1.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
2.
National park
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A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns, although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea, the conservation of wild nature for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although Yellowstone was not officially termed a national park in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. The first area to use national park in its legislation was the USs Mackinac Island. Australias Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the third official national park. In 1895 ownership of Mackinac Island was transferred to the State of Michigan as a state park, as a result, Australias Royal National Park is by some considerations the second oldest national park now in existence. The largest national park in the meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park. According to the IUCN,6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006, IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. National parks are almost always open to visitors, in 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877, John Muir is today referred to as the Father of the National Parks due to his work in Yosemite. He published two articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on July 1,1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley, according to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for use, resort. Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation, a public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone at its establishment six years later was put under national control, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States first national park, being also the worlds first national park. In some European countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed, such as Drachenfels, Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory
3.
Lava
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Lava is the molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption. The resulting rock after solidification and cooling is called lava. The molten rock is formed in the interior of planets, including Earth. The source of the heat melts the rock within the earth is geothermal energy. When first erupted from a vent, lava is a liquid usually at temperatures from 700 to 1,200 °C. A lava flow is an outpouring of lava, which is created during a non-explosive effusive eruption. When it has stopped moving, lava solidifies to form igneous rock, the term lava flow is commonly shortened to lava. Although lava can be up to 100,000 times more viscous than water, lava can flow great distances before cooling and solidifying because of its thixotropic, explosive eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other fragments called tephra, rather than lava flows. The word lava comes from Italian, and is derived from the Latin word labes which means a fall or slide. The first use in connection with extruded magma was apparently in an account written by Francesco Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius between May 14 and June 4,1737. Serao described a flow of lava as an analogy to the flow of water. The composition of almost all lava of the Earths crust is dominated by silicate minerals, mostly feldspars, olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, igneous rocks, which form lava flows when erupted, can be classified into three chemical types, felsic, intermediate, and mafic. These classes are primarily chemical, however, the chemistry of lava also tends to correlate with the temperature, its viscosity. Felsic or silicic lavas such as rhyolite and dacite typically form lava spines, most silicic lava flows are extremely viscous, and typically fragment as they extrude, producing blocky autobreccias. Felsic magmas can erupt at temperatures as low as 650 to 750 °C, unusually hot rhyolite lavas, however, may flow for distances of many tens of kilometres, such as in the Snake River Plain of the northwestern United States. Intermediate or andesitic lavas are lower in aluminium and silica, and usually somewhat richer in magnesium, intermediate lavas form andesite domes and block lavas, and may occur on steep composite volcanoes, such as in the Andes. Poorer in aluminium and silica than felsic lavas, and also commonly hotter, greater temperatures tend to destroy polymerized bonds within the magma, promoting more fluid behaviour and also a greater tendency to form phenocrysts. Higher iron and magnesium tends to manifest as a darker groundmass, mafic or basaltic lavas are typified by their high ferromagnesian content, and generally erupt at temperatures in excess of 950 °C
4.
Hawaiian Islands
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Formerly the group was known to Europeans and Americans as the Sandwich Islands, a name chosen by James Cook in honor of the then First Lord of the Admiralty John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. The contemporary name is derived from the name of the largest island, the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown in 1893 and the United States annexed the islands in 1898. The Hawaiian Islands are the peaks of a great undersea mountain range known as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The islands are about 1,860 miles from the nearest continent and this name was in use until the 1840s, when the local name Hawaii gradually began to take precedence. The Hawaiian Islands have a land area of 6,423.4 square miles. Except for Midway, which is a territory of the United States. The eight main islands of Hawaii are listed here and this number includes all minor islands and islets, or very small island, offshore of the main islands and individual islets in each atoll. Thus, the southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, the age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods.4 Ma. The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the island, Hawaiʻi. The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS documents recent volcanic activity and provides images, almost all of the magma of the hotspot has the composition of basalt, and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser-grained gabbro and diabase, nephelinite is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. Hawaiʻi island is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, mauna Loa, taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on the Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than 2.5 miles, the Hawaiian Islands have many earthquakes, generally caused by volcanic activity. Most of the earthquake monitoring took place in Hilo, by missionaries Titus Coan, Sarah J. Lyman. From 1833 to 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year, Hawaii accounted for 7. 3% of the United States reported earthquakes with a magnitude 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this period, after Alaska. On October 15,2006, there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 off the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, the initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 aftershock. Minor-to-moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island, several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as Honolulu, Oahu, nearly 150 miles from the epicenter
5.
Hawaii County, Hawaii
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Hawaiʻi County is a county located in the U. S. state of Hawaii in the Hawaiian Islands. It is coterminous with the Island of Hawaiʻi, often called the Big Island to distinguish it from the state as a whole, as of the 2010 Census the population was 185,079. There are no incorporated cities in Hawaiʻi County, the Hilo Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of Hawaiʻi County. Hawaiʻi County has a form of government. Hawaii County is the largest county in the state, in terms of geography, the current Mayor of Hawaii County is Harry Kim, who took office in 2016. Legislative authority is vested in a nine-member Hawaii County Council, Hawaii County is one of seven counties in the United States to share the same name as the state they are located in. Hawaiʻi County has an area of 5,086.70 square miles,4,028.02 square miles is land and 1,058.69 square miles is water. The countys land area comprises 62.7 percent of the land area. It is the highest percentage by any county in the United States, there were 82,324 housing units at an average density of 8/km². Executive authority is vested in the Mayor of Hawaii County who is elected for a four-year term, since 2004, the election by the voters has been on a non-partisan basis. In 2016, Harry Kim was elected Mayor, succeeding Billy Kioni who had served a two-term limit, legislative authority is vested in a nine-member County Council. Each member represents a region of the island, which closely correlates to one of the nine tax map districts of Hawaiʻi County. Members of the County Council are elected on a basis to two-year terms. Administrative districts were based on the traditional land divisions called Moku of Ancient Hawaii. Some more heavily populated districts have since split into North and South districts to make them more comparable on a population basis. The number following each district is the Tax Map Key number and they are assigned in a counter-clockwise order beginning on the eastern side of the island. Several government functions are administered at the county level that are at the state or municipal level in other states, for example, the county has its own office of liquor control. Hawaii Department of Public Safety previously operated the Kulani Correctional Facility in Hawaii County, in 2009, the Hawaii Department of Public Safety announced that Kulani Correctional Facility would close
6.
Hilo, Hawaii
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Hilo is the largest settlement and census-designated place in Hawaii County, Hawaii, which encompasses the Island of Hawaiʻi. The population was 40,759 at the 2000 census, the population increased by 6. 1% to 43,263 at the 2010 census. Hilo is the county seat of the County of Hawaiʻi and is located in the District of South Hilo, the majority of human settlement in Hilo stretches from Hilo Bay to Waiākea-Uka, on the flanks of Mauna Loa. Hilo is also home to the Mauna Loa Macadamia Nut Corporation and it is served by Hilo International Airport, located inside the CDP. Around 1100 AD, the first Hilo inhabitants arrived, bringing with them Polynesian knowledge, although archaeological evidence is scant, oral history has many references to people living in Hilo, along the Wailuku and Wailoa Rivers during the time of ancient Hawaii. Oral history also gives the meaning of Hilo as to twist, originally, the name Hilo applied to a district encompassing much of the east coast of the Island of Hawaiʻi, now divided into the District of South Hilo and the District of North Hilo. When William Ellis visited in 1823, the settlement in the Hilo district was Waiākea on the south shore of Hilo Bay. Missionaries came to the district in the early-to-middle 19th century, founding Haili Church, Hilo expanded as sugarcane plantations in the surrounding area created new jobs and drew in many workers from Asia, making the town a trading center. A breakwater across Hilo Bay was begun in the first decade of the 20th century, on April 1,1946, a 7.8 magnitude earthquake near the Aleutian Islands created a fourteen-meter high tsunami that hit Hilo 4.9 hours later, killing 160 people. In response an early warning system, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, was established in 1949 to track these killer waves and provide warning. This tsunami also caused the end of the Hawaii Consolidated Railway, and instead the Hawaii Belt Road was built north of Hilo using some of the old railbed. On May 23,1960, another tsunami, caused by a 9.5 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Chile the previous day, claimed 61 lives, allegedly due to the failure of people to heed warning sirens. Low-lying bayfront areas of the city on Waiākea peninsula and along Hilo Bay, previously populated, were rededicated as parks, Hilo expanded inland beginning in the 1960s. The downtown found a new role in the 1980s as the cultural center with several galleries and museums being opened. Closure of the plantations during the 1990s led to a downturn in the local economy. Hilo in recent years has seen commercial and population growth, as the neighboring District of Puna became the region in the state. Hilo is located at 19°42′20″N 155°5′9″W, Hilo features a tropical rainforest climate, with substantial rainfall throughout the course of the year. An average of around 126.72 inches of rain fell at Hilo International Airport annually between 1981 and 2010, with 272 days of the year receiving some rain
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
9.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
10.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
11.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
12.
Hawaii (island)
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Hawaiʻi is the largest island located in the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is the largest and the southeastern-most of the Hawaiian Islands, with an area of 4,028 square miles, it is larger than all of the other islands in the archipelago combined and is the largest island in the United States. However, it only has 13% of Hawaiis people, the island of Hawaii is the third largest island in Polynesia, behind the two main islands of New Zealand. The island is referred to as the Island of Hawaiʻi. Administratively, the island is encompassed by Hawaiʻi County. As of the 2010 Census the population was 185,079, the county seat and largest city is Hilo. There are no incorporated cities in Hawaiʻi County, Hawaiʻi is said to have been named after Hawaiʻiloa, the legendary Polynesian navigator who first discovered it. The name is cognate with Savaii, the name of the largest island of Samoa, cook was killed on the Big Island at Kealakekua Bay on 14 February 1779, in a mêlée which followed the theft of a ships boat. Hawaiʻi was the island of Paiʻea Kamehameha, later known as Kamehameha the Great. Kamehameha united most of the Hawaiian islands under his rule in 1795, after years of war, and gave the kingdom. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 5,086 square miles. The countys land area comprises 62.7 percent of the land area. It is the highest percentage by any county in the United States, in greatest dimension, the island is 93 miles across and has a land area of 4,028 square miles comprising 62% of the Hawaiian Islands land area. Measured from its sea floor base to its highest peak, Mauna Kea is the worlds tallest mountain, taller than Mount Everest is, the Island of Hawaiʻi is built from five separate shield volcanoes that erupted somewhat sequentially, one overlapping the other. Geologists now consider these outcrops to be part of the building of Mauna Loa. Another volcano which has disappeared below the surface of the ocean is Māhukona. Because Mauna Loa and Kīlauea are active volcanoes, the island of Hawaii is still growing, between January 1983 and September 2002, lava flows added 543 acres to the island. Lava flowing from Kīlauea has destroyed several towns, including Kapoho in 1960, in 1987 lava filled in Queens Bath, a large, L-shaped, freshwater pool in the Kalapana area
13.
Mauna Loa
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Mauna Loa is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U. S. state of Hawaiʻi in the Pacific Ocean. The largest subaerial volcano in both mass and volume, Mauna Loa has historically considered the largest volcano on Earth. Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica-poor and very fluid, Mauna Loa has probably been erupting for at least 700,000 years, and may have emerged above sea level about 400,000 years ago. The oldest-known dated rocks are not older than 200,000 years, the volcanos magma comes from the Hawaii hotspot, which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian island chain over tens of millions of years. The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500,000 to one years from now. Mauna Loas most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15,1984, no recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities, but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages, and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century. Because of the hazards it poses to population centers, Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program. Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912, observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory, and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, both located near the mountains summit. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the flank of the volcano, and also incorporates Kīlauea. Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earths underlying mantle. The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, the prevailing view states that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planets mantle for much, if not all of the Cenozoic Era. However, while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well-understood and extensively studied, Mauna Loa is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi, created by the Hawaii hotspot. The oldest volcano on the island, Kohala, is more than a years old, and Kīlauea. Lōʻihi Seamount on the flank is even younger, but has yet to breach the surface. Since then, the volcano has remained active, with a history of effusive and explosive eruptions, although Mauna Loas activity has been overshadowed in recent years by that of its neighbor Kīlauea, it remains active. Mauna Loa is the largest subaerial and second largest overall volcano in the world, covering an area of 5,271 km2. Consisting of approximately 65,000 to 80,000 km3 of solid rock, the shield-stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the mountain are tholeiitic basalts, like those of Mauna Kea, created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust. Mokuʻāweoweos caldera floor lies between 170 and 50 m beneath its rim and it is only the latest of several calderas that have formed and reformed over the volcanos life, additionally, two smaller pit craters lie southwest of the caldera, named Lua Hou and Lua Hohonu
14.
Man and the Biosphere Programme
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As of March 2016,669 biosphere reserves in 120 countries, including 16 transboundary sites, have been included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Biosphere reserves are areas comprising terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems, each reserve promotes solutions reconciling the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. Biosphere reserves are nominated by governments and remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located. Their status is internationally recognized. The buffer zone surrounds or adjoins the core areas, and is used for activities compatible with sound ecological practices that can reinforce scientific research, monitoring, training and education. The transition area is the part of the reserve where the greatest activity is allowed, fostering economic, participating countries establish MAB National Committees that ensure maximum national participation in the international programme, defining and implementing each country’s activities. MAB currently operates through 158 National Committees established among the 195 Members States, the agenda of the MAB Programme is defined by its main governing body, the International Coordinating Council. The MAB Council consists of 34 member states elected by UNESCO’s General Conference, the council elects a chair and five vice-chairpersons from each of UNESCO’s geopolitical regions, one of which functions as a rapporteur. Its staff members draw on expertise in many and varied disciplines, the programme can grant seed funding to assist countries in developing projects and/or to secure appropriate partnership contributions. The latest World Congress of Biosphere Reserves took place in Lima, Peru and this will be the 4th World Congress of Biosphere Reserves and it shall develop a new vision for the decade 2016–2025. The World Network of Biosphere Reserves is supported by different regional, sub-regional or thematic networks and these are as follows, The African Biosphere Reserves Network was created in 1996 and comprises 33 African countries. The ArabMAB Network was officially launched in 1997 and represents 18 Arab countries, the East Asian Biosphere Reserve Network was launched in 1994. Today, it consists of China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the Republic of Korea, euroMAB is the network of biosphere reserves in Europe and North America. Created in 1987, it is the largest MAB Regional Network with 53 countries, the Ibero-American MAB Network was created in 1992. It comprises 22 countries from Latin American and the Caribbean, Spain, the Pacific Man and the Biosphere Network was created in 2006 and comprises the Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Tonga. The South and Central Asia MAB Network was created in 2002 and comprises Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, the Southeast Asian Biosphere Reserve Network was created in 1998. Today, it comprises Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, the East Atlantic Biosphere Reserve Network was created in 1994. It comprises the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau, Madeira and Azores, Mauritania, Morocco, Sao Tomé and Principe, the World Network of Island and Coastal Biosphere Reserves was established in 2012 and comprises 22 countries. Agenda 21 Searchable list of UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves Frequently Asked Questions on Biosphere Reserve A-Z of Areas of Biodiverity Importance, Biosphere Reserves
15.
America the Beautiful Quarters
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The America the Beautiful Quarters are a series of 25-cent pieces issued by the United States Mint starting in 2010 and scheduled to continue until at least 2021. The series may be extended at the option of the Secretary of the Treasury, the obverse of all the coins depicts George Washington in a restored version of the original portrait used for the 1932 Washington quarter. There will be five new designs each year, each depicting a national park or national site – one from each state, the federal district. The program is authorized by the America’s Beautiful National Parks Quarter Dollar Coin Act of 2008, Quarters will be issued depicting designs of national parks and sites in the order of which that park or site was deemed a national site. The quarters from three different states will depict parks or sites that were portrayed on the state quarters. Though they will depict the sites, they bear new designs. There are collector versions of the America the Beautiful 5 ounce Silver Bullion Coin Program which debuted in December 10,2010 and they feature an uncirculated finish and contain a ‘P’ mintmark indicating they were struck at the US Mint’s facility in Philadelphia. The bullion coins were struck in Philadelphia but contain no mintmark. The United States Mint struck these coins late in 2010 with a limited mintage of only 27,000. The Mint apparently had insufficient time to strike more before the end of the year owing to production difficulties with both America the Beautiful Five Ounce Coin series. This forced the Mint to only release these Hot Springs Coins the following year on April 28,2011, demand was intense in the first hours of availability with collectors ordering 19,000 of them in the first nine hours. Within two weeks, the Mint indicated a sell-out of the limited mintage strikes, each coins price is determined by the current value of silver and the 2010 issues sold for $279.95. Many subsequent issues have even lower mintages and higher market values. These 5 oz. silver quarters are the Big Boys quarter collection and due to their low mintage, have increased their value over issue price, even in the face of declining silver prices
16.
Hawaii Volcanoes Wilderness
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Hawaii Volcanoes Wilderness is a designated wilderness area within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the island of Hawaii in the U. S. state of Hawaii. It was designated in 1978 with 123,100 acres, and was expanded to 130,790 acres. Wilderness designation covers the extension of the National Park, including Mokuaweoweo. Wilderness Areas Wilderness Act Haleakala Wilderness Hawaii Volcanoes National Park - National Park Service Hawaii Volcanoes Wilderness - Wilderness. net
17.
Hiking
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Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails, in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling, hillwalking, and fell walking. The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927, in New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is an activity with numerous hiking organizations worldwide. In the United States, Canada, the Republic of Ireland, a day hike refers to a hike that can be completed in a single day. However, in the United Kingdom, the walking is also used, as well as rambling. In Northern England, Including the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales, fellwalking describes hill or mountain walks, hiking sometimes involves bushwhacking and is sometimes referred to as such. This specifically refers to walking through dense forest, undergrowth, or bushes. In extreme cases of bushwhacking, where the vegetation is so dense that human passage is impeded, the Australian term bushwalking refers to both on and off-trail hiking. Common terms for hiking used by New Zealanders are tramping, walking or bushwalking, trekking is the preferred word used to describe multi-day hiking in the mountainous regions of India, Pakistan, Nepal, North America, South America, Iran and in the highlands of East Africa. Hiking a long-distance trail from end-to-end is also referred to as trekking, in North America, multi-day hikes, usually with camping, are referred to as backpacking. The idea of taking a walk in the countryside for pleasure developed in the 18th-century, in earlier times walking generally indicated poverty and was also associated with vagrancy. Thomas West, an English priest, popularized the idea of walking for pleasure in his guide to the Lake District of 1778. To this end he included various stations or viewpoints around the lakes, published in 1778 the book was a major success. Another famous early exponent of walking for pleasure, was the English poet William Wordsworth, in 1790 he embarked on an extended tour of France, Switzerland, and Germany, a journey subsequently recorded in his long autobiographical poem The Prelude. His famous poem Tintern Abbey was inspired by a visit to the Wye Valley made during a tour of Wales in 1798 with his sister Dorothy Wordsworth. Wordsworths friend Coleridge was another keen walker and in the autumn of 1799, he and Wordsworth undertook a three weeks tour of the Lake District. John Keats, who belonged to the generation of Romantic poets began, in June 1818, a walking tour of Scotland, Ireland
18.
Camping
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Camping is an outdoor recreational activity involving overnight stays away from home in a shelter such as a tent, a caravan, or even a motorhome. Generally participants leave developed areas to spend time outdoors in more natural ones in pursuit of activities providing them enjoyment, to be regarded as camping a minimum of one night is spent outdoors, distinguishing it from day-tripping, picnicking, and other similarly short-term recreational activities. Camping can be enjoyed through all four seasons, Camping as a recreational activity became popular among elites in the early 20th century. With time, it more democratic, and varied. Modern campers frequent publicly owned natural resources such as national and state parks, wilderness areas, Camping is a key part of many youth organizations around the world, such as Scouting, which use it to teach both self-reliance and teamwork. Camping describes a range of activities and approaches to outdoor accommodation, survivalist campers set off with as little as possible to get by, whereas recreational vehicle travelers arrive equipped with their own electricity, heat, and patio furniture. Camping may be combined with hiking, as in backpacking, and is enjoyed in conjunction with other outdoor activities such as canoeing, climbing, fishing. There is no universally held definition of what is and what is not camping, fundamentally, it reflects a combination of intent and the nature of activities involved. A childrens summer camp with dining hall meals and bunkhouse accommodations may have camp in its name but fails to reflect the spirit, likewise, cultures with itinerant lifestyles or lack of permanent dwellings cannot be said to be camping, it is just their way of life. The history of camping is often traced back to Thomas Hiram Holding, a British travelling tailor. By the 1880s large numbers of visitors took part in the pastime, the early camping equipment was very heavy, so it was convenient to transport it by boat or to use craft that converted into tents. Although Thomas Hiram Holding is often seen as the father of modern camping in the UK and he experienced the activity in the wild from his youth, when he had spent much time with his parents traveling across the American prairies. Later he embarked on a cycling and camping tour with friends across Ireland. He wrote The Campers Handbook in 1908, so that he could share his enthusiasm for the outdoors with the world. Possibly the first commercial camping ground in the world was Cunningham’s camp, near Douglas, Isle of Man, in 1906 the Association of Cycle Campers opened its first own camping site, in Weybridge. By that time the organization had several hundred members, in 1910 the Association was merged into the National Camping Club. Although WW1 was responsible for a hiatus in camping activity. The International Federation of Camping Clubs was founded in 1932 with national clubs from all over the world affiliating with it, by the 1960s camping had become an established family holiday standard and today camp sites are ubiqitous across Europe and North America
19.
Hawaii Belt Road
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The Hawaiʻi Belt Road is a modern name for the Māmalahoa Highway and consists of Hawaiʻi state Routes 11,19, and 190 that encircle the Island of Hawaiʻi. The southern section, between Hilo and Kailua-Kona is numbered as Route 11, the section between Hilo and Waimea is Route 19. Between Waimea and Kailua-Kona, the road is split in two, the original route and a makai Route 19, completed in 1975, which serves as access to the Kona. In the Hawaiian language, mauka means towards the mountain and makai means towards the sea and these terms are commonly used in travel directions. Parts of the half of the Hawaiʻi Belt Road were known during the Territorial days as the Kaʻū Belt Road. The names Hawaiʻi Belt Road and Māmalahoa Highway refer to the system that encircles the entire island. Māmalahoa Highway was named for the decree by King Kamehameha I after an incident he. As he prepared to unite the Islands of Hawaiʻi, Kamehameha I would conduct shoreline raids on the neighboring ahupuaʻa and it was on one such incursion that the King’s warriors encountered two local fishermen along the Puna coast. The two fled to warn others of the attack and Kamehameha and his men took chase. When they crossed a field, one of the King’s feet got caught in a crevice. The fishermen, seizing the opportunity to retaliate, returned and attacked, in the ensuing brawl, one of the King’s steersmen was killed and Kamehameha himself received a blow to the head that was so hard that it splintered the man’s weapon – a solid koa canoe paddle. Ke Kānāwai Māmalahoe is considered such an important law to the Hawaiians that at the 1978 Constitutional Convention it was added to the Constitution of Hawaiʻi. In it, the law protects the public and the safety of all who travel throughout the Islands, including fishermen, the State shall have the power to provide for the safety of the people from crimes against persons and property. The Māmalahoa trail was a trail built in the nineteenth century. Various parts were widened and re-aligned over the years, the mile 0 marker is at the intersection of Kamehameha Avenue, Banyan Drive and Kanoelehua Avenue in Hilo. After about a mile is the intersection with Pūʻāinakō Street, which connects to the Saddle Road, Route 11 then continues along Kanoelehua Avenue towards Keaʻau where it becomes Volcano Highway near milepost 4 before crossing into Puna District. Volcano Highway intersects with the terminus of Keaʻau-Pāhoa Road past mile 6 and Old Keaʻau-Pāhoa Road, then continues through the towns of Kurtistown, Mountain View, Glenwood and Volcano Village. Just beyond the Kaʻū District line, the entrance to Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park at mile 28 marks another name change, next are Nāʻālehu, the southernmost community in the USA, and Waiʻōhinu which was a retreat for Mark Twain
20.
Chain of Craters Road
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Chain of Craters Road is a 19-mile/30-km winding paved road through the East Rift and coastal area of the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the island of Hawaii, in the state of Hawaii, United States. The original road, built in 1928, connected Crater Rim Drive to Makaopuhi Crater, the road was lengthened to reach the tiny town of Kalapana in 1959. The road has had parts covered by several times due to eruptions of the Kīlauea volcano. Caution is urged as these areas are dangerous, there are also scenic views through tropical rainforests, and the seacoast. The road begins at 19°24′18″N 155°15′10″W, the highest part of the rift zone where frequent rains created a rainforest. 3 mi down the road is the vent of Kīlauea volcano, the crater formed through a sinking of the earth surface and not as primarily a vent for lava. Here lava spilled into the crater in 1974 but did not fill it, the collapsed rubble-filled Puhimau, the second pit crater is 500 feet deep. This crater and the next, a pit crater, Koʻokoʻolau. However Koʻokoʻolau has pumice cones on the rim that suggest it formed originally as an eruptive vent, the road runs into Hilina Pali Road, a winding eight-mile road that dead ends. The road passes Pauahi crater, and fresh fault scarp that have been active for more than 1000 years, the road continues through a forest, Kipuka Nene,1, 100-year-old trees surrounded by fresh lava. Toward the sea the road crosses a pāhoehoe lava flow, here can be seen steam from lava tubes. Lava flows from the Kīlauea volcano eruption closed the road in 1969, in 1979 the road was reopened, but it was cut again in 1986 by a lava flow from another eruption of Kīlauea, a volcano that is one of Earths most active. As of 2014, Chain of Craters Road is about 19 miles long to where it deadends, in all, it descends 3,700 feet between Crater Rim Drive and the barren, windy south coast. The flow ultimately stalled on the outskirts of Pāhoa, however, removing the threat. Even when no active lava is visible, Chain of Craters Road is a scenic and spectacular drive. In April 2008, the area was rated as dangerous with an alert, because of volcanic activity. Hawaii hotspot Hawaiian eruption Decker, Robert, Barbara Decker, Road Guide to Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. Chain of Craters history Summary of the Puu Oo-Kupaianaha Eruption, 1983-present
21.
Halemaumau Crater
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Halemaʻumaʻu Crater is a pit crater located within the much larger summit caldera of Kīlauea in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. The roughly circular crater floor is 770 meters x 900 m and is 83 m below the floor of Kīlauea caldera, Halemaʻumaʻu is home to Pele, goddess of fire and volcanoes, according to the traditions of Hawaiian mythology. Halemaʻumaʻu means house of the amau fern, the crater is currently active, containing a lava lake. From 2008, when the current vent inside Halemaʻumaʻu crater first erupted, to April 2015, the lake level has since remained close to the rim, with a further minor overflow event in October 2016. Early eruptions were recorded by oral history, one large one in 1790 killed several people, and left footprints in hardened ash of some Hawaiians killed by pyroclastic flows. William Ellis, a British missionary and amateur ethnographer and geologist, in 1866 Mark Twain, an American humorist, satirist, lecturer and writer hiked to the Caldera floor. He wrote the account of the lake of molten lava which he found there, Another missionary, Titus Coan, observed. Geologist Thomas Jaggar opened an observatory in 1912, and the area became Hawaii Volcanoes National Park in 1916, the level of the lava lake varied over the decades and at times was only 30 meters below the crater rim. In 1924, unusual explosive eruptions sent dust high into the atmosphere, fractures allowed the lava lake to drain to the east until its surface was 366 m below the caldera floor. Subsequent eruptions have mostly refilled the crater, most of the current crater floor was formed in 1974. A1982 eruption covered a portion of the northeastern crater floor. Pieces as large as 20 millimeters were found on Crater Rim Drive while 0.3 m blocks hit the crater overlook area and this was the first explosive eruption of Halemaʻumaʻu Crater since 1924, and the first lava eruption from the crater since 1982. Sulfur dioxide gas emissions increased rapidly at the beginning of the episode, on March 13, HVO recorded a rate of 2,000 tons/day, the highest rate since measurements began in 1979. A concentration of over 40 ppm on Crater Rim Drive was measured, prompting alerts, Halemaʻumaʻu crater continued to intermittently emit high levels of volcanic gases, ash, spatter, Peles Tears, and Peles Hair until the second episode. On April 16,2008 the crater was rocked with its third significant explosive event, sending ash, a second evacuation of the park and surrounding areas was ordered on April 23,2008. Activity within the crater and vent continued to present scientists with work as the vent continued to eject ash and it wasnt until August 1,2008 that the crater was rocked with the 4th Explosive event and later on August 27,2008 its 5th. A Hawaii Volcano Observatory news release and images dated September 5,2008 confirmed the first recorded images of a lava lake 130 feet below the lip of the vent, the report also noted that the lava could not be seen from observation points around the crater. Since the vents first appearance there were six significant explosive events to September 2,2008, other than the described events, major fountaining of lava has not occurred in the crater, unlike the concurrent activity on the Eastern Rift Zone around Puʻu ʻŌʻō
22.
Caldera
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A caldera is a large cauldron-like depression that forms following the evacuation of a magma chamber/reservoir. When large volumes of magma are erupted over a time period. The ground surface then collapses downward into the emptied magma chamber. Although sometimes described as a crater, the feature is actually a type of sinkhole, as it is formed through subsidence, only seven known caldera-forming collapses have occurred since the start of the 20th century, most recently at Bárðarbunga volcano in Iceland. The word comes from Spanish caldera, and this from Latin caldaria, in some texts the English term cauldron is also used. If enough magma is ejected, the chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture, the fault, develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are known as ring dykes. Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture, as the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a cataclysmic eruption. The total area that collapses may be hundreds or thousands of square kilometers, some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits. One of the worlds best-preserved mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northwestern Ontario, Canada, if the magma is rich in silica, the caldera is often filled in with ignimbrite, tuff, rhyolite, and other igneous rocks. Silica-rich magma has a high viscosity, and therefore does not flow easily like basalt, as a result, gases tend to become trapped at high pressure within the magma. Further lava flows may be erupted, if volcanic activity continues, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at Cerro Galán, Lake Toba, Yellowstone, etc. by subsequent intrusion of magma. A silicic or rhyolitic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of kilometers of material in a single event. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as Krakatoa in 1883 or Mount Pinatubo in 1991, may result in significant local destruction, large calderas may have even greater effects. When Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km3 of material, by comparison, when Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, it released ~1.2 km3 of ejecta. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia, more recently several geneticists, including Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending have proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately five to ten thousand people
23.
Volcano
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A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
24.
Pele (deity)
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In the Hawaiian religion, Pele, the Fire Goddess, is the goddess of fire, lightning, wind and volcanoes and the creator of the Hawaiian Islands. Epithets of the goddess include Pele-honua-mea and Ka wahine ʻai honua, there are several traditional legends associated with Pele in Hawaiian mythology. In addition to being recognized as the goddess of volcanoes, Pele is also known for her power, passion, jealousy and she has numerous siblings, including Kāne Milohai, Kamohoaliʻi, Nāmaka and numerous sisters named Hiʻiaka, the most famous being Hiʻiakaikapoliopele. They are usually considered to be the offspring of Haumea, Peles siblings include deities of various types of wind, rain, fire, ocean wave forms, and cloud forms. In one version of the story, Pele is the daughter of Kanehoalani and Haumea in the land of Kuaihelani. Kuaihelani was in the region of Kahiki and she stays so close to her mothers fireplace with the fire-keeper Lono-makua. Her older sister Nā-maka-o-Kahaʻi, a sea goddess, fears that Peles ambition would smother the home-land, kamohoalii drives Pele south in a canoe called Honua-i-a-kea with her younger sister Hiʻiaka and with her brothers Kamohoaliʻi, Kanemilohai, Kaneapua, and arrives at the islets above Hawaii. There Kane-milo-hai is left on Mokupapapa, just a reef, to build it up in fitness for human residence, on Nihoa,800 feet above the ocean she leaves Kane-apua after her visit to Lehua and crowning a wreath of kau-noa. Pele feels sorry for her brother and picks him up again. Pele used the rod, Pa‘oa to pick a new home. A group of chants tells of a pursuit by Namakaokahai and Pele is torn apart and her bones, KaiwioPele form a hill on Kahikinui, while her spirit escaped to the island of Hawaiʻi. In another version, Pele comes from a said to be close to the clouds, with parents Kane-hoa-lani and Ka-hina-liʻi. From her husband Wahieloa she has a daughter Laka and a son Menehune, pele-kumu-honua entices her husband and Pele travels in search of him. Pele was considered to be a rival of the Hawaiian goddess of snow, Poliʻahu, and her sisters Lilinoe, Waiau, all except Kahoupokane reside on Mauna Kea. The kapa maker lives on Hualalai, one myth tells that Poliʻahu had come from Mauna Kea with her friends to attend sled races down the grassy hills south of Hamakua. Pele came disguised as a stranger and was greeted by Poliʻahu. However, Pele became jealously enraged at the goddess of Mauna Kea and she opened the subterranean caverns of Mauna Kea and threw fire from them towards Poliʻahu, with the snow goddess fleeing towards the summit. Poliʻahu was finally able to grab her now-burning snow mantle and throw it over the mountain, earthquakes shook the island as the snow mantle unfolded until it reached the fire fountains, chilling and hardening the lava
25.
Native Hawaiians
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Native Hawaiians are the indigenous Austronesian people of the Hawaiian Islands or their descendants. Native Hawaiians trace their ancestry back to the original Polynesian settlers of Hawaii,140,652 people identified themselves as being Native Hawaiian alone. The majority of Native Hawaiians reside in the State of Hawaiʻi, and the rest are scattered among other states, especially in the American Southwest, another is that a single, extended period of settlement populated the islands. Early historians, such as Fornander and Beckwith, subscribed to this Tahitian invasion theory, king Kalakaua claimed that Paʻao was from Samoa. Some writers claim that other settlers in Hawaiʻi were forced into remote valleys by newer arrivals and they claim that stories about the Menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians. At the time of Captain Cooks arrival in 1778, the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000, over the span of the first century after first contact, the native Hawaiians were nearly wiped out by diseases introduced to the islands. Native Hawaiians had no resistance to influenza, smallpox, measles, or whooping cough, the 1900 U. S. Census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial native Hawaiian ancestry. The 2000 U. S. Census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, the Hawaiian language was once the primary language of the native Hawaiian people, today, native Hawaiians predominately speak the English language. A major factor for this change was an 1896 law that required that English be the medium and basis of instruction in all public. This law prevented the Hawaiian language from being taught as a second language, in spite of this, some native Hawaiians have learned ʻŌlelo as a second language. Nowadays ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi is the language of the State of Hawaii. The Hawaiian language has been promoted for revival most recently by a program of cultural preservation enacted in 1978. Programs included the opening of Hawaiian language immersion schools, and the establishment of a Hawaiian language department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, as a result, Hawaiian language learning has climbed among all races in Hawaiʻi. In 2006, the University of Hawaii at Hilo established a program in the Hawaiian Language. In fall 2006, they established a program in the Hawaiian Language. In addition to being the first doctoral program for the study of Hawaiian, both the masters and doctoral programs are considered by global scholars as pioneering in the revival of native languages. Hawaiian is still spoken as the language by the residents on the private island of Niʻihau. Alongside ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, some Maoli spoke Hawaiʻi Sign Language, little is known about the language by Western academics and efforts are being made to preserve and revitalize the language
26.
1790 Footprints
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The 1790 Footprints refer to a set of footprints found near the Kīlauea volcano in present-day Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the island of Hawaiʻi. Resulting from an explosive eruption, they are associated with a series of battles in the area in 1790. The 1782 Battle of Mokuʻōhai gave Kamehameha I control of the west and north sides of the island of Hawaiiʻi, for a few years, Kamehameha was occupied with Maui and the arrival of Europeans to Kona, Keōua ruled Kaʻū and Keawemauhili ruled Hilo. Keawemauhili finally recognized Kamehameha as his help and this angered Keōua who raided some of the lands of Kamehameha while he was in Maui at the Battle of Kepaniwai. Keōua then attacked and killed his uncle at Hilo, Kamehameha returned from Maui to the Big Island, and Keōua ambushed them in a thick forest of Paʻauhau, but the battle was inconclusive. Kamehameha counterattacked and drove Keōua back, in what is known as the Battle of Koapapaʻa, Kamehameha had brought a cannon salvaged from the ship Fair American captured at Kaʻūpūlehu. Keōua captured the piece, but did not have gunpowder nor expertise to use it effectively, after heavy losses on both sides, the commanders each decided to retreat to their secure territory. The footprints were thought to have left by Keōuas forces in their retreat. While passing Kīlauea, they made offerings to the goddess Pele, as the volcano started to erupt, they thought they might have made some offense, so he split his group into three and stayed to make more offerings. Two parties of warriors were overwhelmed by a pyroclastic eruption while crossing the desert, only one party of three survived the eruption. The footprints were attributed by early geologist Thomas Jaggar to those warriors who were killed in this event, Keōua would be killed later in 1791 at Kawaihae. The Ancient Hawaiians kept elaborate oral histories, but did not accurately count years from the Christian era, one important event in the oral history was Ke one helelei which means the falling sand in the Hawaiian Language. This corresponded to an eruption witnessed in 1790 by British sailor John Young and it probably was given the specific name because it was an unusual kind of eruption for Hawaiian volcanoes. Surveyor Frederick S. Lyman used the 1790 date to estimate peoples birthdates during his 1857 tax assessment, more recent research indicates that some or all of the footprints may in fact be attributable to everyday activities, and not to the war parties. Extensive surveys were done in 1998 and 2000 including radiocarbon dating the few samples of charcoal that could be found, a large number of habitation sites and trails were counted, indicating the area was in use for hundreds of years during the eruption cycle of 1500 to 1790. Modern forensic techniques applied in 2008 determined that many of the footprints were made by women and children and they were probably already in the area chipping off sharp chunks of glass to use as tools, and left the footprints while escaping during a lull in the eruption. Keōuas groups, however, were at the summit, and some were killed instantly by the following blast of poison gas, although sometimes called fossilized, the imprints are not old enough to be true fossils. The fine ash was probably made into mud by a rain triggered in the eruption
27.
Missionary
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A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
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William Ellis (missionary)
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William Ellis was an English missionary and author. He traveled through the Society Islands, Hawaiian Islands and Madagascar and he was born in London of working class parents on 24 August 1794. His father and a older brother were also named William. Not much is known of his mother, except the name of Bedborough, birthplace of Reading, England. He developed a love of plants in his youth and became a gardener, first in the East of England, then at a north of London. Being of a nature, he applied to train as Christian missionary for the London Missionary Society and was accepted to the school. After attending Homerton College, then in Hampstead, he was ordained in 1815 and he was posted to the South Sea Islands with his wife, leaving England on 23 January 1816. They arrived at Eimeo, one of the Windward Islands, via Sydney, during their stay there several chiefs of nearby Pacific islands who had assisted Pomare in regaining sovereignty of Tahiti, visited Eimeo and welcomed the LMS missionaries to their own islands. All three missionary families went to Huahine, arriving in June 1818, drawing crowds from neighbouring islands, Ellis and a small group travelled from Tahiti on the schooner Mermaid to the Hawaiian Islands, known then as the Sandwich Islands. On the same voyage, another small schooner called Prince Regent with six cannons was presented to King Kamehameha II and they arrived in Honolulu on 16 April 1822, and although the plan had been to visit the Marquesas Islands, they returned to Tahiti on 27 August 1822. He was invited to stay, and brought his family to Hawaii, in June 1823 Ellis joined American Missionaries Asa Thurston, Artemas Bishop and Joseph Goodrich on a tour of the island of Hawaiʻi, to investigate suitable sites for mission stations. On the way he stopped at Maui and met Queen Keōpūolani and their first stop was Kailua-Kona, where they met the Governor of the island Kuakini, known as John Adams. They visited Kealakekua Bay, and toured the historic sites nearby and they traveled south past the Mauna Loa volcano. They were some of the first Europeans to visit the caldera of the Kīlauea volcano, on the eastern side they visited Hilo and Waipiʻo Valley, and some of the party continued up snow-covered Mauna Kea. Some of the important missions set up as a result of this trip include Mokuaikaua Church, Imiola Church, Kealakekua Church, returning to Honolulu, he learned the Hawaiian language, transcribed the language into a roman alphabet and helped set up a printing press. In August 1824 he had to return to England since Mrs. Ellis was in poor health, back in London, he published his narrative of travels in Hawaii. Ellis became Assistant Foreign Secretary of the London Missionary Society, Mary Ellis died on 11 January 1835, after having four children. He published a biography of Mary Mercy Ellis in 1836, Ellis remarried two years later, to Sarah Stickney
29.
Asa Thurston
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Asa Thurston and Lucy Goodale Thurston were in the first company of American Christian missionaries to the Hawaiian Islands. Born in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, on October 12,1787 and his parents were Lydia and Thomas Thurston. He attended Yale College, where he was a member of the Linonian Society and graduated in 1816 and he married Lucy Goodale, and together they went as missionaries to the Sandwich Islands. Thurston worked as a Protestant missionary in Hawaii for forty years and he also traveled to California in 1863. They saw religion and education as closely linked, in Hawaii Thurston built churches and schools, and had a following among the people. He was one of the first to translate the Bible into the Hawaiian language, together with the English missionary William Ellis, he explored the islands and viewed the volcano Kilauea. After suffering a series of strokes, he began speaking in a mixture of English, Hawaiian and he was moved to Honolulu, where he died on March 11,1868. The Thurston lava tube in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is named for his family, Lucy Goodale was born on October 29,1795, daughter of Abner Goodale, a Deacon in Marlborough, Massachusetts. She graduated from Bradford Academy and became a school teacher, the Thurstons, unlike most missionary couples, spent most of the rest of their lives in the islands. Lucy compiled her letters and other writings into one of the most vivid accounts of the early mission days, as treatment for breast cancer, she had a mastectomy in 1855, although anaesthetic had not been developed. She died on October 13,1876 in Honolulu, a native Hawaiian named Opukahaia, orphaned by the islands wars, traveled to New England in 1809 and learned to speak English. In 1818 his stories about the islands convinced the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to send a company to Hawaii. Thurston and Hiram Bingham I, with whom he was ordained, were selected as leaders of the group included a farmer, physician. On October 12,1819 he married Lucy Goodale, a cousin of a classmate and they set sail a few weeks later on October 23,1819 from Boston for a five-month voyage on the small merchant ship Thaddeus. After landing at Kawaihae harbor on March 30,1820 the Thurstons went first to Kailua-Kona and they found the Hawaiian Religion in turmoil, due to the death of Kamehameha I, and the ending of the Kapu system by Queen Kaʻahumanu and King Kamehameha II. They then traveled to Mauʻi, then to Oʻahu, and finally back to Kailua-Kona in 1823, with the blessing of Royal Governor John Adams Kuakini, he set up his congregation in a series of thatched huts. From about 1835 to 1837, he supervised the construction of the Mokuʻaikaua Church, made from stone and their first daughter Persis Goodale Thurston Taylor, born in Hawaii, became a painter and sketch artist and married Reverend Townsend Elijah Taylor. Their second daughter Lucy Goodale Thurston came to New England to obtain a higher education and their third child, Asa Goodale Tyerman Thurston married Sarah Andrews
30.
Benjamin Pitman (Hawaii)
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Benjamin Pitman was an American businessman who married Hawaiian nobility. Benjamin Pitman born October 12,1815 in Salem, Massachusetts and his father was Benjamin Cox Pitman and mother was Sally Richardson. He had two sisters, Sally and Mary Elizabeth and his father Benjamin Cox Pitman came to the Hawaiian islands on trading missions with Stephen Reynolds in 1826 and 1828. He brought his son in 1833 and settled in Hilo, Hawaii, about a year later, the younger Pitman married Chiefess Kinoʻole o Liliha, who controlled vast lands under King Kamehameha III. On September 11,1845 his father died and was buried in the new Oahu Cemetery, around 1846 he opened a small thatched hut with only a mat over a floor of bare earth at the rim of Kilauea volcano called Volcano House. He charged $1 a day, but eventually gave up the remote site and he opened a store in Hilo to supply whaling ships. As the whaling business grew, so did his fortunes and he started added Esq. at the end of his name and acted as district magistrate, but there is no record of his being educated in law. In 1849 a visitor described him as the businessman in town. By 1852 he was growing coffee, arrowroot, sugarcane, and he employed Chinese laborors on his sugarcane plantation. Pitman served as collector and first postmaster on the island of Hawaii. In 1854, after the Hilo Boarding School and Church started by Sarah Joiner and David Belden Lyman burned down and their children were Mary Pitman Ailau, Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman, and Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman. His first wife Kinoʻole died in 1855 and he married for a second time on August 5,1856 on Oahu. Maria Louisa Walsworth was born in Cleveland, Ohio, May 20,1822, married Rev. Henry Kinney, when Henrys health failed, they traveled to California, where Henry died in 1854. Maria moved back and married Pitman, but this wife died on March 6,1858 in Hilo. Daughter Maria Kinoʻole Pitman married Fred Mory of Chicago in 1881 and his third wife was Martha Ball Pitman with whom he had two sons Charles Brooks Pitman and Harold Albert Pitman. When his business partner Reynolds died in 1859, Pitman became sole owner of the plantations, the Spencer House as it became called was later converted into the Hilo Hotel which was torn down in 1956. In January 1868 he founded a Hawaiian Club in Boston, the family met future Queen Liliʻuokalani on her visit to Boston in 1887. He died in January 17,1888 at Somerville, Massachusetts, Pitman was buried in a family plot in the Mount Auburn Cemetery
31.
George Lycurgus
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George Lycurgus was a Greek American businessman who played an influential role in the early tourist industry of Hawaii. He ran afoul of the government of the Republic of Hawaii and was accused of treason, later he was instrumental in the development of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. He was born in 1858 in Vasara, in 1877 he traveled in steerage class to New York City, and worked his way across the country. A relative convinced him to join a wholesale fruit business trading between Hawaii and California in 1881, in San Francisco he shipped California produce and wine to his cousin in Honolulu, who shipped Hawaiian bananas to the mainland. He became friends with Claus Spreckels, whose family owned the Oceanic Steamship Company, in 1889 he was supervising shipment being loaded at the docks, when some of the Spreckels family invited him on board for a poker game. By the time he noticed, the ship was on its way across the Pacific and he spent only a week in Hawaii, but must have enjoyed the stay, since he took more trips and spent more time on the islands. In 1892 he sent for his nephew Demosthenes Lycurgus, who would help him manage his Hawaiian enterprises, along with other recent immigrants, he formed the Pearl City Fruit Company. Their competition was the Hawaiian Fruit and Packing Company, owned by established descendants of American missionaries such as Lorrin A. Thurston, eventually he would sell his restaurant in San Francisco and move to the islands. Lycurgus leased the small guest house of Allen Herbert in 1893 on Waikīkī beach in Honolulu and he expanded it and renamed it the Sans Souci for the Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam. It became one of the first beach resorts and the area at coordinates 21°15′49″N 157°49′17″W is still called Sans Souci Beach, celebrities such as Robert Louis Stevenson stayed there on his second trip later that year, and it became a popular destination for tourists from the mainland. In 1894 Lycurgus made his first trip to the Kīlauea volcano with Admiral Royal R. Ingersoll, the volcano impressed him and he took note of the future possible business opportunities. A friendship had evolved between Lycurgus and the Hawaiian royal Kalākaua family, who were regulars at his resorts and this earned him the nickname Duke of Sparta, a title borne by the Crown Prince of Greece. Despite being a commoner, he felt comfortable with monarchy than the Americans. In 1893, after the death of Kalākaua, Thurston and other Americans led the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and declared a Republic of Hawaii, the new government, controlled by conservative missionaries, fined Lycurgus for selling liquor at his resort. Lycurgus hired a band of Hawaiians who played music honoring Queen Liliʻuokalani instead of The Star-Spangled Banner, after the failed 1895 counter-revolution, he was accused of smuggling guns to the Royalists. Several leaders had meetings in the Sans Souci hotel, by January 20 the leaders were all captured. Lycurgus was arrested, charged with treason, spent 52 days in jail, by 1898, the Spanish–American War had increased American interest in the Pacific. He entertained press correspondents on their way to the Philippines at his Sans Souci hotel, Hawaii was annexed as a territory of the United States that year and the practical Lycurgus applied for American citizenship
32.
Volcano House
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Volcano House is the name of a series of historic hotels built at the edge of the Kīlauea volcano, within the grounds of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the Island of Hawaii. The original 1877 building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the hotel in use today was built in 1941 and expanded in 1961. In ancient Hawaii the volcano was the place to make offerings to the fire goddess Pele, archeological evidence shows activity for hundreds of years, including gathering of volcanic glass to use as cutting tools. Only a few rare eruptions such as the one in 1790 are explosive, the prevailing northeast trade winds and higher elevation cause poisonous gasses and lava to flow in the other direction. Rev. William Ellis describes camping in this area in his journal of his 1823 missionary tour with Asa Thurston. An enterprising Hawaiian was reported to have set up a thatched hut in the early 1840s to sell food to visitors. Charles Wilkes camped in this area on the United States Exploring Expedition in 1840, about 1846 a primitive one-room grass shelter was constructed at the rim of the Kīlauea crater by Benjamin Pitman, the first hotel to call itself Volcano House. However, sometimes visitors would show up after the long journey, a more substantial wood frame structure was built in 1866 with four bedrooms, parlor, and dining room. Mark Twain stayed here, and wrote about his visit in the book Roughing It, in 1876 George W. C. Jones bought out the other partners in the business and hired William H. Lentz to construct a longer-lasting structure, and manage the hotel. A wood-sided building about 104 by 110 feet was built in 1877 and it included six guest rooms, two for the managers family, and a dining room. Lumber for rafters and posts were harvested from forests of naio. Peter Lee built a hotel at the coast in Punaluʻu to the west, and he also built a competing hotel at the Kīlauea rim called the Crater House Hotel. From 1883 to 1885 it was owned by the Oliver T. Shipman] family, in 1891, a group led by Honolulu businessman and politician Lorrin A. Thurston acquired the Volcano House and Peter Lees hotels. In 1894 a four-horse stagecoach reduced the time from Hilo from two days to six hours. George Lycurgus bought the hotel in 1895 and was associated with it for the next 65 years, the Hawaii Consolidated Railway line to Glenwood opened in 1901, bringing more visitors. Author Jack London stayed in 1907, in 1912, geologist Thomas Jaggar built a scientific observatory adjacent to the porch, used until 1961 by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. The instruments were housed in a vault with massive concrete walls. After ten years of lobbying by Thurston, a National Park was established in 1916, in 1921, Inter-Island Steam Navigation Company bought the property with plans for another expansion
33.
Lorrin A. Thurston
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Lorrin Andrews Thurston was a lawyer, politician, and businessman born and raised in the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. He published the Pacific Commercial Advertiser, and owned other enterprises, from 1906 to 1916 he and friends lobbied with national politicians to create a National Park to preserve the Hawaiian Volcanoes. He was born on July 31,1858 in Honolulu, Hawaii and his father was Asa Goodale Thurston and mother Sarah Andrews. On his fathers side he was grandson of Asa and Lucy Goodale Thurston, on his mothers side, he was also the grandson of another early missionary, Lorrin Andrews. His father was speaker of the house of representatives of the Kingdom of Hawaii but died when Lorrin was only a year and he then moved to Maui with his mother. He was fluent in the Hawaiian language and gave himself the Hawaiian nickname Kakina, in 1872, he attended Punahou School, then known as Oahu College, where he played baseball with the sons of Alexander Cartwright. He was expelled shortly before graduation, after working as a translator for a law firm and clerk at the Wailuku Sugar Company, he attended law school at Columbia University. He returned to Honolulu in 1881 and became partners in a law firm with William Owen Smith and he married Margaret Clarissa Shipman in February 1884. They had a son Robert Shipman Thurston on February 1,1888, Margaret died in childbirth on May 5,1891. On April 5,1894, Lorrin Thurston married Harriet Potter of Saint Joseph and they had a daughter Margaret Charter in 1895, and a son Lorrin Potter Thurston in 1900. Lorrin Andrews Thurston died on May 11,1931, in 1919, Robert Thurston married Evelyn M. Scott, and Margaret Carter married William Twigg-Smith. Lorrin Thurston was influential in both the arena and the business world of Hawaii. He followed his father and became a member of the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1886, the Missionary Party would change its name to the Reform Party in 1887, as it grew to include business owners. In July 1887 Thurston authored what is called the Bayonet Constitution because it was imposed under threat by the Honolulu Rifle Company militia and it limited the executive power of the monarch King Kalākaua. Thurston became the powerful Interior Minister, with Englishman William Lowthian Green as minister of finance, voting rights and membership of the legislature were based on property ownership, resulting in effective control by wealthy Americans and Europeans. He served in the cabinet until June 17,1890 when he was replaced by Charles N. Spencer, queen Liliʻuokalani became monarch in 1891 and tried to recover power with a new constitution. In 1892 Thurston led the Annexation Club, later adopting the more dramatic title Committee of Safety, in 1893 the Committee of Safety was supported by the U. S. Military in an overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, and the resulting Provisional Government of Hawaii was controlled by Thurstons committee, Thurston headed the commission sent to Washington, DC to negotiate with Benjamin Harrison for American annexation
34.
Territory of Hawaii
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The Hawaii Admission Act specified that the State of Hawaii would not include Palmyra Atoll, The Midway Islands, Johnston Atoll, Sand Island, or Kingman Reef. The U. S. Congress passed the Newlands Resolution which annexed the Republic of Hawaii to the United States, Hawaiis territorial history includes a period from 1941 to 1944—during World War II—when the islands were placed under martial law. Civilian government was dissolved and a governor was appointed. Thurston actively lobbied Congress while the former monarchy lobbied Democrats to protest, First annexation proceedings began when Democrat Grover Cleveland took office. Cleveland was an anti-imperialist and was strongly against annexation and he withdrew the annexation treaty from consideration, mounted an inquiry, and recommended the restoration of Liliʻuokalani as queen. The provisional government convened a convention to establish the Republic of Hawaii. Thurston was urged to become the nations first president but he was worried his brazen personality would damage the cause of annexation, Dole, former Supreme Court Justice and friend of Queen Liliʻuokalani, was elected as the first and only president of the new regime. Hawaiis strategic location to support the Spanish–American War in the Philippines made it important to American interests. On July 4,1898, the United States Congress passed the Newlands Resolution and it was signed into law by President McKinley on July 7,1898, and came into effect on August 12,1898. Former President Sanford B. Dole was appointed Hawaiis first territorial governor, the Newlands Resolution established a five-member commission to study which laws were needed in the newly organized Territory of Hawaii. The commission included, Territorial Governor Sanford B, Dole, Senators Shelby M. Cullom and John T. Morgan, Representative Robert R. Hitt and former Hawaii Chief Justice and later succeeding Territorial Governor Walter F. Frear. The commissions final report was submitted to Congress for a debate which lasted over a year, the Organic Act established the Office of the Territorial Governor, an office appointed by the sitting American president and was usually from his own political party. The territorial governor served at the pleasure of the President of the United States and nominated by him and confirmed by the Senate, Representative in the U. S. House of Representatives Representation in the U. S. His transports encouraged him to purchase passenger steamships that would carry tourists hoping to vacation in Hawaii from the mainland United States, matsons fleet included the SS Wilhelmina, rivaling the best passenger ships serving traditional Atlantic routes. With the boom in interest of Hawaiian vacations by Americas wealthiest families in the late 1920s, Matson added the SS Mariposa, SS Monterey, Matson Navigation Company operated two resort hotels in Honolulu near royal grounds. The first hotel on Waikīkī was the Moana Hotel which opened in 1901, as the first hotel in Waikīkī, the Moana Hotel was nicknamed the First Lady of Waikīkī. The hotel gained international attention in 1920 when Edward, Prince of Wales and future King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, in 1927, the luxurious Royal Hawaiian Hotel, informally called the Pink Palace of the Pacific, opened for business. It was the preferred Hawaii residence of President Franklin D. Roosevelt when he visited Hawaii during World War II, with annexation, the United States saw Hawaii as its most strategic military asset
35.
James Rudolph Garfield
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James Rudolph Garfield was an American politician, lawyer and son of President James A. Garfield and First Lady Lucretia Garfield. He was Secretary of the Interior during Theodore Roosevelts administration, Garfield was born in Hiram, Ohio, the third of seven children born to James Abram and Lucretia Rudolph Garfield. For a year prior to his fathers presidency, he studied at St. Pauls School in Concord, New Hampshire. On July 2,1881, at the age of 15, he witnessed the shooting of his father by disgruntled office-seeker Charles J. Guiteau at the Baltimore and Potomac railroad station in Washington. The President and his son were waiting for an en route to Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, where young James had been recently accepted. Following his fathers death on September 19,1881, he studied at Williams College, graduating in 1885, before moving on to Columbia Law School where he studied law and earned his J. D. in 1888. That same year, he was admitted to the Ohio bar and established the Cleveland, Ohio-based law firm of Garfield and Garfield, from 1890 until her death in 1930, he was married to Helen Newell. From 1896 to 1899, he served in the Ohio State Senate and he was an influential advisor to President Theodore Roosevelt, serving as a Member of the United States Civil Service Commission from 1902 to 1903. From 1903 to 1907, he served as Commissioner of Corporations at the Department of Commerce and Labor, where he conducted investigations of the meat-packing, petroleum, steel, and railroad industries. From 1907 to 1909, he served in Roosevelts Cabinet as Secretary of the Interior and he left this post on March 4,1909, and returned to his law practice in Cleveland. During the 1912 presidential election, he was a key supporter of Roosevelts bid for a third term, in 1914, he made an unsuccessful bid for Governor of Ohio on the Progressive Party ticket. Roosevelt selected Garfield as one of eighteen officers to raise an infantry division, Roosevelts World War I volunteers. The U. S. Garfield died in Cleveland, Ohio on March 24,1950 and he had survived his father by almost 69 years. He was interred in Mentor Municipal Cemetery in Mentor, Ohio beside his wife Helen, encyclopedia. com article James Rudolph Garfield at Find a Grave Garfield, James Rudolph
36.
Walter F. Frear
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Walter Francis Frear was a lawyer and judge in the Kingdom of Hawaii and Republic of Hawaii, and the third Territorial Governor of Hawaii from 1907 to 1913. Frear was born October 29,1863 in Grass Valley, California and his mother was Frances Elmira Foster. The family returned to Honolulu in 1870, where his father was pastor of the Fort Street Church until 1881 and he graduated from Punahou School in 1881, Yale with a B. A. in 1885, and Yale law school in 1890. On August 1,1893 he married Mary Emma Dillingham, the daughter of industrialist Benjamin Dillingham and they had two daughters, Virginia and Margaret. He was appointed as judge on January 1,1893 by Queen Liliʻuokalani. On March 7,1893 he was promoted to serve on the Supreme Court of the Provisional Government, after the death of Albert Francis Judd, on July 5,1900 he became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of what was then the Territory of Hawaii. Frear was appointed Governor after George R. Carter by President Theodore Roosevelt on August 15,1907, alfred S. Hartwell replaced him as Chief Justice. He was a member of the Republican Party of Hawaii, after the election of Woodrow Wilson, Frear was replaced by the first governor from the Democratic Party of Hawaii, Lucius Pinkham in November 1913. He died January 22,1948 in Honolulu, Hawaii, the Frears founded the Mary D. and Walter F. Frear Eleemosynary Trust to sponsor educational projects. The aging structure was demolished in 2006, to make way for a new facility also called Frear Hall completed in the Summer of 2008. The Frear Center, located at 1132 Bishop Street, was named after Walter and it is a classroom building of Hawaii Pacific University, and was designed for information systems and computer science courses. The trust also supported Chaminade University of Honolulu
37.
William Herbert Shipman
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William Herbert Shipman was a wealthy businessman on the island of Hawaii. One estate of his family was used to preserve a species of Hawaiian goose. A historic house associated with his family for over a hundred years is called the W. H. Shipman House in Hilo, Hawaii. Another of his historic estates called the Ainahou Ranch, built in 1941 as a refuge from World War II, is preserved within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. William Herbert Shipman was born December 17,1854, at Lahaina, Hawaii, William Herberts parents were newly married in July 1853, when the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions sent them to Micronesia. In 1855, William Cornelius and Jane were assigned to the remote outpost of Waiʻōhinu in the Kaʻū district, from Wiaohinu, they were responsible for ministry in the entire Kaʻū District. Titus Coan, minister of Haili Church in Hilo, Hawaii personally welcomed the Shipmans to their new post on their arrival, on December 21,1861, William Cornelius Shipman died from typhoid fever. Jane considered moving the back to the United States at that point, however. In order to support her family, she moved with her three young children - William Herbert, Oliver Taylor, and Margaret Clarissa - to Hilo, on July 8,1868 she married businessman William H. Reed. Her eldest child, William Herbert Shipman attended Punahou School in Oahu and Knox College in Galesburg and his sister Margaret Clarissa married politician and businessman Lorrin Thurston. A few years after Margarets death, Thurston organized the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, W. H. Shipmans brother, Oliver Taylor Shipman, became a businessman and local government official. William Herbert Shipman died on July 8,1943, returning to Hawaii after finishing college in the U. S. William Herbert became manager of Kapapala Ranch, which was owned jointly by his stepfather William Reed and C. B. This early introduction to ranching had a influence on Shipman. After he married, Shipman and his wife Mary moved to Kapoho, Hawaii, Reed died in 1880 with no children of his own, and Shipman inherited the Reed land holdings. In 1881 Shipman and two partners purchased the entire ahupaʻa of Keaʻau, about 70,000 acres, for $20,000 from the King Lunalilo estate. Shipman went into business for himself in 1882, buying out his partners, the family also had a dairy and poultry farm. Shipman was involved in court cases over this land, including Shipman v. Nawahi of 1886. In 1898, the U. S. annexed the Hawaiian islands which became the Territory of Hawaii and this meant agricultural products shipped to the vast U. S. market were no longer subject to any customs duties
38.
John Muir
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His letters, essays, and books describing his adventures in nature, especially in the Sierra Nevada, have been read by millions. His activism has helped to preserve the Yosemite Valley, Sequoia National Park, the Sierra Club, which he founded, is a prominent American conservation organization. The 211-mile John Muir Trail, a trail in the Sierra Nevada, was named in his honor. Other such places include Muir Woods National Monument, Muir Beach, John Muir College, Mount Muir, in Scotland, the John Muir Way, a 130-mile-long route, was named in honor of him. In his later life, Muir devoted most of his time to the preservation of the Western forests and he petitioned the U. S. Congress for the National Park bill that was passed in 1890, establishing Yosemite National Park. The spiritual quality and enthusiasm toward nature expressed in his writings has inspired readers, including presidents and congressmen, today Muir is referred to as the Father of the National Parks and the National Park Service has produced a short documentary about his life. John Muir has been considered an inspiration to both Scots and Americans, Muirs biographer, Steven J. Holmes, believes that Muir has become one of the patron saints of twentieth-century American environmental activity, both political and recreational. As a result, his writings are discussed in books and journals. Muir has profoundly shaped the very categories through which Americans understand and envision their relationships with the natural world, on April 21,2013, the first ever John Muir Day was celebrated in Scotland, which marked the 175th anniversary of his birth, paying homage to the conservationist. John Muirs Birthplace is a stone house in Dunbar, East Lothian. His parents were Daniel Muir and Ann Gilrye and he was the third of eight children, Margaret, Sarah, David, Daniel, Ann and Mary, and the American-born Joanna. His earliest recollections were of taking short walks with his grandfather when he was three, author Amy Marquis notes that he began his love affair with nature while young, and implies that it may have been in reaction to his strict religious upbringing. His father believed that anything that distracted from Bible studies was frivolous, but the young Muir was a restless spirit and especially prone to lashings. As a young boy, Muir became fascinated with the East Lothian landscape and it was during this time that he became interested in natural history and the works of Scottish naturalist Alexander Wilson. Although he spent the majority of his life in America, Muir never forgot his roots in Scotland and he held a strong connection with his birthplace and Scottish identity throughout his life and was frequently heard talking about his childhood spent amid the East Lothian countryside. He greatly admired the works of Thomas Carlyle and poetry of Robert Burns and he returned to Scotland on a trip in 1893, where he met one of his Dunbar schoolmates and visited the places of his youth that were etched in his memory. He also never lost his strong Scottish accent after many years living in America, in 1849, Muirs family immigrated to the United States, starting a farm near Portage, Wisconsin, called Fountain Lake Farm. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark, by age 11, young Muir had learned to recite by heart and by sore flesh all of the New Testament and most of the Old Testament
39.
Henry Cabot Lodge
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Henry Cabot Lodge was an American Republican Senator and historian from Massachusetts. Lodge received his PhD in history from Harvard, Lodge was a long-time friend and confidant of Theodore Roosevelt. Lodge had the role of the first Senate Majority Leader and he is best known for his positions on foreign policy, especially his battle with President Woodrow Wilson in 1919 over the Treaty of Versailles. Lodge demanded Congressional control of declarations of war, Wilson refused and blocked Lodges move to ratify the treaty with reservations, as a result, the United States never joined the League of Nations. Lodge was born in Beverly, Massachusetts and his father was John Ellerton Lodge. His mother was Anna Cabot, through whom he was a great-grandson of George Cabot and he was cousin to the American polymath Charles Peirce. In 1872, he graduated from Harvard College, where he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon, the Porcellian Club, and the Hasty Pudding Club. In 1874, he graduated from Harvard Law School, and was admitted to the bar in 1875, after traveling through Europe, Lodge returned to Harvard, and in 1876, became one of the first recipients of a Ph. D. in history and government from Harvard. His dissertation dealt with the Germanic origins of Anglo-Saxon land law and his teacher and mentor during his graduate studies was Henry Adams, Lodge maintained a lifelong friendship with Adams. Lodge was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in 1881, he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. In 1880–1882, Lodge served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives, Lodge represented his home state in the United States House of Representatives from 1887 to 1893 and in the Senate from 1893 to 1924. Along with his close friend Theodore Roosevelt, Lodge was sympathetic to the concerns of the Mugwump faction of the Republican Party, nonetheless, both reluctantly supported James Blaine and protectionism in the 1884 election. Lodge was a supporter of the gold standard, vehemently opposing the Populists and the silverites. Lodge was easily reelected time and again but his greatest challenge came in his bid in January 1911. The Democrats had made significant gains in Massachusetts and the Republicans were split between the progressive and conservative wings, with Lodge trying to both sides. In a major speech before the legislature voted, Lodge took pride in his long service to the state. He emphasized that he had never engaged in corruption or self-dealing, most of all he appealed to party loyalty. Lodge was reelected by five votes, Lodge was very close to Theodore Roosevelt for both of their entire careers
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Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
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