1.
Jadwiga of Poland
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Jadwiga, also known as Hedwig, reigned as the first female monarch of the Kingdom of Poland from 16 October 1384 until her death. She was the youngest daughter of Louis the Great, also known in Poland as Louis the Hungarian, King of Hungary and Poland, Jadwiga was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou, but had more close ancestors among the Polish Piasts. She was canonized in the Roman Catholic Church in 1997 and her marriage to William of Austria was planned in 1375 and she lived in Vienna between 1378 and 1380. However, Louis died and Mary was crowned King of Hungary on the demand of her mother in 1382, Sigismund of Luxemburg tried to seize Poland, but the Polish noblemen countered that they would only obey a daughter of King Louis if she settled in their country. Queen Elizabeth then nominated Jadwiga to reign in Poland, but did not send her to Kraków to be crowned, during the interregnum, Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia, became a candidate for the Polish throne. The nobles of Greater Poland especially favoured him, proposing he marry Jadwiga, however, the noblemen of Lesser Poland opposed his election and persuaded Queen Elizabeth to send Jadwiga to Poland. Jadwiga was crowned king in Kraków on 16 October 1384 and her crowning either reflected the Polish lords opposition to her intended future husband, William, adopting the royal title without a further Act or only emphasized that she was a queen regnant. With her mothers consent, Jadwigas advisors opened negotiations with Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila signed the Union of Krewo, promising to convert to Roman Catholicism and to promote his pagan subjects conversion. Meanwhile, William of Habsburg hurried to Kraków to demand the consummation of his marriage with Jadwiga. Jogaila, who received the baptismal name Władysław, married Jadwiga on 15 February 1386, legend says that she had only agreed to marry him after long prayers, seeking divine inspiration. Władysław-Jogaila was crowned king on 4 March, as her co-ruler, Władysław closely cooperated with his wife. She acted as mediator between her husbands quarreling kinsmen, and between Poland and the Teutonic Knights, after her sister, Mary died in 1395, Jadwiga and Władysław-Jogaila laid claim to Hungary against the widowed Sigismund of Luxemburg, but the Hungarian lords did not support them. Jadwiga was the third and youngest daughter of Louis I, King of Hungary and Poland, both her grandmothers were Polish princesses, connecting her to the native Piast dynasty of Poland. Historian Oscar Halecki concluded that Jadwigas genealogical tree shows that had more Polish blood than any other. The date of her birth is unknown and she was probably born after 3 October 1373, on this day, her father issued a charter which listed her two older sisters, Catherine and Mary, without mentioning Jadwiga. Her name was first recorded in her fathers instructions to his envoys to France on 17 April 1384, if by then, Jadwiga had reached twelve years, she must have been born before 18 February 1374. She was named after her distant ancestor, Saint Hedwig of Silesia, King Louis who had not fathered any sons, wanted to ensure his daughters right to inherit his realms. Therefore, European royals regarded his three daughters as especially attractive brides, Leopold III, Duke of Austria, proposed his eldest son, William, to Jadwiga already on 18 August 1374
2.
Louis I of Brzeg
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Louis I the Fair, also known as the Wise or the Right or Louis I of Brzeg, a member of the Silesian Piasts, was a Silesian duke of Legnica from 1342 to 1346 and of Brzeg from 1358 until his death. Also, he was regent of Legnica during 1364–1373, Louis was the youngest son of the ducal couple who survived adulthood. The third and last son, Nikolaus was born and died in 1322, shortly before their mother. Like his elder brother, little was known of Louis Is early years, in the following years Louis spent much of his time at the royal court in Prague. It was there where he learned about politics and government. In 1342 Bolesław IIIs huge debts forced him to cede the Duchy of Legnica to his sons Wenceslaus and Louis, the formal divisionary treaty took place on 9 August 1345 in the Silesian capital Wroclaw and was personally signed by King John of Bohemia. Louis I received the richest part of the Duchy and the residence in Legnica, however, the breakdown between the brothers took place only one year later. As a temporary compensation, Louis received 400 pieces of silver per year and it soon became apparent the reality was totally different. The ill Wenceslaus wasnt in any danger of dying, in addition, the situation was more complicated after the birth of the first of Wenceslauss four sons, Rupert. Now Wenceslaus wanted to force his brother to renounce his succession rights, however, Louiss financial situation was not so bad as he was able to buy the town of Lubin from his father and moved there with his family. Between 1349 and 1350 Louis took part in a pilgrimage to Rome, after the death of his father Bolesław III in 1352, Louis opted for a military solution to the conflicts with his brother. The war lasted for six years. The final agreement concluded between the brothers was signed on 23 July 1359, for his part, Louis promised to pay half of his late fathers debts and formally renounced all claim over the Duchy of Legnica. Wenceslaus died on 2 June 1364, leaving four underage sons, Louis took the regency on behalf of his nephews until 1373. From the beginning of his regency, he made significant efforts to save the Legnica treasury and his talent in government affairs caused Louis I to be actively involved in the rule of Legnica by the request of his eldest nephew Rupert I, who followed most of his advice. Henry VII received his own only in 1395, Niemcza. Louis I participated actively in foreign politics, on 21 May 1379, with his brother Wenceslaus I, he renewed his homage to King Wenceslaus IV. On 12 June 1397 Louis took part in the Congress of Łubnicach, at which were present, among others, King Vladislaus II Jagiełło and Przemyslaus I Noszak, the dynastic politics of Louis I had also a good result
3.
Hedwig Codex
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The Hedwig Codex is a medieval illuminated manuscript of the life of Saint Hedwig of Silesia, spouse of the Silesian Piast duke Henry the Bearded. Based on her hagiography, the codex was produced in 1353 at the court workshop of Hedwigs descendant. According to a letter by Bishop Preczlaw of Pogarell he dedicated it to the newly established church at Brzeg. Upon the Protestant Reformation and the dissolution of the Brzeg collegiate chapter, purchased by the J. Paul Getty Trust, the original manuscript is today part of the Getty Museum collection as MS Ludwig XI7. A facsimile edition was published in Berlin in 1972 as Der Hedwigs-Codex von 1353, Wolfgang Braunfels, ed. Der Hedwigs-Codex von 1353, Sammlung Ludwig,2 volumes. Jacqueline E. Jung, The Tactile and the Visionary, available at yale. edu
4.
Lubin
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Lubin, is a town in Lower Silesian Voivodeship in south-western Poland. From 1975–1998 it belonged to the former Legnica Voivodeship, Lubin is the administrative seat of Lubin County, and also of the rural district called Gmina Lubin, although it is not part of the territory of the latter, as the town forms a separate urban gmina. As of the 2009 census, the town had a population of 74,552. Lubin is situated on the Zimnica river in the Lower Silesian historical region, the town is one of the major industrial locations in Lower Silesia, with the headquarters of the third-largest Polish corporation, the KGHM Polska Miedź mining company. It is unclear which of the two tribes, if either, founded the town, one legend states that the town derives its name from Luba, a young man credited with slaying a giant bear that had been terrifying the inhabitants. A papal bull dated to circa 1155 mentions Lubin as one of 13 Silesian castellanies, the settlement in the Duchy of Głogów was first mentioned under the Old Polish name of Lubin in a 1267 deed by Pope Clement IV as a fiefdom of Trzebnica Abbey. It obtained its city rights about 1295, from 1348 Lubin Castle served as the residence of the Piast duke Louis I the Fair and his descendants. In the quarrel with his elder brother Duke Wenceslaus I of Legnica a 1359 judgement by Emperor Charles IV allotted Lubin along with Krzeczyn Wielki, Krzeczyn Mały, Osiek and Pieszków to Louis. About 1353 he had a manuscript on the life of Saint Hedwig of Andechs drawn up, later called Schlackenwerth Codex, in the late 15th century the Lubin parish church was rebuilt in its present-day Gothic style, its high altar was moved to Wrocław Cathedral in 1951. With Bohemian Silesia, Lubin in 1526 fell to the Habsburg Monarchy and it was devastated several times during the Thirty Years War, conquered in the Silesian wars of King Frederick II of Prussia in the mid-18th Century, and became a part of Prussia and later Germany. In 1871, after creation of the German Empire, it was connected by rail to Liegnitz, during World War II about 70% of the towns buildings were destroyed. In 1945 between the days of 8–10 February Red Army soldiers mass-murdered 150 German pensioners in a home and 500 psychiatric hospital patients in Lubin. As a result of border changes promulgated at the 1945 Potsdam Conference, in 1982 the town saw significant demonstrations against the martial law declared by the Communist regime, which were put down by its death squads, resulting in the murder of three people. Uczelnia Zawodowa Zagłębia Miedziowego I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im, mikołaja Kopernika w Lubinie II Liceum Ogólnokształcące w Lubinie Zagłębie Lubin - mens Ekstraklasa football team, Polish champion in 1990-1991 and 2006-2007. Interferie Zagłębie Lubin - mens handball team playing in Polish Ekstraklasa Mens Handball League, roads, No.3 - Jakuszyce-Legnica-Lubin-Zielona Góra-Gorzów Wielkopolski-Szczecin-Świnoujście No.36 - Rawicz-Lubin-Prochowice Lubin has an international airport with a 1000m concrete/asphalt runway
5.
J. Paul Getty Museum
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The J. Paul Getty Museum, commonly referred to as the Getty, is an art museum in California housed on two campuses, the Getty Center and Getty Villa. The Getty Center is in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles and is the location of the museum. The collection features Western art from the Middle Ages to the present and its estimated 1.3 million visitors annually make it one of the most visited museums in the United States. The museums second location, the Getty Villa, is in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood and displays art from ancient Greece, Rome, and Etruria. In 1974, J. Paul Getty opened a museum in a re-creation of the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum on his property in Pacific Palisades, in 1982, the museum became the richest in the world when it inherited US$1.2 billion. In 1997, the moved to its current location in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles. Detailed information about the J. Paul Getty Museum’s collections is provided on GettyGuide, at the GettyGuide stations in the Museum, visitors can get information about exhibitions, interact with a timeline, watch videos on art-making techniques, and more. Also available at the Museum, the GettyGuide multimedia player features commentary from curators and conservators on many works of art, with GettyGuide on the Web, one may browse the Museum’s collection and bookmark works of art to create a customized tour and printable map. In 1984, Frel was demoted, and in 1986, he resigned, the Getty is involved in a controversy regarding proper title to some of the artwork in its collection. The museums previous curator of antiquities, Marion True, was indicted in Italy in 2005 on criminal charges relating to trafficking in stolen antiquities, similar charges have been addressed by the Greek authorities. The primary evidence in the case came from the 1995 raid of a Geneva, Switzerland, in 2005 True was forced to tender her resignation by the Board of Trustees, which announced her early retirement. Italy allowed the statute of limitations of the charges filed against her to expire in October 2010, True is currently under investigation by Greek authorities over the acquisition of a 2, 500-year-old funerary wreath. The wreath, along with a 6th-century BC statue of a woman, have returned to Greece and are exhibited at the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki. The Getty Museum resisted the requests of the Italian government for two decades, only to admit later that there might be problems attached to the acquisition. In 2006, Italian senior cultural official Giuseppe Proietti said, The negotiations havent made a step forward. Only after he suggested the Italian government to take cultural sanctions against the Getty, suspending all cultural cooperation, in another unrelated case in 1999, the Getty Museum had to hand over three antiquities to Italy after determining they were stolen. A Summary Catalogue of European Decorative Arts in the J. Paul Getty Museum was published in 2001, indeed, some discrete works are provided with annotations, e. g. In 2016, the head of the Greek god Hades was returned to Sicily
6.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
7.
Andechs
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Andechs is a municipality in the district of Starnberg in Bavaria in Germany. It is renowned in Germany and beyond for Andechs Abbey, a Benedictine monastery that has brewed beer since 1455, the monastery brewery offers tours to visitors. The 20th-century German composer Carl Orff is buried in the chapel of Andechs Abbey, media related to Andechs at Wikimedia Commons Andechs travel guide from Wikivoyage
8.
Duchy of Bavaria
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The Duchy of Bavaria was, from the sixth through the eighth century, a frontier region in the southeastern part of the Merovingian kingdom and was ruled by dukes under Frankish lordship. In the late ninth century a new duchy was created from this area and it was one of the stem duchies of the Kingdom of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire. Between 1070 and 1180 the Emperor was opposed by Bavaria, especially by the House of Welf, in the final conflict between the Duke Henry the Lion and the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick I, Frederick I triumphed and deprived Henry of his fiefs. Bavaria then passed over to the House of Wittelsbach, which held it until 1918, the origins of the older Bavarian duchy can be traced to the year 551/555. In his Getica, the chronicler Jordanes writes, That area of the Swabians has the Bavarii in the east, until the end of the first duchy, all rulers descended from the family of the Agilolfings. The first documented duke was Garibald I, a scion of the Frankish Agilolfings, at around 743, the Bavarian duke Odilo vassalised the Slavic princes of Carantania, who had asked him for protection against the invading Avars. The residence of the largely independent Agilolfing dukes was then Regensburg, in the adjacent Alamannic lands west of the Lech river, Augsburg was a bishops seat. When Boniface established the Diocese of Passau in 739, he could build on local Early Christian traditions. In the south, Saint Rupert had founded in 696 the Diocese of Salzburg, probably after he had baptized Duke Theodo of Bavaria at his court in Regensburg, becoming the Apostle of Bavaria. In 798 Pope Leo III created the Bavarian ecclesiastical province with Salzburg as metropolitan seat and Regensburg, Passau, Freising, in the west, the Carolingian mayor of the palace Carloman had suppressed the last Alamannic revolt at the 746 Blood court at Cannstatt. The last tribal stem duchy to be incorporated was Bavaria in 788, the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by Charlemagne entailed the fall of Tassilo, who was deposed in 788. Bavaria was then administrated by Frankish prefects, from 825 Louis the German styled himself King of Bavaria in the territory that was to become the centre of his power. Carlomans natural son Arnulf of Carinthia, raised in the former Carantanian lands, secured possession of the March of Carinthia upon his fathers death in 880, Carinthia and Bavaria were the bases of his power, with Regensburg as the seat of his government. Due mainly to the support of the Bavarians, Arnulf could take the field against Charles in 887, in 899 Bavaria passed to Louis the Child, during whose reign continuous Hungarian ravages occurred. During the reign of Louis the Child, Luitpold, Count of Scheyern, the German king Conrad I unsuccessfully attacked Arnulf when the latter refused to acknowledge his royal supremacy. The Carolingian reign in East Francia ended in 911 when Arnulfs son, King Louis the Child, the discontinuation of the central authority led to a new strengthening of the German stem duchies. At the same time, East Francia was exposed to the threat from Hungarian invasions. In 907 the army of Luitpold, Margrave of Bavaria suffered a defeat at the Battle of Pressburg
9.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
10.
Sanctuary of St. Jadwiga, Trzebnica
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Sanctuary of St. Jadwiga in Trzebnica, also Trebnitz or Trzebnica Abbey, is a convent for Cistercian nuns in Trzebnica, north of Wrocław, in Silesia, Poland, founded in 1203. It was abandoned for a few decades in the 19th century, the abbey was established by the Silesian Piast duke Henry I the Bearded and his wife Saint Hedwig of Andechs, confirmed by Pope Innocent III. The legend of its foundation relates that once Duke Henry when out hunting fell into a swamp from which he could not extricate himself, in return for the rescue from this perilous position, he vowed to build the abbey. With Hedwigs consent, her brother Ekbert of Andechs, then Bishop of Bamberg, the first abbess was Petrussa from Kitzingen Abbey, she was followed by Gertrude, the daughter of Hedwig. The abbey was endowed with lands by Duke Henry. When Hedwig became a widow in 1238, she went to live at Trzebnica and was buried there, up to 1515, the abbesses were first princesses of the Piast dynasty and afterwards members of the nobility. It is said that towards the end of the century the nuns numbered 120. The abbey also became a mausoleum of many rulers of the fragmented Silesian Piasts, in 1672 there were 32 nuns and 6 lay sisters, in 1805 there were 23 nuns and 6 lay sisters. The abbey suffered from all kinds of both in the Middle Ages and later, from famine in 1315,1338,1434, and 1617, from disastrous fires in 1413,1432,1464,1486,1505,1595. At the Protestant Reformation, most of the nuns were Poles, in 1742, in the aftermath of the First Silesian War and the Treaty of Breslau, Trebnitz found itself under the governance of Protestant Prussia and started to suffer from political discrimination. The last abbess, Dominica von Giller, died on 17 August 1810, and on 11 November 1810, the building, which was very extensive, was sold later and turned into a cloth factory. In late 19th century, the abbey was bought by Knights Hospitaller and later by female order of Sisters of St. Charles Borromeo as a hospital conducted by the sisters. The church, a basilica with pillars in the late Romanesque style and it features several paintings with scenes from the life of St. Hedwig by Michael Willmann. After the secularisation of the abbey, it became the Trebnitz parish church, the grave of St. Hedwig is located in a chapel to the right of the high altar, donated by her grandson Archbishop Ladislaus of Salzburg in 1267. The grave of Duke Henry I, her husband, is in front of the altar, the entry cites, SCHMIDT, Gesch. des Klosterstiftes Trebnitz, Bach. Und Beschreibung des Klosterstiftes in Trebnitz, JUNGNITZ, Wahrfahrtsbuchlein fur Verehrer der hl
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Media related to Hedwig of Andechs (category) at Wikimedia Commons
