1.
Lunch meat
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They can be bought pre-sliced in vacuum packs at a supermarket or grocery store, or they can be purchased at a delicatessen or deli counter, where they might be sliced to order. The World Cancer Research Fund International guidelines on cancer prevention state avoiding all processed meats, most pre-sliced lunch meats are higher in fat, nitrates, and sodium than those that are sliced to order, as a larger exposed surface requires stronger preservatives. As a result, processed meats significantly contribute to incidence of disease and diabetes. A prospective study following 448,568 people across Europe showed an association between processed meat consumption and mortality, due to cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Similarly, a study in United States following half a million people concluded a similar association with death. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention advises that those over 50 reheat lunch meats to steaming hot 165 °F, in Commonwealth countries, luncheon meat specifically refers to products that can include mechanically reclaimed meat and offal. In these countries, the cold meats, cooked meats. In Guatemala, a lunch meat is a dish eaten in November. It is eaten the first and second day of the month to celebrate El día de Todos los Santos, there are two types, red and white
2.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
3.
Vinegar
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Vinegar is a liquid consisting of about 5–20% acetic acid, water, and other trace chemicals, which may include flavorings. The acetic acid is produced by the fermentation of ethanol by acetic acid bacteria, Vinegar is now mainly used as a cooking ingredient, or in pickling. As the most easily manufactured mild acid, it has historically had a variety of industrial, medical. Commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation processes, in general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars where fermentation proceeds slowly over the course of a few months or up to a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a non-toxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria, fast methods add mother of vinegar to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced between 20 hours to three days, the conversion of ethanol and oxygen to acetic acid takes place by the following reaction, CH3CH2OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O Vinegar has been made and used by people for thousands of years. Traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 BC, apple cider vinegar is made from cider or apple must, and has a brownish-gold color. It is sometimes sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present and it can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened for consumption. Balsamic vinegar is an aged vinegar produced in the Modena. The original product—Traditional Balsamic Vinegar—is made from the juice, or must. It is very dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being aged in casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper. Regardless of how it is produced, balsamic vinegar must be made from a grape product, a high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it very mellow. It ranges from yellow to golden brown in color, and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar. Because it contains no sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. In the Philippines, it often is labeled as sukang maasim, cane vinegars from Ilocos are made in two different ways. One way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars, the other way is through fermentation to produce a local wine known as basi. Low-quality basi is then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid, a white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar to be mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost
4.
Dairy
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A dairy is a business enterprise established for the harvesting or processing of animal milk – mostly from cows or goats, but also from buffaloes, sheep, horses, or camels – for human consumption. A dairy is located on a dedicated dairy farm or in a section of a multi-purpose farm that is concerned with the harvesting of milk. For example, in the United States, the dairy farm is commonly called a dairy. The building or farm area where milk is harvested from the cow is called a milking parlor or parlor. The farm area where milk is stored in tanks is known as the farms milk house. Milk is then hauled to a plant, also referred to as a dairy. In New Zealand, farm areas for milk harvesting are also called milking parlours, as in the United States, sometimes milking sheds are referred to by their type, such as herring bone shed or pit parlour. Parlour design has evolved from simple barns or sheds to large structures in which the workflow is very efficiently handled. This on-site processing is a method of producing specialist milk products. In New Zealand English the singular use of the word dairy almost exclusively refers to a corner shop and this usage is historical as such shops were a common place for the public to buy milk products. As an attributive, the word refers to milk-based products, derivatives and processes. A dairy farm produces milk and a dairy factory processes it into a variety of dairy products and these establishments constitute the global dairy industry, a component of the food industry. Milk producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years, initially, they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country, their animals accompanied them, protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animals and the herders. In the more recent past, people in agricultural societies owned dairy animals that they milked for domestic and local consumption, the animals might serve multiple purposes. In this case the animals were normally milked by hand and the size was quite small. These tasks were performed by a dairymaid or dairyman, the word dairy harkens back to Middle English dayerie, deyerie, from deye and further back to Old English dæge. With industrialisation and urbanisation, the supply of milk became an industry, with specialised breeds of cattle being developed for dairy
5.
Cheese
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Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
6.
Head
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A head is the part of an organism which usually includes the eyes, ears, nose and mouth, each of which aid in various sensory functions such as sight, hearing, smell, and taste. Some very simple animals may not have a head, but many bilaterally symmetric forms do, heads develop in animals by an evolutionary trend known as cephalization. In bilaterally symmetrical animals, nervous tissues concentrate at the anterior region, through biological evolution, sense organs and feeding structures also concentrate into the anterior region, these collectively form the head. The human head is a unit that consists of the skull, hyoid bone. The term skull collectively denotes the mandible and the cranium, the skull can also be described as being composed of the cranium, which encloses the cranial cavity, and the facial skeleton. There are eight bones in the cranium and fourteen in the facial skeleton, sculptures of human heads are generally based on a skeletal structure that consists of a cranium, jawbone, and cheekbone. Proponents of identism believe that the mind is identical to the brain, philosopher John Searle asserts his identist beliefs, stating the brain is the only thing in the human head. Similarly, Dr. Henry Bennet-Clark has stated that the head encloses billions of miniagents and microagents, evolution of the head In the vertebrates has occurred by the fusion of a fixed number of anterior segments, in the same manner as in other ”heteronomously segmented animals”. In some cases segments or a portion of the segments disappear, the head segments also lose most of its systems except for the nervous system. In some arthropods, especially trilobites, the cephalon, or cephalic region, is the region of the head which is a collective of fused segments, a typical insect head is composed of eyes, antennae, and components of mouth. As these components differ substantially from insect to insect, they form important identification links, eyes in the head found, in several types of insects, are in the form of a pair of compound eyes with multiple faces. In many other types of insects the compound eyes are seen in a facet or group of single facets. In some case, the eyes may be seen as marks on the dorsal or located near or toward the head, antennae on the insects head is found in the form of segmented attachments, in pairs, that are usually located between the eyes. These are in varying shapes and sizes, in the form of filaments or in different enlarged or clubbed form, insects have mouth parts in various shapes depending on their feeding habits. Labrum is the lip which is in the front area of the head and is the most exterior part. A pair of mandible is found on backside of the labrum flanking the side of the mouth, at the back side of the mouth is the labium or lower lip. There is also a mouth part in some insects which is termed as hypopharynx which is usually located between the maxillac. The heads of humans and other animals are commonly recurring charges in heraldry, several varieties of womens heads also occur, including maidens heads, ladies heads, nuns heads, and occasionally queens heads
7.
Calf
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A calf is the young of domestic cattle. Calves are reared to become adult cattle, or are slaughtered for their meat, called veal, the term calf is also used for some other species. Calf is the term used from birth to weaning, when it becomes known as a weaner or weaner calf, the birth of a calf is known as calving. A calf that has lost its mother is an orphan calf, bobby calves are young calves which are to be slaughtered for human consumption. A vealer is a fat calf weighing less than about 330 kg which is at about eight to nine months of age, a young female calf from birth until she has had a calf of her own is called a heifer. In the American Old West, a motherless or small, runty calf was sometimes referred to as a dogie, the term calf is also used for some other species. Calves may be produced by means, or by artificial breeding using artificial insemination or embryo transfer. Calves are born after a gestation of nine months and they usually stand within a few minutes of calving, and suckle within an hour. By a week old the calf is able to follow the mother all the time, some calves are ear tagged soon after birth, especially those that are stud cattle in order to correctly identify their dams, or in areas where tagging is a legal requirement for cattle. A calf must have the very best of everything until it is at least eight months old if it is to reach its maximum potential, typically when the calves are about two months old they are branded, ear marked, castrated and vaccinated. The single suckler system of rearing calves is similar to that occurring naturally in wild cattle and this system is commonly used for rearing beef cattle throughout the world. Cows kept on poor forage produce an amount of milk. A calf left with such a mother all the time can easily drink all the milk, leaving none for human consumption. For dairy production under such circumstances, the access to the cow must be limited, for example by penning the calf. In more intensive farming, cows can easily be bred and fed to produce far more milk than one calf can drink. In the multi-suckler system, several calves are fostered onto one cow in addition to her own, more commonly, calves of dairy cows are fed formula milk from a bottle or bucket from soon after birth. Purebred female calves of cows are reared as replacement dairy cows. Most purebred dairy calves are produced by artificial insemination, by this method each bull can serve very many cows, so only a very few of the purebred dairy male calves are needed to provide bulls for breeding
8.
Pig
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A pig is any of the animals in the genus Sus, within the Suidae family of even-toed ungulates. Pigs include the domestic pig and its ancestor, the common Eurasian wild boar, along with species, related creatures outside the genus include the peccary, the babirusa. Pigs, like all suids, are native to the Eurasian and African continents, juvenile pigs are known as piglets. Pigs are highly social and intelligent animals, with around 1 billion individuals alive at any time, the domesticated pig is one of the most numerous large mammals on the planet. Pigs are omnivores and can consume a range of food. Pigs can harbour a range of parasites and diseases that can be transmitted to humans, because of the similarities between pigs and humans, pigs are used for human medical research. The Online Etymology Dictionary provides anecdotal evidence as well as linguistic, saying that the term derives probably from Old English *picg, found in compounds, apparently related to Low German bigge, Dutch big. Another Old English word for pig was fearh, related to furh furrow, from PIE *perk- dig and this reflects a widespread IE tendency to name animals from typical attributes or activities. Synonyms grunter, porker are from sailors and fishermens euphemistic avoidance of uttering the word pig at sea, a superstition perhaps based on the fate of the Gadarene swine and it is entirely likely that the word to call pigs, soo-ie, is similarly derived. A typical pig has a head with a long snout which is strengthened by a special prenasal bone. The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food and is an acute sense organ. There are four hoofed toes on each trotter, with the two larger central toes bearing most of the weight, but the two also being used in soft ground. The dental formula of adult pigs is 3.1.4.33.1.4.3, the rear teeth are adapted for crushing. In the male, the teeth form tusks, which grow continuously and are sharpened by constantly being ground against each other. Occasionally, captive mother pigs may savage their own piglets, often if they become severely stressed, some attacks on newborn piglets are non-fatal. Others may cause the death of the piglets and sometimes, the mother may eat the piglets and it is estimated that 50% of piglet fatalities are due to the mother attacking, or unintentionally crushing, the newborn pre-weaned animals. Scientists have recently discovered that pigs can exhibit a bias and are optimists or pessimests. In a study by the University of Lincoln,36 pigs were tested and they were placed in a room with two food bowls at each end of the room
9.
Sheep
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The sheep is a quadrupedal, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, although the name sheep applies to many species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to Ovis aries. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep. An adult female sheep is referred to as a ewe, a male as a ram or occasionally a tup, a castrated male as a wether. Sheep are most likely descended from the wild mouflon of Europe, one of the earliest animals to be domesticated for agricultural purposes, sheep are raised for fleece, meat and milk. A sheeps wool is the most widely used animal fiber, and is harvested by shearing. Ovine meat is called lamb when from younger animals and mutton when from older ones, Sheep continue to be important for wool and meat today, and are also occasionally raised for pelts, as dairy animals, or as model organisms for science. Sheep husbandry is practised throughout the majority of the inhabited world, in the modern era, Australia, New Zealand, the southern and central South American nations, and the British Isles are most closely associated with sheep production. Sheepraising has a lexicon of unique terms which vary considerably by region. Use of the sheep began in Middle English as a derivation of the Old English word scēap. A group of sheep is called a flock, herd or mob, many other specific terms for the various life stages of sheep exist, generally related to lambing, shearing, and age. Being a key animal in the history of farming, sheep have a deeply entrenched place in human culture, as livestock, sheep are most often associated with pastoral, Arcadian imagery. Sheep figure in many mythologies—such as the Golden Fleece—and major religions, in both ancient and modern religious ritual, sheep are used as sacrificial animals. Domestic sheep are relatively small ruminants, usually with a crimped hair called wool, domestic sheep differ from their wild relatives and ancestors in several respects, having become uniquely neotenic as a result of selective breeding by humans. A few primitive breeds of sheep retain some of the characteristics of their wild cousins, depending on breed, domestic sheep may have no horns at all, or horns in both sexes, or in males only. Most horned breeds have a pair, but a few breeds may have several. Another trait unique to domestic sheep as compared to wild ovines is their variation in color. Wild sheep are largely variations of brown hues, and variation within species is extremely limited, colors of domestic sheep range from pure white to dark chocolate brown, and even spotted or piebald
10.
Cattle
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Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
11.
Aspic
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Aspic is a dish in which ingredients are set into a gelatin made from a meat stock or consommé. Non-savory dishes, often made with commercial gelatin mixes without stock or consommé, are usually called gelatin salads, when cooled, stock that is made from meat congeals because of the natural gelatin found in the meat. The stock can be clarified with egg whites, and then filled and flavored just before the aspic sets, almost any type of food can be set into aspics. Most common are meat pieces, fruits, or vegetables, aspics are usually served on cold plates so that the gel will not melt before being eaten. A meat jelly that includes cream is called a chaud-froid, nearly any type of meat can be used to make the gelatin, pork, beef, veal, chicken, turkey, or fish. The aspic may need additional gelatin in order to set properly, veal stock provides a great deal of gelatin, in making stock, veal is often included with other meat for that reason. Fish consommés usually have too little natural gelatin, so the stock may be double-cooked or supplemented. Since fish gelatin melts at a lower temperature than gelatins of other meats, fish aspic is more delicate, vegetables and fish stocks need gelatin to maintain a molded shape. Historically, meat aspics were made before fruit- and vegetable-flavored aspics or jellies, by the Middle Ages at the latest, cooks had discovered that a thickened meat broth could be made into a jelly. A detailed recipe for aspic is found in Le Viandier, written in or around 1375, in the early 19th century, Marie-Antoine Carême created chaud froid in France. Chaud froid means hot cold in French, referring to foods that were prepared hot, Aspic was used as a chaud froid sauce in many cold fish and poultry meals. The sauce added moisture and flavor to the food, Carême invented various types of aspic and ways of preparing it. Aspic, when used to hold meats, prevents them from becoming spoiled, the gelatin keeps out air and bacteria, keeping the cooked meat fresh. Aspic came into prominence in America in the early 20th century, by the 1950s, meat aspic was a popular dinner staple throughout the United States as were other gelatin-based dishes such as tomato aspic. Cooks used to show off aesthetic skills by creating inventive aspics, Aspic can also be referred as aspic gelée or aspic jelly. Aspic jelly may be colorless or contain various shades of amber, Aspic can be used to protect food from the air, to give food more flavor, or as a decoration. There are three types of textures, delicate, sliceable, and inedible. The sliceable aspic must be made in a terrine or in an aspic mold and it is firmer than the delicate aspic
12.
Brain
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The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the organs for senses such as vision. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrates body, in a human, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body, the brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment, the operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. This article compares the properties of brains across the range of animal species. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains, the ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage, the shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species, others distinguish advanced brains from more primitive ones. The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter. Further information can be gained by staining slices of tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, the brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells, neurons and glial cells. Glial cells come in types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation. Neurons, however, are considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to target cells over long distances
13.
Eye
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Eyes are organs of the visual system. They provide organisms vision, the ability to process visual detail, eyes detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten different forms. Image-resolving eyes are present in molluscs, chordates and arthropods, the simplest eyes, such as those in microorganisms, do nothing but detect whether the surroundings are light or dark, which is sufficient for the entrainment of circadian rhythms. Complex eyes can distinguish shapes and colours, the visual fields of many organisms, especially predators, involve large areas of binocular vision to improve depth perception. In other organisms, eyes are located so as to maximise the field of view, such as in rabbits and horses, the first proto-eyes evolved among animals 600 million years ago about the time of the Cambrian explosion. The last common ancestor of animals possessed the biochemical toolkit necessary for vision, in most vertebrates and some molluscs, the eye works by allowing light to enter and project onto a light-sensitive panel of cells, known as the retina, at the rear of the eye. The cone cells and the rod cells in the retina detect, the visual signals are then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. The eyes of most cephalopods, fish, amphibians and snakes have fixed lens shapes, and focusing vision is achieved by telescoping the lens—similar to how a camera focuses. Compound eyes are found among the arthropods and are composed of many simple facets which, depending on the details of anatomy, may give either a single pixelated image or multiple images, each sensor has its own lens and photosensitive cell. Some eyes have up to 28,000 such sensors, which are arranged hexagonally, compound eyes are very sensitive to motion. Some arthropods, including many Strepsiptera, have eyes of only a few facets, each with a retina capable of creating an image. With each eye viewing a different thing, an image from all the eyes is produced in the brain, providing very different. Possessing detailed hyperspectral colour vision, the Mantis shrimp has been reported to have the worlds most complex colour vision system, trilobites, which are now extinct, had unique compound eyes. They used clear calcite crystals to form the lenses of their eyes, in this, they differ from most other arthropods, which have soft eyes. The number of lenses in such an eye varied, however, some trilobites had only one, in contrast to compound eyes, simple eyes are those that have a single lens. For example, jumping spiders have a pair of simple eyes with a narrow field of view. Some insect larvae, like caterpillars, have a different type of simple eye which gives a rough image, some of the simplest eyes, called ocelli, can be found in animals like some of the snails, which cannot actually see in the normal sense
14.
Pork
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Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC, Pork is eaten both freshly cooked and preserved. Curing extends the life of the pork products. Ham, smoked pork, gammon, bacon and sausage are examples of preserved pork, charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products, many from pork. Pork is the most popular meat in East and Southeast Asia and it is highly prized in Asian cuisines for its fat content and pleasant texture. Consumption of pork is forbidden by Jewish and Muslim dietary law, the sale of pork is illegal or severely restricted in Israel and in certain Muslim countries, particularly those where sharia law is part of their constitution. The pig is one of the oldest forms of livestock, having been domesticated as early as 5000 BC and it is believed to have been domesticated either in the Near East or in China from the wild boar. The adaptable nature and omnivorous diet of this creature allowed early humans to domesticate it much earlier than other forms of livestock. Pigs were mostly used for food, but people also used their hides for shields and shoes, their bones for tools and weapons, and their bristles for brushes. Charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products such as bacon, ham, sausage, terrines, galantines, pâtés, and confit, primarily from pork. Originally intended as a way to preserve meats before the advent of refrigeration, in 15th century France, local guilds regulated tradesmen in the food production industry in each city. The guilds that produced charcuterie were those of the charcutiers, the members of this guild produced a traditional range of cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied, sometimes distinctively, from region to region. The only raw meat the charcutiers were allowed to sell was unrendered lard, the charcutier prepared numerous items, including pâtés, rillettes, sausages, bacon, trotters, and head cheese. Due to the nature of the meat in Western culinary history. The year-round availability of meat and fruits has not diminished the popularity of this combination on Western plates, Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 38% of meat production worldwide. Consumption varies widely from place to place, the meat is taboo to eat in the Middle East and most of the Muslim world because of Jewish kosher and Islamic Halal dietary restrictions. But pork is widely consumed in East and Southeast Asia, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, as the result, large numbers of pork recipes are developed throughout the world. Feijoada for example, the dish of Brazil, is traditionally prepared with pork trimmings, ears, tail
15.
Veal
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Veal is the meat of calves, in contrast to the beef from older cattle. Veal can be produced from a calf of either sex and any breed, however, generally, veal is more expensive than beef from older cattle. Some methods or aspects of production are controversial due to animal welfare concerns. There are several types of veal, although some terminology varies by country, types of veal include, Bob veal Calves are slaughtered when only a few weeks old weighing up to 60 lb. Formula-fed veal Calves are raised on a milk formula supplement. The meat colour is ivory or creamy pink, with a firm, fine, the calves are usually slaughtered when they reach 18 to 20 weeks of age, weighing 450 to 500 pounds. Nonformula-fed veal Calves that are raised on grain, hay, or other solid food, the meat is darker in colour, and some additional marbling and fat may be apparent. It is usually marketed as calf, rather than veal, the calves are slaughtered at 22 to 26 weeks of age weighing 650 to 700 pounds. Rose veal Young beef Calves raised on farms in association with the UK Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Freedom Food programme, the name comes from the pink colour, which is partly a result of the calves being slaughtered later at about 35 weeks of age. As of 2013, the majority of veal calves in the US are special-fed, Veal has been an important ingredient in Italian and French cuisine from ancient times. The veal is often in the form of cutlets, such as the Italian cotoletta or the famous Austrian dish Wiener Schnitzel, some classic French veal dishes include fried escalopes, fried veal Grenadines, stuffed paupiettes, roast joints, and blanquettes. Because veal is lower in fat than many meats, care must be taken in preparation to ensure that it not become tough. Veal is often coated in preparation for frying or eaten with a sauce, Veal Parmigiana is a common Italian-American dish made with breaded veal cutlets. In addition to providing meat, the bones of calves are used to make a stock that forms the base for sauces, calf stomachs are also used to produce rennet, which is used in the production of cheese. Calf offal is also regarded as the most prized animal offal. Most valued are the liver, sweetbreads, kidney, and bone marrow, the head, brains, tongue, feet, and mesentery are also valued. Male dairy calves are used for veal production as they do not lactate and are therefore surplus to the requirements of the dairy industry. Newborn veal calves are given only a limited amount of time with their mothers. Free-raised calves are raised alongside their mothers, and always have access to their mothers milk, three different primary types of housing used for veal calves, hutches, stalls, or various types of group housing
16.
Gelatin
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Gelatin or gelatine is a translucent, colorless, brittle, flavorless food derived from collagen obtained from various animal body parts. It is commonly used as an agent in food, pharmaceutical drugs, vitamin capsules, photography. Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a way are called gelatinous. It is found in most gummy candy, as well as other such as marshmallows, gelatin desserts, and some ice creams, dips. Gelatin for recipe use comes in the form of sheets, granules, instant types can be added to the food as they are, others need to be soaked in water beforehand. During hydrolysis, the molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Its chemical composition is, in respects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen. Photographic and pharmaceutical grades of gelatin generally are sourced from beef bones, Gelatin readily dissolves in hot water and sets to a gel on cooling. When added directly to water, it does not dissolve well. Gelatin also is soluble in most polar solvents, Gelatin solutions show viscoelastic flow and streaming birefringence. Solubility is determined by the method of manufacture, typically, gelatin can be dispersed in a relatively concentrated acid. Such dispersions are stable for 10–15 days with little or no changes and are suitable for coating purposes or for extrusion into a precipitating bath. The mechanical properties of gelatin gels are very sensitive to variations, the previous thermal history of the gels. The upper melting point is below human body temperature, a factor that is important for mouthfeel of foods produced with gelatin, the viscosity of the gelatin-water mixture is greatest when the gelatin concentration is high and the mixture is kept cool at about 4 °C. The gel strength is quantified using the Bloom test, the worldwide production amount of gelatin is about 375, 000–400,000 tonnes per year. On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from by-products of the meat, recently, fish by-products also have been considered suitable because they eliminate some of the religious obstacles surrounding gelatin consumption. Gelatin is derived from pork skins, pork, and cattle bones, the raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes that are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate. These processes may take weeks, and differences in such processes have great effects on the properties of the final gelatin products
17.
Onion
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The onion, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is a vegetable and is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. This genus also contains several other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, the onion. The name wild onion is applied to a number of Allium species and its ancestral wild original form is not known, although escapes from cultivation have become established in some regions. The onion is most frequently a biennial or a perennial plant, the onion plant has a fan of hollow, bluish-green leaves and its bulb at the base of the plant begins to swell when a certain day-length is reached. The bulbs are composed of shortened, compressed, underground stems surrounded by fleshy modified scale that envelop a central bud at the tip of the stem, in the autumn, the foliage dies down and the outer layers of the bulb become dry and brittle. The crop is harvested and dried and the onions are ready for use or storage, the crop is prone to attack by a number of pests and diseases, particularly the onion fly, the onion eelworm, and various fungi cause rotting. Some varieties of A. cepa, such as shallots and potato onions, Onions are cultivated and used around the world. As a food item, they are served cooked, as a vegetable or part of a prepared savoury dish. They are pungent when chopped and contain certain chemical substances which irritate the eyes, the onion plant, also known as the bulb onion or common onion, is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It was first officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum, a. cepa is known exclusively from cultivation, but related wild species occur in Central Asia. The most closely related species include A. vavilovii and A. asarense from Iran, however, Zohary and Hopf state that there are doubts whether the A. vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral derivatives of the crop. The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the common onion group and are referred to simply as onions. The Aggregatum group of cultivars includes both shallots and potato onions, the genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion, Egyptian onion, and Canada onion. The onion plant has grown and selectively bred in cultivation for at least 7,000 years. It is a plant, but is usually grown as an annual. Modern varieties typically grow to a height of 15 to 45 cm, the leaves are yellowish- to bluish green and grow alternately in a flattened, fan-shaped swathe. They are fleshy, hollow, and cylindrical, with one flattened side and they are at their broadest about a quarter of the way up, beyond which they taper towards a blunt tip. The base of leaf is a flattened, usually white sheath that grows out of a basal disc
