, graduates of schools may generally sit for the bar exam only in the state in which their school is accredited. California is the most famous example of state-specific accreditation, the State Bar of Californias Committee of Bar Examiners approves many schools that may not qualify for or request ABA accreditation
16.
Stephen Breyer
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Stephen Gerald Breyer is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Appointed by President Bill Clinton in 1994, Breyer is generally associated with the liberal side of the Court. Following a clerkship with Supreme Court Associate Justice Arthur Goldberg in 1964, Breyer became well known as a law professor and lecturer at Harvard Law School, there he specialized in administrative law, writing a number of influential textbooks that remain in use today. Breyer was born in San Francisco, California, the son of Anne A. and Irving Gerald Breyer, Irving Breyer was legal counsel for the San Francisco Board of Education. Both Breyer and his brother, Charles, who is a federal district judge, are Eagle Scouts of San Franciscos Troop 14. Breyers paternal great-grandfather emigrated from Romania to the United States, settling in Cleveland, in 1955, Breyer graduated from Lowell High School. He is also fluent in French, in 1967, he married the Hon. Joanna Freda Hare, a psychologist and member of the British aristocracy, as the youngest daughter of John Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham. The Breyers have three children, Chloe, an Episcopal priest and author of The Close, Nell. Breyer served as a law clerk to Associate Justice Arthur Goldberg during the 1964 term and he was a special assistant to the United States Assistant Attorney General for Antitrust from 1965 to 1967 and an assistant special prosecutor on the Watergate Special Prosecution Force in 1973. Breyer was a counsel to the U. S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary from 1974 to 1975. He worked closely with the chairman of the committee, Senator Edward M. Kennedy, Breyer was a lecturer, assistant professor, and law professor at Harvard Law School starting in 1967. He taught there until 1994, also serving as a professor at Harvards Kennedy School of Government from 1977 to 1980, at Harvard, Breyer was known as a leading expert on administrative law. While there, he wrote two influential books on deregulation, Breaking the Vicious Circle, Toward Effective Risk Regulation and Regulation. In 1970, Breyer wrote The Uneasy Case for Copyright, one of the most widely cited skeptical examinations of copyright, Breyer was a visiting professor at the College of Law in Sydney, Australia, the University of Rome, and the Tulane University Law School. From 1980 to 1994, Breyer was a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, he was the courts Chief Judge from 1990 to 1994. In the last days of President Jimmy Carters administration, on November 13,1980, Carter nominated Breyer to the First Circuit, and the U. S. Senate confirmed him on December 9,1980, by an 80–10 vote. He served as a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States between 1990 and 1994 and the United States Sentencing Commission between 1985 and 1989, in 1993, President Bill Clinton considered him for the seat vacated by Byron White that ultimately went to Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Breyers appointment came shortly thereafter, however, following the retirement of Harry Blackmun in 1994, Breyer was confirmed by the U. S. Senate in an 87 to 9 vote and took his seat August 3,1994
17.
Felix Frankfurter
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Felix Frankfurter was a jurist, who served as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Frankfurter was born in Vienna and immigrated to New York at the age of 12 and he graduated from Harvard Law School and was active politically, helping to found the American Civil Liberties Union. He was a friend and adviser of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Frankfurter served on the Supreme Court for 23 years, and was a noted advocate of judicial restraint in the judgments of the Court. Frankfurter was born into a Jewish family on November 15,1882, in Vienna, Austria and he was the third of six children of Leopold Frankfurter, a merchant, and Emma Frankfurter. His uncle, Solomon Frankfurter, was head librarian at the Vienna University Library, Frankfurters forebears had been rabbis for generations. In 1894, when he was twelve, his family immigrated to New York City, settling on the Lower East Side,25, where he excelled at his studies and enjoyed playing chess and shooting craps on the street. He spent many hours reading at The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art and attending political lectures, usually on subjects such as trade unionism, socialism and communism. After graduating in 1902 from City College of New York, where he was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa and he applied successfully to Harvard Law School, where he excelled academically and socially. He became lifelong friends with Walter Lippmann and Horace Kallen, became an editor of the Harvard Law Review, Frankfurters legal career began when he joined the New York law firm of Hornblower, Byrne, Miller & Potter in 1906. In the same year, he was hired as the assistant to Henry Stimson, during this period, Frankfurter read Herbert Crolys book The Promise of American Life, and became a supporter of the New Nationalism and of Theodore Roosevelt. In 1911, President William Howard Taft appointed Stimson as his Secretary of War, Frankfurter worked directly for Stimson as his assistant and confidant. His government position restricted his ability to voice his Progressive views. In 1912 Frankfurter supported the Bull Moose campaign to return Roosevelt to the presidency and he became increasingly disillusioned with the established parties, and described himself as politically homeless. Frankfurters work in Washington had impressed the faculty at Harvard Law School and he taught mainly administrative law and occasionally criminal law. With fellow professor James M. Landis, he advocated judicial restraint in dealing with government misdeeds and he also served as counsel for the National Consumers League, arguing for Progressive causes such as minimum wage and restricted work hours. He was involved in the years of The New Republic magazine after its founding by Herbert Croly. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Frankfurter took a leave from Harvard to serve as special assistant to the Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. He was appointed Judge Advocate General, supervising military courts-martial for the War Department and he was commissioned a major in the Officers Reserve Corps but was not called to active duty
18.
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
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Ruth Bader Ginsburg is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Ginsburg was appointed by President Bill Clinton and took the oath of office on August 10,1993 and she is the second female justice and one of four female justices appointed on the Supreme Court. She is generally viewed as belonging to the wing of the Court. Ginsburg was one of the few women in her law school class, following law school, Ginsburg turned to academia. She was a professor at Rutgers School of Law–Newark and Columbia Law School, Ginsburg spent a considerable portion of her legal career as an advocate for the advancement of gender equality and womens rights, winning multiple victories arguing before the Supreme Court. She advocated as a lawyer for the American Civil Liberties Union and was a member of its board of directors. In 1980, President Jimmy Carter appointed her to the U. S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Born in Brooklyn, New York City, Joan Ruth Bader is the daughter of Nathan and Celia Bader, Russian Jewish immigrants. The Baders older daughter, Marylin, died of meningitis at age 6 when Ruth was 14 months old, the family called Joan Ruth Kiki, a nickname Marylin had given her for being a kicky baby. When Kiki started school, Celia discovered that her daughters class had several other girls named Joan, although not devout, the Bader family belonged to East Midwood Jewish Center, a Conservative temple, where Ruth learned tenets of the Jewish faith and gained familiarity with the Hebrew language. At age thirteen, Ruth acted as the rabbi at a Jewish summer program at Camp Che-Na-Wah in Minerva. Her mother took a role in her education, taking her to the library often. Celia had been a student in her youth, graduating from high school at age 15. Celia wanted to see her daughter get more of an education, Ruth attended James Madison High School, whose law program later dedicated a courtroom in her honor. Celia struggled with cancer throughout Ruths high school years, and died the day before Ruths high school graduation, Bader attended Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where she was a member of Alpha Epsilon Phi. While at Cornell she met Martin D. Ginsburg at age 17 and she graduated from Cornell with a Bachelor of Arts degree in government on June 23,1954. She was a member of Phi Beta Kappa and the female student in her graduating class. At age 21, she worked for the Social Security Administration office in Oklahoma and she gave birth to a daughter in 1955
19.
Columbia Law School
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Columbia Law School is a professional graduate school of Columbia University, a member of the Ivy League. It is widely regarded as one of the most prestigious law schools in the world and has always ranked in the top five by U. S. News. Columbia is especially known for its strength in corporate law. Columbia Law School was founded in 1858 as the Columbia College Law School and was known for its legal scholarship dating back to the 18th century. Cabinet members and Presidential advisers, U. S. Senators, Representatives, and Governors, according to Columbia Law Schools 2013 ABA-required disclosures, 95% of the Class of 2013 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation. The law school was ranked #1 of all law schools nation-wide by the National Law Journal in terms of sending the highest percentage of 2015 graduates to the largest 100 law firms in the US, the teaching of law at Columbia reaches back to the 18th century. Columbia College appointed its first professor of law, James Kent, the lectures of Chancellor Kent in the course of four years had developed into the first two volumes of his Commentaries, the second volume being published November 1827. Kent did not, however, succeed in establishing a law school or department in the College, thus, the formal instruction of law as a course of study did not commence until the middle of the 19th century. The Columbia College Law School, as it was officially called, was founded in 1858. The first law school building was a Gothic Revival structure located on Columbias Madison Avenue campus, thereafter, the college became Columbia University and moved north to the neighborhood of Morningside Heights. As Columbia Law Professor Theodore Dwight observed, at its founding the demand for a course of study in law was still speculative. No institution resembling a law school had existed in New York. Legal education was, however, at a low ebb. The clerks in the law offices were left almost wholly to themselves, frequently they were not even acquainted with the lawyers with whom, by a convenient fiction, they were supposed to be studying. In general, the examinations were purely perfunctory, a politician of influence was not readily turned away. Few studied law as a science, many followed it as a trade or as a convenient ladder whereby to rise in a political career, indeed, Columbia Law School was one of the few law schools established in the United States before the Civil War. Jay was fortunate to have attentive supervision because the quality and time of learning the law varied greatly within the profession, the original course of study to obtain a degree consisted of just two years, rather than the modern standard of three. The first lecture in the Law School was delivered on Monday, Nov 1,1858, by Mr. Dwight and it was an introductory lecture, afterwards printed
20.
Elena Kagan
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Elena Kagan is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Kagan is the Courts fourth female justice, Kagan was born and raised in New York City. After attending Princeton, Oxford, and Harvard Law School, she completed federal Court of Appeals and she began her career as a professor at the University of Chicago Law School, leaving to serve as Associate White House Counsel, and later as policy adviser, under President Clinton. After a nomination to the United States Court of Appeals for the D. C, Circuit, which expired without action, she became a professor at Harvard Law School and was later named its first female dean. In 2009, Kagan became the first female Solicitor General, after confirmation, Kagan was sworn in on August 7,2010, by Chief Justice John G. Roberts. Kagans formal investiture ceremony before a sitting of the United States Supreme Court took place on October 1,2010. Kagan was born in New York City, the middle of three children, on the citys Upper West Side and her father, Robert Kagan, was an attorney, and her mother, Gloria Kagan, taught at Hunter College Elementary School. Kagans two brothers are public school teachers, Kagan and her family lived in a third-floor apartment at West End Avenue and 75th Street and attended Lincoln Square Synagogue. Kagan was independent and strong-willed in her youth and, according to a law partner. She had strong opinions about what a bat mitzvah should be like, but they finally worked it out. She negotiated with the rabbi and came to a conclusion that satisfied everybody, Kagans rabbi, Shlomo Riskin, had never performed a ritual bat mitzvah before. Elena Kagan felt very strongly that there should be ritual bat mitzvah in the synagogue and this was really the first formal bat mitzvah we had, said Riskin. Kagan asked to read from the Torah on a Saturday morning but ultimately read on a Friday night, May 18,1973, today, she identifies with Conservative Judaism. Childhood friend Margaret Raymond recalled that Kagan was a teenage smoker, on Saturday nights, she and Kagan were more apt to sit on the steps of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and talk. Kagan also loved literature and re-read Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice every year, in her Hunter College High School yearbook of 1977, Kagan was pictured in a judges robe and holding a gavel. Next to her photo was a quote from former Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, Government is itself an art, after graduating from high school, Kagan attended Princeton University, where she earned an A. B. summa cum laude in history in 1981. Among the subjects she studied was the socialist movement in New York City in the early 20th century and she wrote a senior thesis under historian Sean Wilentz titled To the Final Conflict, Socialism in New York City, 1900–1933. In it she wrote, Through its own internal feuding, then, the story is a sad but also a chastening one for those who, more than half a century after socialisms decline, still wish to change America
21.
John G. Roberts
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John Glover Roberts Jr. is the 17th and current Chief Justice of the United States. He took his seat on September 29,2005, having been nominated by President George W. Bush after the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist and he has been described as having a conservative judicial philosophy in his jurisprudence. Roberts grew up in northwest Indiana and was educated in a private school and he then attended Harvard College and Harvard Law School, where he was a managing editor of the Harvard Law Review. During this time, he argued 39 cases before the Supreme Court, during his two-year tenure on the D. C. Circuit, Roberts authored 49 opinions, eliciting two dissents from other judges, and authoring three dissents of his own, notably, he represented 19 states in United States v. Microsoft. When Chief Justice Rehnquist died before Robertss confirmation hearings began, Bush instead nominated Roberts to fill the Chief Justice position, Roberts has authored the majority opinion in many landmark cases, including Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1, Shelby County v. Holder, and National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, John Glover Roberts was born in Buffalo, New York, the son of Rosemary and John Glover Jack Roberts Sr. His father was a plant manager with Bethlehem Steel and he has Irish, Welsh, and Czech ancestry. When Roberts was in grade, his family moved to Long Beach. He grew up with three sisters, Kathy, Peggy, and Barbara, Roberts attended Notre Dame Elementary School, a Roman Catholic grade school in Long Beach. In 1973, he graduated from La Lumiere School, a Roman Catholic boarding school in La Porte, Indiana and he studied five years of Latin, some French, and was known generally for his devotion to his studies. He was captain of the team, and was a regional champion in wrestling. He participated in choir and drama, co-edited the school newspaper, and served on the athletic council and he attended Harvard College, graduating in 1976 with an A. B. summa cum laude in history in three years. He then attended Harvard Law School where he was an editor of the Harvard Law Review. He graduated from law school with a J. D. magna cum laude in 1979, after graduating from law school, Roberts served as a law clerk for Judge Henry Friendly on the Second Circuit Court of Appeals for one year. Roberts frequently cites Judge Friendly in his opinions, from 1980 to 1981, he clerked for then-Associate Justice William Rehnquist on the United States Supreme Court. From 1981 to 1982, he served in the Reagan administration as a Special Assistant to U. S. Attorney General William French Smith, from 1982 to 1986, Roberts served as Associate Counsel to the President under White House Counsel Fred Fielding. Roberts entered private law practice in 1986 as an associate at the Washington, D. C. -based law firm of Hogan & Hartson, Roberts also argued on behalf of the homeless, a case which became one of Roberts few appellate losses
22.
Antonin Scalia
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Antonin Gregory Scalia was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1986 until his death in 2016. Appointed to the Court by President Ronald Reagan in 1986, Scalia was described as the anchor for the originalist and textualist position in the Courts conservative wing. Scalia was born in Trenton, New Jersey and he attended Xavier High School in Manhattan and then college at Georgetown University in Washington, D. C. He obtained his law degree from Harvard Law School and spent six years in a Cleveland law firm before becoming a law professor at the University of Virginia. In the early 1970s, he served in the Nixon and Ford administrations and he spent most of the Carter years teaching at the University of Chicago, where he became one of the first faculty advisers of the fledgling Federalist Society. In 1982, Ronald Reagan appointed him as judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, in 1986, Reagan appointed him to the Supreme Court. Scalia was unanimously confirmed by the Senate, becoming the first Italian-American justice and he was a strong defender of the powers of the executive branch, believing presidential power should be paramount in many areas. He opposed affirmative action and other policies that treated minorities as special groups and he filed separate opinions in many cases and often castigated the Courts majority in his minority opinions using scathing language. Antonin Scalia was born on March 11,1936, in Trenton, New Jersey and his father, Salvatore Eugene Scalia, an Italian immigrant from Sommatino, Sicily, was a graduate student at Columbia University and clerk at the time of his sons birth. The elder Scalia would become a professor of Romance languages at Brooklyn College and his mother, Catherine Louise Scalia, was born in Trenton to Italian immigrant parents and worked as an elementary school teacher. In 1939, Scalia and his moved to the Elmhurst section of Queens, New York. He later stated that he spent much of his time on schoolwork and admitted, while a youth, he was also active as a Boy Scout and was part of Scoutings national honor society, the Order of the Arrow. Classmate and future New York State official William Stern remembered Scalia in his school days. He could have been a member of the Curia and he was the top student in the class. He was brilliant, way above everybody else, in 1953, Scalia enrolled at Georgetown University, where he graduated valedictorian and summa cum laude in 1957 with a Bachelor of Arts in history. While in college, he was a champion debater in Georgetowns Philodemic Society. He took his junior year abroad at the University of Fribourg, Scalia studied law at Harvard Law School, where he was a Notes Editor for the Harvard Law Review. He graduated magna cum laude from Harvard in 1960, becoming a Sheldon Fellow of Harvard University, the fellowship enabled him to travel throughout Europe during 1960–1961
23.
Edward Terry Sanford
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Edward Terry Sanford was an American jurist who served as an Associate Justice on the United States Supreme Court from 1923 until his death in 1930. Sanford is typically viewed as a justice, favoring strict adherence to antitrust laws. A graduate of Harvard Law School, Sanford practiced law in his hometown of Knoxville, Tennessee, during the 1890s, Sanfords most lasting impact on American law is arguably his majority opinion in the landmark case, Gitlow v. New York. This case, which introduced the doctrine, helped pave the way for many of the Warren Courts decisions expanding civil rights. Sanford was born in Knoxville in 1865, the eldest son of prominent Knoxville businessman Edward J. Sanford, Sanfords father, as president or vice president of nearly a dozen banks and corporations, was one of the primary driving forces behind Knoxvilles late-19th century industrial boom. In 1891, Sanford married Lutie Mallory Woodruff, the daughter of Knoxville hardware magnate W. W. Sanford received a B. A. and a Ph. B. from the University of Tennessee in 1883, a B. A. from Harvard University in 1885, an M. A. from Harvard in 1889, and an LL. B. from Harvard Law School in 1889. He was in practice in Knoxville from 1890 to 1907. One of Sanfords earliest appearances before the Supreme Court came as a representing the appellant, Knoxville Iron Company. The court ruled in favor of Harbison and upheld states right to ban companies from paying employees in scrip rather than cash, as an Assistant Attorney General he was the lead prosecutor in the high-profile trial, United States v. Shipp, et al. This case involved a sheriff, Joseph Shipp, who was convicted of allowing a condemned Negro prisoner, Sanfords conduct of the trial—and particularly his exemplary closing argument— are said to be part of a Great American Trial. This is the criminal trial conducted before the U. S. Supreme Court in which the court exercised original jurisdiction. It was widely followed in the newspapers, Sanford was confirmed by the United States Senate on May 18,1908, and received his commission the same day. Upon the advice of Sanfords friend, Chief Justice William Howard Taft, President Warren Harding nominated Sanford to the Supreme Court on January 24,1923, Sanford was confirmed by the Senate, and received his commission, on January 29,1923. Sanford wrote 130 opinions during his seven years on the Court, Sanford authored the majority opinion in Okanogan Indians v. United States, which upheld the power of the Presidents pocket veto. Other noteworthy opinions by him are Taylor v. Voss,271 U. S.176, Sanford concurred with Tafts dissent in Adkins v. Childrens Hospital. Chief Justice Taft is considered by some to have been Justice Sanfords mentor and they routinely sided together in decisions, and were a part of the courts conservative inner club that regularly met at the Chief Justices house for libations and conviviality on Sundays. As had been the case in their careers, Chief Justice Tafts death overshadowed Justice Sanfords demise, Sanford is interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Knoxville
24.
Michael Boudin
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Michael Boudin is a Senior United States Circuit Judge and former Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit. Boudin was born in New York City, the son of the civil liberties attorney Leonard Boudin and he received a B. A. from Harvard University and an LL. B. from Harvard Law School in 1964. From 1966 to 1987 Boudin practiced regulatory law at Covington & Burling and he spent 21 years at Covington & Burling, primarily drafting appellate briefs in complex regulatory matters for corporate clients. He worked as a professor at Harvard Law School from 1982 to 1983. He then served in President Reagans Justice Department as a deputy assistant U. S. Attorney General of the Antitrust Division from 1987 to 1990. On May 18,1990, President George H. W. Bush nominated Boudin to the United States District Court for the District of Columbia and he was confirmed by the United States Senate on August 3,1990, and received his commission on August 7. Boudin served on the District Court for about 18 months, and he was confirmed by the Senate on May 21,1992, and received his commission on May 26. Boudin served as Chief Judge of the First Circuit from 2001 to 2008 and he took senior status on June 1,2013. Michael Boudin at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center
25.
Henry Friendly
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Friendly graduated from Harvard College in 1923 and received his law degree from Harvard Law School in 1927. S. Supreme Court Justices Louis Brandeis and Felix Frankfurter, the Harvard Crimson on June 23,1927, reported that Friendly was the first Harvard Law graduate to receive a degree summa cum laude. Frankfurter, as a professor at Harvard Law School, sent his student Friendly to work as a clerk for Justice Louis D. Brandeis of the United States Supreme Court. He served as president and general counsel of Pan American World Airways in New York City from 1946 to 1959. Friendly was appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to a seat on the Second Circuit vacated by Harold Raymond Medina, Friendlys appointment had been endorsed on the basis of merit by several prominent judges and lawyers, including Judge Learned Hand. Friendly was confirmed by the United States Senate on September 9,1959 and he served as the chief judge of the Second Circuit from 1971 to 1973. Friendlys opinions for the Second Circuit were considered scholarly and of quality, many are still cited today. Friendly received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977, Friendly took his own life at age 82 on March 11,1986 in his Park Avenue apartment in New York City. Police said they found three notes in the apartment, one addressed to his resident maid and two unaddressed notes, in all three notes, the judge talked about his distress at his wifes death, his declining health and his failing eyesight, according to a police spokesman. His wife, the former Sophie S. Stern, had died a year and they had been married for 55 years. In a ceremony following Friendlys death, Chief Justice of the United States, Warren E. Burger, said, In my 30 years on the bench, at the same ceremony, Associate Justice Thurgood Marshall called Friendly a man of the law. In a statement after Friendlys death, Judge Wilfred Feinberg, the 2nd Circuits chief judge at the time, called Friendly one of the greatest Federal judges in the history of the Federal bench. Richard A. Posner of the U. S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, Harvard Law School has a professorship named after Friendly. Weiler, a Canadian constitutional law scholar, held it from 1993 to 2006, William J. Stuntz, the Federal Bar Council awarded Friendly a Certificate of Distinguished Judicial Service posthumously in 1986. The American Law Institute has an award named in memory of Friendly, David P. Currie, Edward H. Levi Distinguished Service Professor, University of Chicago Law School Peter B. Humphreys School of Law, The University of Memphis Philip Bobbitt, Thomas M. Macioce Professor of Law, Columbia Law School Ruth Wedgwood, garland, chief judge, U. S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit Mary I. Coombs, professor of law, University of Miami School of Law John G. Roberts, Friendly was survived at his death by son David S. Friendly and two daughters, Joan Goodman and Ellen Simon, and 11 grandchildren. Henry Friendly at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center
26.
Ketanji Brown Jackson
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Ketanji Onyika Brown Jackson is a United States District Judge of the U. S. District Court for the District of Columbia. In 2016, she was on Barack Obamas short list for the Supreme Court to replace Antonin Scalia, ketanji Onyika Jackson was born in Washington, D. C. Her parents Johnny and Elorie Brown, are an attorney, and retired school principal, Jackson graduated from Miami Palmetto High School in 1988. Her parents still reside in Miami, Jackson has served as a law clerk for three federal judges, including U. S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts Judge Patti B. Saris and U. S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit Judge Bruce M. Selya and she clerked for Associate Justice Stephen Breyer of the U. S. Supreme Court from 1999 until 2000. Jackson worked in legal practice from 1998 until 1999 and again from 2000 until 2003. From 2003 until 2005, she remained in practice as an attorney at the Feinberg Group law firm. From 2005 until 2007, Jackson served as an assistant federal public defender in the District of Columbia, from 2007 to 2013, Jackson worked at the law firm of Morrison & Foerster. On July 23,2009, President Barack Obama nominated Jackson to a position as one of the seven voting members on the U. S. Senate confirmed Jackson by unanimous consent on February 11,2010 and she succeeded Michael Horowitz, who served from 2003 until 2009. On January 2,2013, her nomination was returned to the President, on January 3,2013, she was renominated to the same office. On February 14,2013, her nomination was reported to the full Senate by voice vote of the Senate Judiciary Committee and she was confirmed by voice vote on the legislative day of March 22,2013. She received her commission on March 26,2013, on February 26,2016, the National Law Journal reported that Obama administration officials were vetting Jackson as a potential nominee to the U. S. Supreme Court by President Barack Obama. The Washington Post reported the same in March, in 1996, Jackson married surgeon Patrick G. Jackson. Jackson is related by marriage to U. S. House Speaker Paul Ryan and her husband is the twin brother of Ryans brother-in-law. Ketanji Brown Jackson at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center
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