1.
Groningen
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Groningen is the main municipality as well as the capital city of the eponymous province in the Netherlands. With a population of 201,865 as of 2016, it is the largest city in the north of the Netherlands, an old city, Groningen was the regional power of the northern Netherlands, a semi-independent city-state and member of the German Hanseatic League. Groningen is a university city, it houses the University of Groningen, the city was founded on the northernmost point of the Hondsrug area. The oldest document referring to Groningens existence dates from 1040, in the 13th century, when Groningen was an important trade centre, its inhabitants built a city wall to underline its authority. The city had a influence on the surrounding lands and made its dialect a common tongue. The most influential period of the city was the end of the 15th century, during these years, the Martinitoren was built, which loomed over the city at 127 metres tall. The citys independence came to an end when in 1536, it chose to accept Emperor Charles V, later, it joined the Republic of the Seven United Provinces. In 1614, the University of Groningen was founded, initially only for religious education, in the same period the city expanded rapidly and a new city wall was built. That same city wall was tested during the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672, the city walls resisted, an event that is still celebrated with music and fireworks on August the 28th. The city did not escape the devastation of World War II, in particular, the main square, the Grote Markt, was largely destroyed in April 1945 in the Battle of Groningen. However, the Martinitoren, its church, the Goudkantoor, the University of Groningen has a rich academic tradition that dates back to 1614. After the University of Leiden, it is the second oldest Dutch university,200,000 people were either students, teachers or researchers at the university. Groningen has the highest percentage of students by total population, approximately 25 percent, the city is nationally known as the Metropolis of the North and as Martinistad referring to the tower of the Martinitoren, named after its patron saint Martin of Tours. The large number of living in Groningen also contributes to a diverse cultural scene for a city of its size. The most important and most famous museum in Groningen is the Groninger Museum, with the construction of its current building, designed by Alessandro Mendini, the museum has been transformed into one of the most modern and innovative of its kind in the Netherlands. In addition, the city has a museum, a university museum, a comics museum. Groningen is also home of Noorderlicht, a photographic platform that runs a photo gallery. Groningen has a city theatre, located on the Turfsingel, a big theatre and concert venue called Martini Plaza, vera is located on the Oosterstraat, the Grand Theatre on the Grote Markt, and Simplon on the Boterdiep
2.
Leiden
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Leiden is a city and municipality in the Dutch province of South Holland. Leiden is located on the Oude Rijn, at a distance of some 20 kilometres from The Hague to its south, the recreational area of the Kaag Lakes lies just to the northeast of Leiden. A university city since 1575, Leiden houses Leiden University, the oldest university of the Netherlands, Leiden is a city with a rich cultural heritage, not only in science, but also in the arts. One of the worlds most famous painters, Rembrandt, was born, other famous Leiden painters include Lucas van Leyden, Jan van Goyen and Jan van Steen. The city has one of Europes most prominent scientific centres for more than four centuries. Modern scientific medical research and teaching started in the early 18th century in Leiden with Boerhaave, many important scientific discoveries have been made here, giving rise to Leiden’s motto, ‘City of Discoveries’. It is twinned with Oxford, the location of the United Kingdoms oldest university, Leiden University and Leiden University of Applied Sciences together have around 35,000 students. Leiden is a university city, university buildings are scattered throughout the city. Leiden was formed on a hill at the confluence of the rivers Oude. In the oldest reference to this, from circa 860, the settlement was called Leithon, the name is said to be from Germanic *leitha- canal. Leiden has in the past erroneously been associated with the Roman outpost Lugdunum Batavorum and this particular castellum was thought to be located at the Burcht of Leiden, and the citys name was thought to be derived of the Latin name Lugdunum. However the castellum was in closer to the town of Katwijk. The landlord of Leiden, situated in a stronghold on the hill, was subject to the Bishop of Utrecht. This county got its name in 1101 from a domain near the stronghold, Leiden was sacked in 1047 by Emperor Henry III. Early 13th century, Ada, Countess of Holland took refuge here when she was fighting in a war against her uncle, William I. He besieged the stronghold and captured Ada, Leiden received city rights in 1266. In 1389, its population had grown to about 4,000 persons, burgrave Filips of Wassenaar and the other local noblemen of the Hook faction assumed that the duke would besiege Leiden first and send small units out to conquer the surrounding citadels. But John of Bavaria chose to attack the citadels first and he rolled the cannons with his army but one which was too heavy went by ship
3.
Heidelberg University
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Heidelberg University is a public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Founded in 1386 on instruction of Pope Urban VI, Heidelberg is Germanys oldest university and it was the third university established in the Holy Roman Empire. Heidelberg has been an institution since 1899. The university consists of twelve faculties and offers programmes at undergraduate, graduate. The language of instruction is usually German, while a number of graduate degrees are offered in English. Associated with 31 Nobel Prize laureates, the university places an emphasis on research, modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology, psychiatric genetics, environmental physics, and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg faculty. Approximately 1,000 doctorates are completed every year, with more than one third of the students coming from abroad. International students from some 130 countries account for more than 20 percent of the student body. The universitys noted alumni include eleven domestic and foreign Heads of State or Heads of Government, the Great Schism of 1378 made it possible for Heidelberg, a relatively small city and capital of the Electorate of the Palatinate, to gain its own university. The Great Schism was initiated by the election of two popes after the death of Pope Gregory XI in the same year, one successor resided in Avignon and the other in Rome. Rupert I recognized the opportunity and initiated talks with the Curia, as specified in the papal charter, the university was modelled after University of Paris and included four faculties, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine. On 18 October 1386 a special Pontifical High Mass in the Heiliggeistkirche was the ceremony that established the university, on 19 October 1386 the first lecture was held, making Heidelberg the oldest university in Germany. In November 1386, Marsilius of Inghen was elected first rector of the university, the rector seal motto was semper apertus—i. e. The book of learning is always open, the university grew quickly and in March 1390,185 students were enrolled at the university. This resulted in establishing a reputation for the university and its professors. Due to the influence of Marsilius, the university initially taught the nominalism or via moderna, the transition from scholastic to humanistic culture was effected by the chancellor and bishop Johann von Dalberg in the late 15th century. Humanism was represented at Heidelberg University particularly by the founder of the older German Humanistic School Rudolph Agricola, Conrad Celtes, Jakob Wimpfeling, and Johann Reuchlin. Æneas Silvius Piccolomini was chancellor of the university in his capacity of provost of Worms, in 1482, Pope Sixtus IV permitted laymen and married men to be appointed professors in the ordinary of medicine through a papal dispensation
4.
University of Groningen
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The University of Groningen is a public research university in the city of Groningen in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1614 and is one of the oldest universities in the Netherlands as well as one of its largest, since its inception more than 200,000 students have graduated. It is a member of the distinguished international Coimbra Group of European universities, in April 2013, according to the results of the International Student Barometer, the University of Groningen, for the third time in a row, has been voted the best university of the Netherlands. In 2014 the university celebrated its 400th anniversary, the University of Groningen has ten faculties, nine graduate schools,27 research centres and institutes, and more than 175 degree programmes. There were four faculties – Theology, Law, Medicine, the coat of arms of the university was confirmed by the States of the City and County of Groningen in 1615. It consists of the arms, charged with an open book inscribed with the abbreviated words VER/BVM/DNI LV/CER/NA. The shield is surmounted by a crown of five leaves. The first 75 years of its existence were very fruitful for the University with about 100 students enrolling every year, on average two to three hundred students were registered with the University at any one time during this period. Opportunities and threats followed on each other’s heels during the nineteenth century, in 1815, at the same time as Leiden and Utrecht, the University gained recognition as a national college of higher education, but this was followed by discussions about closure. The situation improved markedly when a new university building, the Academiegebouw, was constructed in 1850. This made the fire completely destroyed this building in 1906 even more poignant. In the meantime, the Higher Education Act of 1876 had radically improved the position of the University, teaching now took place in Dutch as well as in Latin and the University was given a research as well as an educational duty. This laid the foundations for the present research university, the University of Groningen developed apace during the first decades of the twentieth century. The number of faculties and courses grew steadily while the number of students showed an explosive growth, when the University celebrated its first 300 years in 1914 there were 611 registered students, this had already grown to 1000 by 1924. After a drop back during the Depression, and in particular during the Second World War, in 2016 the Dutch chemist Ben Feringa, who worked most of his career at the university, won the Nobel prize for his work on molecular motors. Other strong research groups are in, Nanoscience, Physics, Molecular Biology, Microbiology, Medical Sciences, Neurosciences, Sociology, Philosophy, Theology, Archaeology and Arts. Every year more than 5,000 research publications go to print, the University of Groningen is a member of the so-called Excellence Group of the best universities in Europe. The Excellence Group has 56 members, which is 1.3 percent of the approximately 4,500 European institutions of higher education, the University of Groningen belongs to the top 100 large comprehensive research universities in the world
5.
Liquid helium
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At standard pressure, the chemical element helium exists in a liquid form only at the extremely low temperature of −269 °C. Its boiling point and critical point depend on which isotope of helium is present and these are the only two stable isotopes of helium. See the table below for the values of physical quantities. The density of liquid helium-4 at its point and a pressure of one atmosphere is about 0.125 grams per cm3. Helium was first liquefied on July 10,1908, by the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands, at that time, helium-3 was unknown because the mass spectrometer had not yet been invented. The temperature required to produce liquid helium is low because of the weakness of the attractions between the helium atoms. These interatomic forces in helium are weak to begin with because helium is a noble gas and these are significant in helium because of its low atomic mass of about four atomic mass units. The zero point energy of helium is less if its atoms are less confined by their neighbors. Hence in liquid helium, its ground state energy can decrease by a naturally occurring increase in its average interatomic distance, however at greater distances, the effects of the interatomic forces in helium are even weaker. Because of the very weak interatomic forces in helium, this element would remain a liquid at atmospheric pressure all the way from its liquefaction point down to absolute zero, liquid helium solidifies only under very low temperatures and great pressures. At temperatures below their liquefaction points, both helium-4 and helium-3 undergo transitions to superfluids, liquid helium-4 and the rare helium-3 are not completely miscible. Below 0.9 kelvin at their saturated vapor pressure, a mixture of the two isotopes undergoes a separation into a normal fluid that floats on a denser superfluid consisting mostly of helium-4. This phase separation happens because the mass of liquid helium can reduce its thermodynamic enthalpy by separating. At extremely low temperatures, the phase, rich in helium-4. This makes possible the use of the dilution refrigerator, which is capable of reaching temperatures of a few millikelvins. Superfluid helium-4 has substantially different properties from ordinary liquid helium, general He-3 and He-4 phase diagrams, etc. Onness liquifaction of helium Kamerlingh Onness 1908 article, online and analyzed on BibNum
6.
Rollin film
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A Rollin film, named after Bernard V. Rollin, is a 30 nm-thick liquid film of helium in the helium II state. It exhibits a creeping effect in response to surfaces extending past the films level, Helium II can escape from any non-closed container via creeping toward and eventually evaporating from capillaries of 10−7 to 10−8 meters or greater. Rollin films are involved in the effect where superfluid helium leaks out of a container in a fountain-like manner. The ability of liquids to cross obstacles that lie at a higher level is often referred to as the Onnes-Effect. The Onnes-Effect is enabled by the capillary forces dominating gravity and viscous forces, waves propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the Van der Waals force. The film suffers a change in chemical potential when the thickness varies and these waves are known as third sound. Rollin Film Rates in Liquid Helium, on the film phenomenon of liquid helium II
7.
Superconductivity
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It was discovered by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8,1911, in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics. The electrical resistance of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered, in ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature, an electric current flowing through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source. In 1986, it was discovered that some cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials have a temperature above 90 K. Such a high temperature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor. There are many criteria by which superconductors are classified, by theory of operation, It is conventional if it can be explained by the BCS theory or its derivatives, or unconventional, otherwise. By material, Superconductor material classes include chemical elements, alloys, ceramics, on the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of the underlying material. For instance, all superconductors have exactly zero resistivity to low applied currents when there is no magnetic field present or if the field does not exceed a critical value. The resistance of the sample is given by Ohms law as R = V / I, if the voltage is zero, this means that the resistance is zero. Superconductors are also able to maintain a current with no applied voltage whatsoever, experiments have demonstrated that currents in superconducting coils can persist for years without any measurable degradation. Experimental evidence points to a current lifetime of at least 100,000 years, theoretical estimates for the lifetime of a persistent current can exceed the estimated lifetime of the universe, depending on the wire geometry and the temperature. In a normal conductor, an electric current may be visualized as a fluid of electrons moving across an ionic lattice. As a result, the energy carried by the current is constantly being dissipated and this is the phenomenon of electrical resistance and Joule heating. The situation is different in a superconductor, in a conventional superconductor, the electronic fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons
8.
Equation of state
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In physics and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation relating state variables which describes the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions. It is an equation which provides a mathematical relationship between two or more state functions associated with the matter, such as its temperature, pressure, volume. Equations of state are useful in describing the properties of fluids, mixtures of fluids, solids, the most prominent use of an equation of state is to correlate densities of gases and liquids to temperatures and pressures. One of the simplest equations of state for this purpose is the gas law. However, this becomes increasingly inaccurate at higher pressures and lower temperatures. Therefore, a number of more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases, at present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all substances under all conditions. Measurements of equation-of-state parameters, especially at pressures, can be made using lasers. In addition, there are equations of state describing solids. There are equations that model the interior of stars, including stars, dense matter. A related concept is the perfect fluid equation of state used in cosmology, in practical context, the equations of state are instrumental for PVT calculation in process engineering problems and especially in petroleum gas/liquid equilibrium calculations. A successful PVT model based on an equation of state can be helpful to determine the state of the flow regime. Boyles Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state, in 1662, the Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, then the volume of gas was measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the level in the short end of the tube and that in the long. Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure, in mathematical form, this can be stated as, p V = c o n s t a n t. The above relationship has also attributed to Edme Mariotte and is sometimes referred to as Mariottes law. However, Mariottes work was not published until 1676, in 1787 the French physicist Jacques Charles found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to roughly the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval. Later, in 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar experiments, daltons Law of partial pressure states that the pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone
9.
Enthalpy
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Enthalpy /ˈɛnθəlpi/ is a measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system. It is the thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the heat content of a system. It is equal to the energy of the system plus the product of pressure. Enthalpy is defined as a function that depends only on the prevailing equilibrium state identified by the systems internal energy, pressure. The unit of measurement for enthalpy in the International System of Units is the joule, but other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the British thermal unit and the calorie. At constant pressure, the enthalpy change equals the energy transferred from the environment through heating or work other than expansion work, the total enthalpy, H, of a system cannot be measured directly. The same situation exists in classical mechanics, only a change or difference in energy carries physical meaning. Enthalpy itself is a potential, so in order to measure the enthalpy of a system, we must refer to a defined reference point, therefore what we measure is the change in enthalpy. The ΔH is a change in endothermic reactions, and negative in heat-releasing exothermic processes. For processes under constant pressure, ΔH is equal to the change in the energy of the system. This means that the change in enthalpy under such conditions is the heat absorbed by the material through a reaction or by external heat transfer. Enthalpies for chemical substances at constant pressure assume standard state, most commonly 1 bar pressure, standard state does not, strictly speaking, specify a temperature, but expressions for enthalpy generally reference the standard heat of formation at 25 °C. Enthalpy of ideal gases and incompressible solids and liquids does not depend on pressure, unlike entropy, real materials at common temperatures and pressures usually closely approximate this behavior, which greatly simplifies enthalpy calculation and use in practical designs and analyses. The word enthalpy stems from the Ancient Greek verb enthalpein, which means to warm in and it combines the Classical Greek prefix ἐν- en-, meaning to put into, and the verb θάλπειν thalpein, meaning to heat. The word enthalpy is often attributed to Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron. This misconception was popularized by the 1927 publication of The Mollier Steam Tables, however, neither the concept, the word, nor the symbol for enthalpy existed until well after Clapeyrons death. The earliest writings to contain the concept of enthalpy did not appear until 1875, however, Gibbs did not use the word enthalpy in his writings. The actual word first appears in the literature in a 1909 publication by J. P. Dalton
10.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
11.
Franklin Medal
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The Franklin Medal was a science award presented from 1915 through 1997 by the Franklin Institute located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U. S. It was founded in 1914 by Samuel Insull, the Franklin Medal was the most prestigious of the various awards presented by the Franklin Institute. Together with other awards, it was merged into the Benjamin Franklin Medal. Recipients are listed in a database on The Franklin Institute website
12.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
13.
Delft University of Technology
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Delft University of Technology, also known as TU Delft, is the largest and oldest Dutch public technological university, located in Delft, Netherlands. With eight faculties and numerous research institutes, it hosts over 19,000 students, more than 3,300 scientists, and more than 2,200 support and management staff. The university was established on 8 January 1842 by King William II of the Netherlands as a Royal Academy, Dutch Nobel laureates Jacobus Henricus van t Hoff, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, and Simon van der Meer have been associated with TU Delft. TU Delft is a member of several university federations including the IDEA League, CESAER, UNITECH, one of the purposes of the academy was to educate civil servants for the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. The first director of the academy was Antoine Lipkens, constructor of the first Dutch optical telegraph, Royal Academy had its first building located at Oude Delft 95 in Delft. On 23 May 1863 an Act was passed imposing regulations on technical education in the Netherlands, on 20 June 1864, Royal Academy in Delft was disbanded by a Royal Decree, giving a way to a Polytechnic School of Delft. The newly formed school educated engineers of various fields and architects, yet another Act, passed on 22 May 1905, changed the name of the school to Technical College of Delft, emphasizing the academic quality of the education. Polytechnic was granted university rights and was allowed to award academic degrees, the number of students reached 450 around that time. The official opening of the new school was attended by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands on 10 July 1905, First dean of the newly established College was ir. J. Kraus, hydraulic engineer. In 1905, the first doctoral degree was awarded, from 1924 until the construction of the new campus in 1966 the ceremonies were held in the Saint Hippolytus Chapel. Corporate rights were granted to the College on 7 June 1956, most of the university buildings during that time were located within Delft city centre, with some of the buildings set on the side of the river Schie, in the Wippolder district. Student organizations grew together with the university, the first to be established on 22 March 1848 is the Delftsch Studenten Corps housed in the distinctive Sociëteit Phoenix on the Phoenixstraat. This was followed by the Delftsche Studenten Bond|de Delftsche Studenten Bond, in 1917 Proof Garden for Technical Plantation was established by Gerrit van Iterson, which today is known as Botanical Garden of TU Delft. In that period a first female professor, Toos Korvezee, was appointed, after the end of World War II, TU Delft increased its rapid academic expansion. Studium Generale was established at all universities in the Netherlands, including TU Delft, to promote a free and accessible knowledge related to culture, technology, society and science. Because of the number of students, in 1974 the first Reception Week for First Year Students was established. Since 2006 all buildings of the university are located outside of the city center of Delft. Relatively new building of Material Sciences department was sold, later demolished in 2007 to give place for a newly built building of the Haagse Hogeschool, closer cooperation between TU Delft and Dutch universities of applied sciences resulted in physical transition of some of the institutes from outside to Delft
14.
Robert Bunsen
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Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen was a German chemist. He investigated emission spectra of heated elements, and discovered caesium and rubidium with the physicist Gustav Kirchhoff, Bunsen developed several gas-analytical methods, was a pioneer in photochemistry, and did early work in the field of organoarsenic chemistry. With his laboratory assistant, Peter Desaga, he developed the Bunsen burner, the Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after Bunsen and Kirchhoff. Robert Bunsen was born at Göttingen in 1811, in what is now the state of Lower Saxony in Germany, Bunsen was the youngest of four sons of the University of Göttingens chief librarian and professor of modern philology, Christian Bunsen. Sources disagree on Robert Bunsens exact birth date, according to his biographer Georg Lockemann, Bunsen himself celebrated his birthday on the 31st in his later years. Lockemann nevertheless regarded the 30th as the correct date, in 1833 Bunsen became a lecturer at Göttingen and began experimental studies of the solubility of metal salts of arsenous acid. His discovery of the use of iron oxide hydrate as an agent is still today the most effective antidote against arsenic poisoning. This interdisciplinary research was carried on and published in conjunction with the physician Arnold Adolph Berthold, in 1836, Bunsen succeeded Friedrich Wöhler at the Polytechnic School of Kassel. Bunsen taught there for three years, and then accepted a professorship at the University of Marburg, where he continued his studies on cacodyl derivatives. He was promoted to professorship in 1841. While at University of Marburg, Bunsen participated in the 1846 expedition for the investigation of Icelands volcanoes, Bunsens work brought him quick and wide acclaim, partly because cacodyl, which is extremely toxic and undergoes spontaneous combustion in dry air, is so difficult to work with. Bunsen almost died from poisoning, and an explosion with cacodyl cost him sight in his right eye. In 1841, Bunsen created the Bunsen cell battery, using an electrode instead of the expensive platinum electrode used in William Robert Groves electrochemical cell. Early in 1851 he accepted a professorship at the University of Breslau, in late 1852 Bunsen became the successor of Leopold Gmelin at the University of Heidelberg. There he used electrolysis to produce pure metals, such as chromium, magnesium, aluminum, manganese, a long collaboration with Henry Enfield Roscoe began in 1852, in which they studied the photochemical formation of hydrogen chloride from hydrogen and chlorine. From this work, the reciprocity law of Bunsen and Roscoe originated and he discontinued his work with Roscoe in 1859 and joined Gustav Kirchhoff to study emission spectra of heated elements, a research area called spectrum analysis. For this work, Bunsen and his assistant, Peter Desaga, had perfected a special gas burner by 1855. The newer design of Bunsen and Desaga, which provided a very hot and clean flame, is now called simply the Bunsen burner, there had been earlier studies of the characteristic colors of heated elements, but nothing systematic
15.
Gustav Kirchhoff
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Gustav Robert Kirchhoff was a German physicist who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term black body radiation in 1862, and two different sets of concepts are named Kirchhoffs laws after him, there is also a Kirchhoffs Law in thermochemistry, the Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen. Gustav Kirchhoff was born in Königsberg, Prussia, the son of Friedrich Kirchhoff, a lawyer, in the same year, he moved to Berlin, where he stayed until he received a professorship at Breslau. Later, in 1857, He married Clara Richelot, the daughter of his mathematics professor Richelot and he married Luise Brömmel in 1872. Kirchhoff formulated his laws, which are now ubiquitous in electrical engineering, in 1845. He completed this study as an exercise, it later became his doctoral dissertation. In 1857 he calculated that a signal in a resistanceless wire travels along the wire at the speed of light. He proposed his law of radiation in 1859, and gave a proof in 1861. He was called to the University of Heidelberg in 1854, where he collaborated in work with Robert Bunsen. Together Kirchhoff and Bunsen discovered caesium and rubidium in 1861, at Heidelberg he ran a mathematico-physical seminar, modelled on Neumanns, with the mathematician Leo Koenigsberger. Among those who attended this seminar were Arthur Schuster and Sofia Kovalevskaya, in 1875 Kirchhoff accepted the first chair specifically dedicated to theoretical physics at Berlin. In 1862 he was awarded the Rumford Medal for his researches on the lines of the solar spectrum. He also contributed to optics, carefully solving Maxwells equations to provide a foundation for Huygens principle. In 1884 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts. Kirchhoff died in 1887, and was buried in the St Matthäus Kirchhof Cemetery in Schöneberg, leopold Kronecker is buried in the same cemetery. Kirchhoffs first law is that the sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero. The second law is that in a circuit, the directed sums of the voltages in a closed system is zero. A solid, liquid, or dense gas excited to emit light will radiate at all wavelengths, a low-density gas excited to emit light will do so at specific wavelengths and this produces an emission spectrum
16.
Johannes Bosscha
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Johannes Bosscha Jr. was a Dutch physicist. Bosscha came from a long known for their academic achievements. His great-grandfather and grandfather were classical scholars and his father, Johannes Bosscha Sr. was a professor of history and literature and also was minister of church-state relationships in two governments. From 1844–1848 Johannes Jr. attended a Latin school in Amsterdam, in 1854 he obtained his doctoral degree with a thesis on galvanometry. After a brief sojourn in Berlin he returned to the department in Leiden. Here he made important investigations on galvanic polarization and the rapidity of sound waves and he initiated the mechanical theory of electrolysis, and he was one of the first to suggest the possibility of sending two messages simultaneously over the same wire. In 1858 he published Conservation of Energy in Galvanic Currents, in which he applied the recently formulated first law of thermodynamics to electrical phenomena. In 1860, Boscha became chair of natural sciences at the Koninklijke Militaire Academie in Breda and in 1863 became a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1873 he accepted the chair of the department at the Polytechnic School in Delft. In 1875 he published a three-volume Leerboek der natuurkunde in which no higher math was used, in 1878 Boscha became director of the Polytechnic School. Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was his assistant from 1878 to 1882, after which Kamerlingh Onnes became professor at Leiden University, in 1885 Boscha needed to resign as director because of poor health. His Verspreide Geschriften were published in three volumes, in 1855 he married Paulina Emilia Kerkhoven in the town of Voorst. They had four daughters and two sons, the Bosscha Observatory on Java has been named after his son Karel Albert Rudolf Bosscha, who contributed much to the technical development of Indonesia. Klaas van Berkel, Albert van Helden & L. C, palm A History of Science in the Netherlands, BRILL1999, pp. 425–6. Johannes Bosscha at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Works by or about Johannes Bosscha at Internet Archive
17.
Johannes Kuenen
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Johannes Petrus Kuenen was a Dutch physicist. Kuenen was the son of the professor of theology Abraham Kuenen and his son Philip Henry Kuenen was professor of geology. From 1884 to 1889 he studied at the University of Leiden and he became a professor in physics in 1895 at University College, Dundee in Dundee, Scotland, where he worked until 1907. For most of this period the College was part of the University of St Andrews, while at Dundee he performed early experiments with x-rays with the physiologist Edward Waymouth Reid. In 1907 he was appointed professor of physics at Leiden University, heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Kuenen led the Kamerlingh Onnes physics Laboratory
18.
Pieter Zeeman
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Pieter Zeeman was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Hendrik Lorentz for his discovery of the Zeeman effect. Pieter Zeeman was born in Zonnemaire, a town on the island of Schouwen-Duiveland, Netherlands, to Catharinus Forandinus Zeeman, a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church. He became interested in physics at an early age, in 1883 the Aurora borealis happened to be visible in the Netherlands. Zeeman, then a student at the school in Zierikzee, made a drawing and description of the phenomenon and submitted it to Nature. The editor praised the careful observations of Professor Zeeman from his observatory in Zonnemaire, after finishing high school in 1883 he went to Delft for supplementary education in classical languages, then a requirement for admission to University. He stayed at the home of Dr J. W. Lely, co-principal of the gymnasium and brother of Cornelis Lely, while in Delft, he first met Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was to become his thesis adviser. After Zeeman passed the exams in 1885, he studied physics at the University of Leiden under Kamerlingh Onnes. In 1890, even finishing his thesis, he became Lorentzs assistant. This allowed him to participate in a programme on the Kerr effect. In 1893 he submitted his thesis on the Kerr effect. After obtaining his doctorate he went for half a year to Friedrich Kohlrauschs institute in Strasbourg, in 1895, after returning from Strasbourg, Zeeman became Privatdozent in mathematics and physics in Leiden. The same year he married Johanna Elisabeth Lebret, they had three daughters and one son and he was fired for his efforts, but he was later vindicated, he won the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of what has now become known as the Zeeman effect. As an extension of his thesis research, he began investigating the effect of magnetic fields on a light source and he discovered that a spectral line is split into several components in the presence of a magnetic field. The next Monday, Lorentz called Zeeman into his office and presented him with an explanation of his observations, the importance of Zeemans discovery soon became apparent. It confirmed Lorentzs prediction about the polarization of light emitted in the presence of a magnetic field and this conclusion was reached well before Thomsons discovery of the electron. The Zeeman effect thus became an important tool for elucidating the structure of the atom, because of his discovery, Zeeman was offered a position as lecturer in Amsterdam in 1897. In 1900 this was followed by his promotion to professor of physics at the University of Amsterdam, in 1902, together with his former mentor Lorentz, he received the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of the Zeeman effect. Five years later, in 1908, he succeeded Van der Waals as full professor and Director of the Physics Institute in Amsterdam, a new laboratory built in Amsterdam in 1923 was renamed the Zeeman Laboratory in 1940
19.
Johannes Diderik van der Waals
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Johannes Diderik van der Waals was a Dutch theoretical physicist and thermodynamicist famous for his work on an equation of state for gases and liquids. His name is associated with the van der Waals equation of state that describes the behavior of gases. His name is associated with van der Waals forces, with van der Waals molecules. As James Clerk Maxwell said about Van der Waals, there can be no doubt that the name of Van der Waals will soon be among the foremost in molecular science. In his 1873 thesis, van der Waals noted the non-ideality of real gases, spearheaded by Ernst Mach and Wilhelm Ostwald, a strong philosophical current that denied the existence of molecules arose towards the end of the 19th century. The molecular existence was considered unproven and the molecular hypothesis unnecessary, at the time van der Waals thesis was written, the molecular structure of fluids had not been accepted by most physicists, and liquid and vapor were often considered as chemically distinct. But Van der Waalss work affirmed the reality of molecules and allowed an assessment of their size, by comparing his equation of state with experimental data, Van der Waals was able to obtain estimates for the actual size of molecules and the strength of their mutual attraction. The effect of Van der Waalss work on physics in the 20th century was direct. By introducing parameters characterizing molecular size and attraction in constructing his equation of state, with the help of the van der Waalss equation of state, the critical-point parameters of gases could be accurately predicted from thermodynamic measurements made at much higher temperatures. Nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and helium subsequently succumbed to liquefaction, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was significantly influenced by the pioneer work of van der Waals. In 1908, Onnes became the winner of the race to liquid helium and because of this. A largely self-taught man in mathematics and physics, van der Waals originally worked as a school teacher and he became the first physics professor of the University of Amsterdam when in 1877 the old Athenaeum was upgraded to Municipal University. Van der Waals won the 1910 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the equation of state for gases, Johannes Diderik van der Waals was born on 23 November 1837 in Leiden in the Netherlands. He was the eldest of ten born to Jacobus van der Waals. His father was a carpenter in Leiden, as was usual for working-class children in the 19th century, he did not go to the kind of secondary school that would have given him the right to enter university. Instead he went to a school of “advanced primary education”, which he finished at the age of fifteen and he then became a teachers apprentice in an elementary school. Between 1856 and 1861 he followed courses and gained the qualifications to become a primary school teacher. However, the University of Leiden had a provision that enabled students to take up to four courses a year
20.
Cryogenics
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In physics, cryogenics is the study of the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures. It is not well-defined at what point on the temperature scale refrigeration ends and cryogenics begins, but scientists assume a gas to be cryogenic if it can be liquefied at or below −150 °C. The U. S. National Institute of Standards and Technology has chosen to consider the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below −180 °C or −292.00 °F or 93.15 K. A person who studies elements that have been subjected to cold temperatures is called a cryogenicist. Cryogenicists use the Kelvin or Rankine temperature scales present in nature, Cryogenics The branches of physics and engineering that involve the study of very low temperatures, how to produce them, and how materials behave at those temperatures. Cryobiology The branch of biology involving the study of the effects of low temperatures on organisms, cryoconservation of animal genetic resources The conservation of genetic material with the intention of conserving a breed. Cryosurgery The branch of surgery applying very low temperatures to destroy malignant tissue, cryoelectronics The field of research regarding superconductivity at low temperatures. Cryotronics The practical application of cryoelectronics, Cryonics Cryopreserving humans and animals with the intention of future revival. Cryogenics is sometimes used to mean Cryonics in popular culture. The word cryogenics stems from Greek kρύο – cold + genic – having to do with production, Cryogenic fluids with their boiling point in kelvins Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally purchasable around the world, Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be reached. These liquids may be stored in Dewar flasks, which are double-walled containers with a vacuum between the walls to reduce heat transfer into the liquid. Typical laboratory Dewar flasks are spherical, made of glass and protected in a metal outer container, Dewar flasks for extremely cold liquids such as liquid helium have another double-walled container filled with liquid nitrogen. Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the man who first liquefied hydrogen, thermos bottles are smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a protective casing. Cryogenic barcode labels are used to mark dewar flasks containing these liquids, Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to transfer liquefied natural gas from LNG carriers to LNG storage tanks, as are cryogenic valves. The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear, based on this theory of cryogenic hardening, the commercial cryogenic processing industry was founded in 1966 by Ed Busch. This evolved in the late 1990s into the treatment of other parts, cryogens, such as liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and freezing applications. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for the popular statin drugs, special cryogenic chemical reactors are used to remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature environment
21.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
22.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
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Absolute zero
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Absolute zero is the lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reaches its minimum value, taken as 0. The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition, in the quantum-mechanical description, matter at absolute zero is in its ground state, the point of lowest internal energy. And a system at absolute zero still possesses quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the kinetic energy of the ground state cannot be removed. Scientists and technologists routinely achieve temperatures close to zero, where matter exhibits quantum effects such as superconductivity and superfluidity. At temperatures near 0 K, nearly all molecular motion ceases and ΔS =0 for any adiabatic process, in such a circumstance, pure substances can form perfect crystals as T →0. Max Plancks strong form of the law of thermodynamics states the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T =0 as coincident with the adiabat S =0, although other isotherms, as no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T =0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature, a perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational symmetry along three axes, every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For substances that exist in two crystalline forms, such as diamond and graphite for carbon, there is a kind of chemical degeneracy. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at T =0 even though each is perfectly ordered, using the Debye model, the specific heat and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to T3, while the enthalpy and chemical potential are proportional to T4. These quantities drop toward their T =0 limiting values and approach with zero slopes, for the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10 K. Even the less detailed Einstein model shows this curious drop in specific heats, in fact, all specific heats vanish at absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of thermal expansion, maxwells relations show that various other quantities also vanish. Since the relation between changes in Gibbs free energy, the enthalpy and the entropy is Δ G = Δ H − T Δ S thus, as T decreases, ΔG and ΔH approach each other. Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes result in a decrease in G as they proceed toward equilibrium, if ΔS and/or T are small, the condition ΔG <0 may imply that ΔH <0, which would indicate an exothermic reaction. However, this is not required, endothermic reactions can proceed spontaneously if the TΔS term is large enough, moreover, the slopes of the derivatives of ΔG and ΔH converge and are equal to zero at T =0. e. An actual process is the most exothermic one, one model that estimates the properties of an electron gas at absolute zero in metals is the Fermi gas
24.
Liquefaction of gases
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Liquefaction of gases is physical conversion of a gas into a liquid state. The processes are used for scientific, industrial and commercial purposes, many gases can be put into a liquid state at normal atmospheric pressure by simple cooling, a few, such as carbon dioxide, require pressurization as well. Liquefaction is used for analyzing the properties of gas molecules, for storage of gases, for example, LPG. There the gas is liquefied in the condenser, where the heat of vaporization is released, and evaporated in the evaporator, liquefaction of helium with the precooled Hampson-Linde cycle led to a Nobel Prize for Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1913. At ambient pressure the boiling point of liquefied helium is 4.22 K, below 2.17 K liquid 4He becomes a superfluid and shows characteristic properties such as heat conduction through second sound, zero viscosity and the fountain effect among others. The liquefaction of gases is a process that uses various compressions and expansions to achieve high pressures and very low temperatures, using, for example. The liquefaction of air is used to obtain nitrogen, oxygen, air is liquefied by the Linde process, in which air is alternately compressed, cooled, and expanded, each expansion results in a considerable reduction in temperature. With the lower temperature the molecules move more slowly and occupy less space, air can also be liquefied by Claudes process in which the gas is allowed to expand isentropically twice in two chambers. While expanding, the gas has to do work as it is led through an expansion turbine, the gas is not yet liquid, since it would destroy the turbine. Final liquefaction takes place by isenthalpic expansion in a Joule-Thomson-Valve, liquefaction of Gases History of Liquefying Hydrogen - NASA
25.
Helium
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Helium is a chemical element with symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and its boiling point is the lowest among all the elements. Its abundance is similar to figure in the Sun and in Jupiter. This is due to the high nuclear binding energy of helium-4 with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Most helium in the universe is helium-4, and is believed to have formed during the Big Bang. Large amounts of new helium are being created by fusion of hydrogen in stars. Helium is named for the Greek god of the Sun, Helios and it was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by French astronomer Jules Janssen. Janssen is jointly credited with detecting the element along with Norman Lockyer, Janssen observed during the solar eclipse of 1868 while Lockyer observed from Britain. Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, the formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in gas fields in parts of the United States. Liquid helium is used in cryogenics, particularly in the cooling of superconducting magnets, a well-known but minor use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships. As with any gas whose density differs from that of air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre, on Earth it is relatively rare—5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements. Previously, terrestrial helium—a non-renewable resource, because once released into the atmosphere it readily escapes into space—was thought to be in short supply. The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18,1868, the line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India. This line was assumed to be sodium. He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth, Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος
26.
Arnhem
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Arnhem /ˈɑːrnəm/ or /ˈɑːrnhɛm/ is a city and municipality, situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of Gelderland and located on banks of the rivers Nederrijn and Sint-Jansbeek, which was the source of the citys development. Arnhem had a population of 151,356 in 2014 and is one of the cities of the Netherlands. The municipality is part of the city region Arnhem-Nijmegen, which has a combined 736,500 inhabitants, Arnhem is home to the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, ArtEZ Institute of the Arts, Netherlands Open Air Museum, Royal Burgers Zoo and National Sports Centre Papendal. The oldest archeological findings of human activity around Arnhem are two firestones of about 70,000 years ago and these come from the stone age, when the Neanderthals lived in this part of Europe. In Schuytgraaf, remnants of a camp from around 5000 BC have been discovered. In Schaarsbergen,12 grave mounds were found from 2400 BC, the earliest settlement in Arnhem dates from 1500 BC, of which traces have been found on the Hoogkamp, where the Van Goyenstraat is currently located. Arnhem arose on the location where the road between Nijmegen and Utrecht/Zutphen split, Seven streams provided the city with water, and only when the flow of the Rhine was changed in 1530, was the city located on the river. Arnhem was first mentioned as such in 893 as Arneym or Arentheym, in 1233 Count Otto II of Guelders from Zutphen, conferred city rights on the town, which had belonged to the abbey of Prüm, settled in, and fortified it. Arnhem entered the Hanseatic League in 1443, in 1473, it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy. In 1514, Charles of Egmond, duke of Guelders, took it from the dukes of Burgundy, in 1543, as capital of the so-called Kwartier van Veluwe it joined the Union of Utrecht during the Eighty years war in 1579. After its capture from the Spanish forces by Dutch and English troops in 1585 the city part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands. The French occupied the town 1672–74, from 1795 to 1813, it was reoccupied by the French, by both revolutionary and imperial forces. In the early 19th century, the fortifications were almost completely dismantled. The Sabelspoort is the remaining part of the medieval walls. In the 19th century, Arnhem was a resort town famous for its picturesque beauty. It was known as het Haagje van het oosten, mainly because a number of former sugar barons or planters from the Indies settled there. Even now the city is famous for its parks and greenery, the urbanization in the north on hilly terrain is also quite unusual for the Netherlands
27.
Harm Kamerlingh Onnes
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Harm Henrick Kamerlingh Onnes was a Dutch portrait painter and ceramist, who also produced designs for stamps and stained-glass windows. He is best known for the small, humorous vignettes of everyday life, Kamerlingh Onnes was born in Zoeterwoude in 1893. His father Menso Kamerlingh Onnes was a painter and member of the Hague School and he also gave him his first drawing and painting lessons. One of his uncles was the painter Floris Verster, and another uncle the physicist, in his early years from 1915 to 1925 his work was influenced by modernism. In 1918 he designed a number of abstract stained-glass windows for the Spark House, from 1925, he started to take the everyday reality as his subject, and from that time he only made figurative works. It was after a visit to the studio of Mondrian, that he had realized that art was not for him. Some of his designs for stained-glass windows have discoveries of physicists Pieter Zeeman, one of these stained-glass windows contained a portrait of Hendrik Lorentz and formulas devised by him that describe the behavior of electrons. Other stained-glass windows show the instruments to measure the splitting of spectral lines of atoms under the influence of a field is measured. He also made portraits of the physicists Albert Einstein and Paul Ehrenfest, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes characterized his artistic work with the phrase just messing around. Harm Henrick Kamerlingh Onnes,80 jaar, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes, Dirk A. Buiskool. De reis van Harm Kamerlingh Onnes, brieven uit de Oost, willem Baars, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes. arm Kamerlingh Onnes. Kamerlingh Onnes, Harm H. at the Netherlands Institute for Art History
28.
Floris Verster
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Floris Hendrik Verster was a Dutch painter. Verster came from an artistic family and his father, Abraham Florentius Verster van Wulverhorst, was an administrator of the National Museum of Natural History in Leiden and a renowned scholar and painter of birds. His younger brother Cees developed into an art critic and later a curator of the Stedelijk Museum De Lakenhal in Leiden, Hendrik took drawing lessons from Gerardus Johannes Bos and, in the winter of 1878-79, from George Hendrik Breitner when he briefly worked as a lecturer in Leiden. Between 1880 and 1884 Verster continued his training at the Royal Academy of Art in The Hague where he counted among his fellow-students George Hendrik Breitner, Isaac Israëls, after graduation, he briefly attended classes at Amedee Bourson in Brussels. From 1882-1892 he shared a studio in Leiden with his future brother-in-law, until about 1885 he worked in the style of the Hague School. The next seven years he experimented in still life painting under the influence of his brother-in-law and of French painters Antoine Vollon, as a colorist he excelled, his passionate color vision differing from the current Hague School style. In Brussels he met Jan Toorop and other members of the artists group Les Vingt. Partly under their influence Verster began working with a rough brush strokes and he gained success with his large and exuberant works of floral still lifes and landscapes. In 1891 he took part in the salon of Les XX in Brussels, between 1892 and 1900 his work underwent a metamorphosis as it became almost entirely devoted to drawings in crayons with serene subjects. From 1900 onwards he began to paint and established himself as a celebrated artist in the Netherlands, major collections of his works are in the Kröller-Müller Museum and the Stedelijk Museum De Lakenhal in Leiden. He died from an accident in 1927
29.
Experimental physics
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Experimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines in the field of physics that are concerned with the observation of physical phenomena and experiments. Methods vary from discipline to discipline, from experiments and observations, such as the Cavendish experiment, to more complicated ones. It is often put in contrast with theoretical physics, which is concerned with predicting and explaining the physical behaviour of nature than the acquisition of knowledge about it. Although experimental and theoretical physics are concerned with different aspects of nature, theoretical physics can also offer insight on what data is needed in order to gain a better understanding of the universe, and on what experiments to devise in order to obtain it. In the early 17th century, Galileo made extensive use of experimentation to validate physical theories, Galileo formulated and successfully tested several results in dynamics, in particular the law of inertia, which later became the first law in Newtons laws of motion. In Galileos Two New Sciences, a dialogue between the characters Simplicio and Salviati discuss the motion of a ship and how that ships cargo is indifferent to its motion. Huygens used the motion of a boat along a Dutch canal to illustrate a form of the conservation of momentum. Experimental physics is considered to have reached a point with the publication of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Sir Isaac Newton. Both theories agreed well with experiment, the Principia also included several theories in fluid dynamics. From the late 17th century onward, thermodynamics was developed by physicist and chemist Boyle, Young, in 1733, Bernoulli used statistical arguments with classical mechanics to derive thermodynamic results, initiating the field of statistical mechanics. In 1798, Thompson demonstrated the conversion of work into heat. Ludwig Boltzmann, in the century, is responsible for the modern form of statistical mechanics. Besides classical mechanics and thermodynamics, another field of experimental inquiry within physics was the nature of electricity. Observations in the 17th and eighteenth century by such as Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray. These observations also established our basic understanding of electrical charge and current, by 1808 John Dalton had discovered that atoms of different elements have different weights and proposed the modern theory of the atom. It was Hans Christian Ørsted who first proposed the connection between electricity and magnetism after observing the deflection of a needle by a nearby electric current. By the early 1830s Michael Faraday had demonstrated that magnetic fields, in 1864 James Clerk Maxwell presented to the Royal Society a set of equations that described this relationship between electricity and magnetism. Maxwells equations also predicted correctly that light is an electromagnetic wave, starting with astronomy, the principles of natural philosophy crystallized into fundamental laws of physics which were enunciated and improved in the succeeding centuries
30.
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
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The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences is an organization dedicated to the advancement of science and literature in the Netherlands. The Academy is housed in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam, the Academy advises the Dutch government on scientific matters. The Academy offers solicited and unsolicited advice to parliament, ministries, universities and research institutes, funding agencies, nominations for candidate membership by persons or organizations outside the Academy are accepted. The acceptance criterion is delivered scientific achievements, Academy membership is therefore regarded as a great honor, and prestigious. Besides regular members, there are members and corresponding members. Since a new system was introduced in 2011 there will be no new corresponding members. Each year a maximum of sixteen members is appointed to the Academy, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences has long embraced the entire field of learning. The Royal Academy comprises two departments, consisting of around 500 members, Science Humanities and Social Sciences Both departments have their own board, the departments, in turn, are divided into sections. The highest organ in the Academy is the meeting of members. The president was Frits van Oostrom until 1 May 2008, after which he was succeeded by Robbert Dijkgraaf, in March 2012, Hans Clevers was elected president and took office in June 2012. In 2015 he was succeeded by José van Dijck, during the French occupation of the Dutch Republic, it was founded as the Koninklijk Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letterkunde en Schoone Kunsten by Lodewijk Napoleon on May 4,1808. In 1816, after the occupation had ended, it was renamed to Koninklijk-Nederlandsch Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schoone Kunsten, in 1851 it was disbanded and re-established as the Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen and in 1938 obtained its present name. Since 1812 the Academy has resided in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam, the institute was awarded the Gouden Ganzenveer in 1955. De Jonge Akademie is a society of younger researchers, founded in 2005 as part of the KNAW. Ten members are elected each year for a term of five years, members are scientists between 25 and 45 years old and are selected for a record of excellence in their research. It was modelled after the similar German Junge Akademie, and both of these academies in turn were used as models for the Global Young Academy, Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, official website
31.
Lowest temperature recorded on Earth
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The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is −89.2 °C, which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements. On August 10,2010, satellite observations measured a temperature of −93.2 °C at 81. 8°S59. 3°E. The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco, in December 2013, it is a provisional figure, and may be subject to revision. The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers, unlike the 1983 record. The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface, while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice, however, it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok. On January 21,1838 a recording was made by the Russian merchant Neverov in Yakutsk, wild reported that a temperature of −68 °C was noted in Verkhoyansk. A later measurement at the place in February 1892 was reported as −69.8 °C. Soviet researchers later announced a recording of −67.6 °C, the next reliable measurement was made during the 1957 season at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica, yielding −73.6 °C on May 11 and −74.5 °C on September 17. A subsequent measurement of −88.3 °C, on August 24,1960, held the record until a temperature of −89.2 °C was measured at the Soviet Vostok Station, on the Antarctic Plateau and this remains the record for a directly recorded temperature. In 1904 Dutch scientist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes created a special lab in Leiden with the aim of producing liquid helium, in 1908 he managed to lower the temperature to less than −269 °C, which is less than four degrees above absolute zero. Only in this exceptionally cold state will helium liquefy, the point of helium being at −268.94 °C. Kamerlingh Onnes received a Nobel Prize for his achievement, Onnes method relied upon depressurising the subject gases, causing them to cool by adiabatic cooling. This follows from the first law of thermodynamics, Δ U = Δ Q − Δ W where U = internal energy, Q = heat added to the system, consider a gas in a box of set volume. If the pressure in the box is higher than atmospheric pressure, as this expansion is adiabatic and the gas has done work Δ Q =0 Δ W >0 ⇒ Δ U <0 Now as the internal energy has decreased, so has the temperature. As of November 2000, nuclear spin temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology Low Temperature Lab. However, this was the temperature of one type of motion—a quantum property called nuclear spin—not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees of freedom. At such low temperatures, the concept of temperature becomes multifaceted since molecular motion cannot be assumed to average out across degrees of freedom, Low Temperature Laboratory recorded a record low temperature of 100 pK, or 1.0 × 10−10 K in 1999. The current apparatus for achieving low temperatures has two stages, the first utilizes a helium dilution refrigerator to get to temperatures of millikelvins, then the next stage uses adiabatic nuclear demagnetisation to reach picokelvins
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Museum Boerhaave
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Museum Boerhaave is a museum of the history of science and medicine, based in Leiden, Netherlands. The museum hosts a collection of scientific instruments from all disciplines, but mainly from medicine, physics. The museum is located in a building that was originally a convent in central Leiden and it includes a reconstructed traditional anatomical theatre. Boerhaave Museums history began in 1907, when a Historical Exhibition of Natural Science, the many objects in the exhibition came from all the learned corners of the country. It was a success and there were immediately calls to set up a permanent science history exhibit. In 1928 a foundation was initiated by physicist Claude August Crommelin, the sciences to be represented included, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Pharmacy, all medical sciences - including Physiology, Anatomy et cetera, and Mathematics. In 1931 the museum opened as The Dutch Historical Museum of the Natural Sciences, in 1947 the museum, which was in fact a private foundation, became formally a national museum. It was renamed to The Dutch National Museum for the History of the Natural Sciences, an advisory board was installed in which members of Dutch universities would take seat. It underlined the ambition to become a museum, not a museum solely connected to the Leiden University. The plan was to merge collections of all institutes in one museum. This location of the now houses the National Museum of Ethnology. To create better housing the former nunnery of Saint Cecilia was bought by the Government Buildings Agency and this historic building has had various functions over time. The building dates from the early 15th century, the building had become municipal property after the Protestant Reformation and shortly before 1600 was converted into a pest house and lunatic asylum. The Leiden Academic hospital was founded in this location between 1636 and 1639, in 1967, with the prospect of a new location the name of the Museum was changed to Museum Boerhaave. However, it more than twenty years before the museum finally moved. After extensive restoration and expansion, the building is in use as a museum since 1991, the Boerhaave Museum is running a project to document approx. 3000 objects in its online, with pictures and descriptions for every single object. In April 2010 the site featured over 1750 objects, ordered by room and this overview is in large part based on the museums online documentation
33.
Mercury (element)
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Mercury is a chemical element with symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum, Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar. The red pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide, likewise, mechanical pressure gauges and electronic strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury sphygmomanometers. Mercury remains in use in research applications and in amalgam for dental restoration in some locales. It is used in fluorescent lighting, electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making visible light. Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury, Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white liquid metal. Compared to other metals, it is a conductor of heat. It has a point of −38.83 °C and a boiling point of 356.73 °C. Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3. 59%, the coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10−6 at 0 °C,181.71 × 10−6 at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10−6 at 100 °C. Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife, because this configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gases, which form weak bonds and hence melt at low temperatures. The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell, an f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus. Like silver, mercury reacts with hydrogen sulfide. Mercury reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury, Mercury dissolves many other metals such as gold and silver to form amalgams. Iron is an exception, and iron flasks have traditionally used to trade mercury. Several other first row transition metals with the exception of manganese, copper, other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum. Sodium amalgam is a reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact, since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth, even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft, Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement
34.
Tin
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Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn and atomic number 50. It is a metal in group 14 of the periodic table. It is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite, which contains tin dioxide, Tin shows a chemical similarity to both of its neighbors in group 14, germanium and lead, and has two main oxidation states, +2 and the slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable isotopes, metallic tin is not easily oxidized in air. The first alloy used on a scale was bronze, made of tin and copper. After 600 BC, pure metallic tin was produced, pewter, which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony, and lead, was used for flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times, tin is used in alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders. Another large application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel, inorganic tin compounds are rather non-toxic. Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated metal was used for packaging as tin cans. However, overexposure to tin may cause problems with metabolizing essential trace elements such as copper and zinc, Tin is a soft, malleable, ductile and highly crystalline silvery-white metal. When a bar of tin is bent, a sound known as the tin cry can be heard from the twinning of the crystals. Tin melts at the low temperature of about 232 °C, the lowest in group 14, the melting point is further lowered to 177.3 °C for 11 nm particles. β-tin, which is stable at and above room temperature, is malleable, in contrast, α-tin, which is stable below 13.2 °C, is brittle. α-tin has a cubic crystal structure, similar to diamond. α-tin has no properties at all because its atoms form a covalent structure in which electrons cannot move freely. It is a dull-gray powdery material with no common uses other than a few specialized semiconductor applications and these two allotropes, α-tin and β-tin, are more commonly known as gray tin and white tin, respectively. Two more allotropes, γ and σ, exist at temperatures above 161 °C, in cold conditions, β-tin tends to transform spontaneously into α-tin, a phenomenon known as tin pest. Commercial grades of tin resist transformation because of the effect of the small amounts of bismuth, antimony, lead
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Lead
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Lead is a chemical element with atomic number 82 and symbol Pb. When freshly cut, it is bluish-white, it tarnishes to a dull gray upon exposure to air and it is a soft, malleable, and heavy metal with a density exceeding that of most common materials. Lead has the second-highest atomic number of the stable elements. Lead is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal and its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature and tendency to form covalent bonds. Compounds of lead are found in the +2 oxidation state. Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds, like the lighter members of the group, lead exhibits a tendency to bond to itself, it can form chains, rings, and polyhedral structures. Lead is easily extracted from its ores and was known to people in Western Asia. A principal ore of lead, galena, often bears silver, Lead production declined after the fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels again until the Industrial Revolution. Nowadays, global production of lead is about ten million tonnes annually, Lead has several properties that make it useful, high density, low melting point, ductility, and relative inertness to oxidation. In the late 19th century, lead was recognized as poisonous, Lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones, damaging the nervous system and causing brain disorders and, in mammals, blood disorders. A lead atom has 82 electrons, arranged in a configuration of 4f145d106s26p2. The combined first and second ionization energies—the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of tin, leads upper neighbor in group 14. This is unusual since ionization energies generally fall going down a group as an elements outer electrons become more distant from the nucleus, the similarity is caused by the lanthanide contraction—the decrease in element radii from lanthanum to lutetium, and the relatively small radii of the elements after hafnium. The contraction is due to shielding of the nucleus by the lanthanide 4f electrons. The combined first four ionization energies of lead exceed those of tin, for this reason lead, unlike tin, mostly forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of +2, rather than +4. Relativistic effects, which become particularly prominent at the bottom of the periodic table, as a result, the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, a phenomenon called the inert pair effect. A related outcome is that the distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead is unusually long, the lighter group 14 elements form stable or metastable allotropes having the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic structure. The energy levels of their outer s- and p-orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four hybrid sp3 orbitals
36.
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
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William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, OM, GCVO, PC, FRS, FRSE was a Scots-Irish mathematical physicist and engineer who was born in Belfast in 1824. He worked closely with mathematics professor Hugh Blackburn in his work and he also had a career as an electric telegraph engineer and inventor, which propelled him into the public eye and ensured his wealth, fame and honour. For his work on the telegraph project he was knighted in 1866 by Queen Victoria. He had extensive maritime interests and was most noted for his work on the mariners compass, absolute temperatures are stated in units of kelvin in his honour. He was ennobled in 1892 in recognition of his achievements in thermodynamics and he was the first British scientist to be elevated to the House of Lords. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which close by his laboratory at the University of Glasgow. His home was the red sandstone mansion Netherhall, in Largs. William Thomsons father, James Thomson, was a teacher of mathematics and engineering at Royal Belfast Academical Institution, James Thomson married Margaret Gardner in 1817 and, of their children, four boys and two girls survived infancy. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six years old, William and his elder brother James were tutored at home by their father while the younger boys were tutored by their elder sisters. James was intended to benefit from the share of his fathers encouragement, affection. In 1832, his father was appointed professor of mathematics at Glasgow, the Thomson children were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their fathers rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 in London and the boys were tutored in French in Paris. Mid-1840 was spent in Germany and the Netherlands, language study was given a high priority. His sister, Anna Thomson, was the mother of James Thomson Bottomley FRSE, Thomson had heart problems and nearly died when he was 9 years old. In school, Thomson showed a keen interest in the classics along with his natural interest in the sciences, at the age of 12 he won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosatas Dialogues of the Gods from Latin to English. In the academic year 1839/1840, Thomson won the prize in astronomy for his Essay on the figure of the Earth which showed an early facility for mathematical analysis. Throughout his life, he would work on the problems raised in the essay as a strategy during times of personal stress. On the title page of this essay Thomson wrote the lines from Alexander Popes Essay on Man. These lines inspired Thomson to understand the world using the power and method of science, Go
37.
Electron
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The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e− or β−, with a negative elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, the electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the include a intrinsic angular momentum of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant. As it is a fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of particles and waves, they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. Since an electron has charge, it has an electric field. Electromagnetic fields produced from other sources will affect the motion of an electron according to the Lorentz force law, electrons radiate or absorb energy in the form of photons when they are accelerated. Laboratory instruments are capable of trapping individual electrons as well as electron plasma by the use of electromagnetic fields, special telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer space. Electrons are involved in applications such as electronics, welding, cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers, gaseous ionization detectors. Interactions involving electrons with other particles are of interest in fields such as chemistry. The Coulomb force interaction between the positive protons within atomic nuclei and the negative electrons without, allows the composition of the two known as atoms, ionization or differences in the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the binding energy of an atomic system. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the cause of chemical bonding. In 1838, British natural philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of a quantity of electric charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms. Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney named this charge electron in 1891, electrons can also participate in nuclear reactions, such as nucleosynthesis in stars, where they are known as beta particles. Electrons can be created through beta decay of isotopes and in high-energy collisions. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron, it is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical, when an electron collides with a positron, both particles can be totally annihilated, producing gamma ray photons. The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur, along with lightning, this phenomenon is one of humanitys earliest recorded experiences with electricity. In his 1600 treatise De Magnete, the English scientist William Gilbert coined the New Latin term electricus, both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum, which came from the Greek word for amber, ἤλεκτρον
