1.
Vikram Samvat
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Vikram Samvat Nepali, नेपाली पात्रो, Listen ) is an era used in India and Nepal, just like the Christian era started in 1 CE. The Vikram Samvat started in 58/57 BCE in southern and 57/56 BCE in northern systems of Hindu calendar, the era is named after king Vikramaditya. The Vikram Samvat calendar is 56.7 years ahead of the solar Gregorian calendar, for example, the year 2073 BS began in 2016 CE and will end in 2017 CE. The new year begins with the first day of month Baishakh, the first day of the new year is passionately celebrated in a historical carnival that takes place every year in Bhaktapur, called Bisket Jatra. The Rana rulers of Nepal made it their official calendar, there have been calls for the Vikram Samvat to replace Saka as Indias official calendar. The classical Vikram Samvat uses lunar months and solar sidereal years, because 12 months do not match a sidereal year exactly, correctional months are added or occasionally subtracted. A Tithi or lunar day is defined as the time it takes for the angle between the moon and the Sun to increase by 12°. Tithis begin at varying times of day and vary in duration from approximately 19 to approximately 26 hours, a Paksa or lunar fortnight consists of 15 tithis. According to popular tradition, the legendary king Vikramaditya of Ujjain established the Vikrama Samvat era after defeating the Śakas. Kalakacharya Kathanaka by the Jain sage Mahesarasuri gives the account, Gandharvasena, the then-powerful king of Ujjain, abducted a nun called Sarasvati. The enraged monk sought the help of the Śaka ruler King Sahi in Sistan, despite heavy odds but aided by miracles, the Śaka king defeated Gandharvasena and made him a captive. Sarasvati was repatriated, although Gandharvasena himself was forgiven, the defeated king retired to the forest, where he was killed by a tiger. His son, Vikramaditya, being brought up in the forest, had to rule from Pratishthana, later on, Vikramaditya invaded Ujjain and drove away the Śakas. To commemorate this event, he started a new era called the Vikrama era, the Ujjain calendar started around 56-58 BCE, and the subsequent Shaka era calendar was started in 78 CE at Pratishthana. The association of the era beginning in 57 BCE with Vikramaditya is not found in any source before the 9th century CE, the earlier sources call this era by various names, including Kṛṭa, Kritaa, the era of the Malava tribe, or simply, Samvat. The earliest known inscription that calls the era Vikrama is from 842 CE and this inscription of Chauhana ruler Chandamahasena was found at Dholpur, and is dated Vikrama Samvat 898, Vaishakha Shukla 2, Chanda. The earliest known inscription that associates this era with a king called Vikramaditya is dated 971 CE, the earliest literary work that connects the era to Vikramaditya is Subhashita-Ratna-Sandoha by the Jain author Amitagati. V. A. Smith and D. R. Bhandarkar believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title Vikramaditya, earlier, some scholars believed that the Vikrama Samavat corresponded to the Azes era of the Indo-Scythian king King Azes
2.
Jainism
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Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. The central tenet is non-violence and respect all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada and aparigraha, followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha. Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders observe them within their practical limitations, self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. The word Jain derives from the Sanskrit word jina, a human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism. Jains trace their history through a succession of teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira, Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time. The majority of Jains reside in India, with 6-7 million followers, Jainism is smaller than many other major world religions. Outside of India, some of the largest Jain communities are present in Canada, Europe, Kenya, the UK, Suriname, Fiji, contemporary Jainism is divided into two major sects, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Namokar Mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism, major Jain festivals include Paryushana and Daslakshana, Mahavir Jayanti, and Diwali. The principle of ahimsa is the most fundamental and well-known aspect of Jainism, the everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in avoiding harm to others thoughts, speech. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā, Jains extend the practice of nonviolence and kindness not only towards other humans but towards all living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, if there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products, veganism is encouraged. Jainism has an elaborate framework on types of life and includes life-forms that may be invisible. Therefore, after humans and animals, insects are the living being offered protection in Jain practice. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed, Jainism teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent
3.
Dhandhuka
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Dhandhuka is a city and a municipality in Ahmedabad district in the state of Gujarat, India. No specific year is mentioned in Rasmala by Alexander Kinloch Forbes, having no son, Dhan Mehd is said to have given the town as a Krishna, or lasting, gift to a party of 400 Brahman refugees from the wrath of Ebhal Walo, chief of Wala. According to another account, the town is said to be called after Shri Dhandhiu of the Chaulukya dynasty who married the daughter of Mularaja Chaulukyas predecessor. In the twelfth century Dhandhuka became famous as the birthplace of the great Jain teacher Hemchandra, under the Muslims and Marathas, Dhandhuka kept its position as a country town, its fortune being almost always linked with the fortune of Dholka. Along with Dholka it was ceded to the British in 1802, Dhandhuka is located at 22. 37°N71. 98°E /22.37,71.98. It has an elevation of 24 metres. Dhandhuka is located at 22°22′N 71°59′E /22. 37°N71. 98°E /22.37,71.98. It has an elevation of 24 metres. As of 2001 India census, Dhandhuka had a population of 29,555, males constitute 52% of the population and females 48%. Dhandhuka has an literacy rate of 66%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 75% and. In Dhandhuka, 13% of the population is under 6 years of age, the city is 105 km from District center Ahmedabad, on state highway to Bhavnagar. The great Jain saint Acharya Shri Hemchandracharya born in 1088 A. D. into the Modha Vanik caste, in the town of Dhandhuka, sixty miles from the city Ahmedabad in Gujarat State. And he died in 1173 A. D. The Chudasama Rajput Was a Certain Ruler of Junagadh, pujya Shree Punit Maharaj is also from Dhandhuka. The city has a population of more than 50,000, one Shri Kikani Arts and Commerce College and Three High School are in the Town. The popular professions in the city working for the automobile dealership, telecommunication dealership, insurance companies. RMS Hospital, one of Gujarats biggest hospitals, opened in 2007, receiving its funding in part from some local donors. Common plants grown include cotton and wheat, there is a small industrial estate developed in the city known as G. I. D. C. Gujarat Industrial Development Corporation, few entrepreneurs have established their small scale industries here
4.
Patan, Gujarat
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Patan, an ancient fortified town, was founded in 745 AD by Vanraj Chavda, the most prominent king of the Chavda Kingdom. He named the city Anhilpur Patan or Anhilwad Patan after his close friend, Patan was established by the Chapotkata ruler Vanaraja in 8th century as Anahilapataka. During 10th-13th century, the city served as the capital of the Chaulukyas, historian Tertius Chandler estimates that Anhilwara was the tenth-largest city in the world in the year 1000, with a population of approximately 100,000. Muhammeds general and later Sultan of Delhi Qutb-ud-din Aybak sacked the city between 1200 and 1210, and it was destroyed by the Allauddin Khilji in 1298, the modern town of Patan later sprung up near the ruins of Anhilwara. During 1304 to 1411, first Patan was the Suba headquarter of Delhi Sultanate, a new fort was built by these Subas, a large portion of which is still intact. The old fort of the Hindu kingdom is nearly vanquished and only a wall can be seen on the way from Kalka to Rani ki vav, in 1411, Sultan Ahmed Shah moved the capital to Ahmedabad. Patan was part of the Baroda state from the century until Indias independence in 1947, when Baroda became part of Bombay state. During the period of the Chaulukya dynasty or Solankis of Patan and it is a richly-sculptured monument, built by Udaymati in memory of her husband, Bhima I. It was probably completed by Udaymati and Karna after his death, a reference to Udaymati building the monument is in the Prabandha Chintamani composed by Merutunga Suri in 1304 AD. It was one of the largest and the most sumptuous structures of its type and it became silted up and much of it is not visible, except for some rows of sculptured panels in the circular part of the well. Among its ruins one pillar still stands which is proof of the elegance of its design, a part of the west well is extant from which it appears that the wall had been built of brick and faced with stone. From this wall project vertical bracket in pairs, this supported the galleries of the well shaft proper and this bracketing is arranged in tiers and is richly carved. There is a small gate below the last step of the well which has a 30 km tunnel which leads to the town of Sidhpur near Patan. It was used as a gateway for king who built the step well in the times of defeat. This stepwell is the oldest and the deepest among the 120 other stepwell in Gujarat, the sculpture of Rani ki vav depicting Lord Vishnus avatars, Hindu Goddesses, Jain idols and their ancestors. Most of the sculpture is in devotion to Vishnu, in the forms of his avatars, around 50–60 years back there used to be ayurvedic plants around this areas which causes the water accumulated in Rani ni vav to be helpful for viral disease, fever. It was included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites on 22 June 2014, Patan is home to the Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University named after the famous polymath Acharya Hemachandra. It was previously known as North Gujarat University, there are many schools and colleges in Patan
5.
Khambhat
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Khambhat (Gujarati, ખંભાત, Hindi, खंभात, also known as Cambay, is a town and the surrounding urban agglomeration in Khambhat Taluka, Anand district in the Indian state of Gujarat. It was once an important trading center, but its harbour silted up. Khambhat lies on a plain at the north end of the Gulf of Khambhat, noted for the extreme rise and fall of its tides. Khambhat is known for its halvasan, sutarfeni and kites, and though being a part of sources of oil and gas. Khambat is perhaps the place in India, where the Harappan craft – the agate bead making is found in the living tradition. Surprisingly Khambat has no stone deposit, but the craft has survived mainly through acquiring stones from the Rajpipla hills, about 200 km away from the town. In the folklore of Khambat the beginning of the craft is attributed to Baba Ghor, however, in the archaeological record the origin of the craft can be traced to the nearby Lothal, a Harappan outpost flourished about 4000 years ago. Cambay was formerly a city, the seat of an extensive trade. The Arab traveler al-Masudi visited the city in 915 AD, describing it as a successful port, it was mentioned in 1293 by Marco Polo. He mentions that the city had its own king, indigo and fine buckram were particular products of the region, but much cotton and leather was exported through Cambay. A contemporary Italian traveler, Marino Sanudo, said that Cambeth was one of India’s main two ocean ports, another Italian, visiting in about 1440, Niccolò de Conti, mentions that the walls of the city were twelve miles in circumference. The Kothi gateway believed to be constructed by the English factory is in fact a 14th century gate, probably dating to 1330s, the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa visited the city, which he calls Cambaia, in the early sixteenth century. His description of the city is full, he states, Entering by Cuindarim. It has many houses, very high with windows. The streets are laid out well, with pretty squares and large buildings and he describes the city as very busy and affluent, with merchants coming frequently by sea from the world around. Owing principally to the increasing difficulty of access by water by the silting up of the gulf, its commerce has long since fallen away. The spring tides rise upwards of 30 ft and in a channel usually so shallow that it is a danger to shipping. By 1900, the trade was confined to the export of cotton
6.
Bhaktamara Stotra
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Bhaktamara Stotra is a famous Jain sanskrit prayer. It was composed by Acharya Manatunga, the name Bhaktamara comes from a combination of two sanskrit names, Bhakta and Amar. The prayer praises Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara of Jainism, there are forty-eight verses in total. The last verse gives the name of the author Manatunga, Bhaktamar verses have been recited as a stotra, and sung as a stavan, somewhat interchangeably. Other Jain prayers have taken after these, additional verses here praise the omniscience of Adinatha, according to legends, the Jain monk Manatunga was chained and imprisoned by the local King Bhoja. The shasandevi yakshi Chakreshvari of Bhagwan Adinath appeared before Acharya Manatunga, mantungacharya composed this stotra in the prison. With the completion of each verse, a broke, or a door opened. Manatunga was free all the verses were finished. Legends associate Manatunga with a ruler named Bhoja, however Manatunga probably lived a few centuries before Raja Bhoja of Dhara. He is identified by scholars as Kshapanaka, one of the Navaratnas in the court of legendary Vikramaditya. An unidentified Sanskrit poet Matanga, composer of Brahaddeshi on music theory, Bhaktamara stotra was composed sometime in the Gupta or the post-Gupta period, making Manatunga approximately contemporary with other navaratnas like Kalidasa and Varahamihira. Several spots near Bhopal and Dhar are traditionally associated with Manatunga, Bhaktamara Stotra is believed to be at least a thousand years old, though many believe it to be still older. Bhaktamara Stotra has been passed down generation to generation. The importance and effectiveness is believed to have increased with the passage of time, Bhaktamara Stotra is recited by many with religious regularity. The original Stotra is in Sanskrit and written in Devnagiri script, the Bhaktamar Stotra has 48 stanzas. The complete panegyric is formed by 2888 letters and it is said that some specific stanzas are miraculously effective for fulfilment of different purposes. Bhaktamara stotra is widely illustrated in paintings, at the Sanghiji temple at Sanganer, there is a panel illustrating each verse. The verses of Bhaktamar are thought to possess magical properties, a mystical diagram, yantra, is associated with each verse
7.
Namokar Mantra
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Ṇamōkāra mantra is the most significant mantra in Jainism. This is the first prayer recited by the Jains while meditating, the mantra is also variously referred to as the Pancha Namaskāra Mantra, Navakāra Mantra or Namaskāra Mantra. The prayer is done towards the guṇa of the gods, teachers, Jains do not ask for any favors or material benefits from the tirthankaras or monastics. This mantra simply serves as a gesture of respect towards beings whom they believe are spiritually ahead. Navkar Mantra consists of 68 /69 alphabets A162 BCE inscription and it was inscribed by the Jain monarch Kharavela. Besides, meditate on and chant other mantras as per the teachings of the Preceptor
8.
Anekantavada
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It is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism. Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim the sole monopoly on truth with andhagajanyāyah, which can be illustrated through the parable of the blind men, in this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant. All the men claimed to understand and explain the appearance of the elephant. According to the Jains, only the Kevalis—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations, consequently, no single, specific, human view can claim to represent absolute truth. The origins of anekāntavāda can be traced back to the teachings of Mahāvīra, the dialectical concepts of syādvāda conditioned viewpoints and nayavāda partial viewpoints arose from anekāntavāda, providing it with more detailed logical structure and expression. The Sanskrit compound an-eka-anta-vāda literally means doctrine of uncertainty (an- not, ekānta certainty or single-natured, vāda, an-ekānta uncertainty, non-exclusivity is the opposite of ekānta exclusiveness, absoluteness, necessity. Anekāntavāda encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals, the principle of anekāntavāda also influenced Mahatma Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance, ahiṃsā and satyagraha. The etymological root of anekāntavāda lies in the compound of two Sanskrit words, anekānta and vāda, the word anekānta is a compound of the Sanskrit negative prefix an, eka, and anta. Hence, anekānta means not of solitary attribute, the Jain doctrine lays a strong emphasis on samyaktva, that is, rationality and logic. According to Jains, the principle should always be logical. Thus, the Jain texts contain deliberative exhortations on every subject, whether they are constructive or obstructive, inferential or analytical, Anekāntavāda is one of the three Jain doctrines of relativity used for logic and reasoning. The other two are, syādvāda—the theory of conditioned predication and, nayavāda—the theory of partial standpoints and these Jain philosophical concepts made important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy, especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity. -, i. e. generally by prefacing each sentence with the verb syāt, the optative conveys uncertainty, questioning or conditionality. According to Jain texts, a thing or object of knowledge has infinite characters, each individual character is called a naya. Jains asserts that a naya reveals only a part of the totality, a synthesis of different viewpoints is said to be achieved by the doctrine of conditional predications wherein every viewpoint is able to retain its relative importance. Highlighting the indispensability of syādvāda, Acharya Samantabhadra asserts, Affirmation, only when affirmation and negation are juxtaposed in mutually non-conflicting situation, one is able to decide whether to accept or reject the assertion. This is how the doctrine of conditional predications establishes the truth. ”Syādvāda is not only an extension of anekānta ontology, as reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus syāt should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a point of view
9.
Jain cosmology
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Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe and its constituents according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe, as an entity, existing since infinity. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and this Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. It is characterised by chetana and upayoga, though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearing of another state, ajīva Pudgala - Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter i. e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and indestructible, Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed, dharma-dravya and Adharma-dravya - Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe, dharma and Adharma are by itself not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe, Ākāśa - Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points, Kāla - Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain text, Dravyasaṃgraha, Conventional time is perceived by the senses through the transformations and modifications of substances, real time, however, is the cause of imperceptible, minute changes that go on incessantly in all substances. The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on natural laws. The existence of a deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain doctrine. The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajju high and its breadth is seven Rajjus at the bottom and decreases gradually till the middle where it is one Rajju. The width then increases gradually till it is five Rajju and again till it is one Rajju. The apex of the universe is one Rajju long, one Rajju wide, the total space of the world is thus 343 cubic Rajju. The svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is constant increase and decrease in the breadth, apart from the apex which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts
10.
Ahimsa in Jainism
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Ahimsā in Jainism is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term ahimsa means nonviolence, non-injury or absence of desire to harm any life forms, vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahimsa. The Jain concept of ahimsa is very different from the concept of found in other philosophies. Violence is usually associated with causing harm to others, but according to the Jain philosophy, violence refers primarily to injuring ones own self – behaviour which inhibits the souls own ability to attain moksha. At the same time it also means violence to others because it is this tendency to harm others that ultimately harms ones own soul. Furthermore, the Jains extend the concept of not only to humans but to all animals, plants, micro-organisms. All life is sacred and everyone has a right to live fearlessly to its maximum potential, the living beings do not have any fear from those who have taken the vow of ahimsa. According to Jainism, protection of life, also known as abhayadānam, is the charity that a person can make. Ahimsa does not merely indicate absence of violence, but also indicates absence of desire to indulge in any sort of violence. Jains have strongly advocated vegetarianism and nonviolence throughout the ages, Ahimsa being central to the Jain philosophy, Jain Ācāryas have produced, through ages, quite elaborate and detailed doctrinal materials concerning its various aspects. According to Aidan Rankin, the concept of ahimsa is very much intertwined with Jainism, Jain texts expound that there are ten vitalities or life-principles, these are, the five senses, energy, respiration, life-duration, the organ of speech, and the mind. Living beings are classified on the basis of their sensory organs, According to Jain texts, The one-sensed lives possess four vitalities – sense organ of touch, strength of body or energy, respiration, and life-duration. The two-sensed beings have six, namely the sense of taste, the three-sensed beings have seven with the addition of the sense of smell. The four-sensed beings have eight with the addition of the sense of sight, the five- sensed beings without mind have nine life-principles with the addition of the sense of hearing. Those endowed with mind are said to have ten vitalities with the addition of the mind, According to Tattvarthasutra, a major Jain text, the severance of vitalities out of passion is injury. Therefore, the higher the number of senses and vitalities a being has, out of the five types of living beings, a householder is forbidden to kill, or destroy, intentionally, all except the lowest. But, the ascetic is required to avoid injuring the one-sensed form of life to the best of his ability. Hence Jainism enjoins its adherents to completely avoid violence to higher-sensed beings, in Jainism, both ascetics and householders have to follow five major vows
11.
Karma in Jainism
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Karma is the basic principle within an overarching psycho-cosmology in Jainism. Human moral actions form the basis of the transmigration of the soul, the soul is constrained to a cycle of rebirth, trapped within the temporal world, until it finally achieves liberation. Liberation is achieved by following a path of purification, Karma not only encompasses the causality of transmigration, but is also conceived of as an extremely subtle matter, which infiltrates the soul—obscuring its natural, transparent and pure qualities. Karma is thought of as a kind of pollution, that taints the soul with various colours, based on its karma, a soul undergoes transmigration and reincarnates in various states of existence—like heavens or hells, or as humans or animals. Jains cite inequalities, sufferings, and pain as evidence for the existence of karma, various types of karma are classified according to their effects on the potency of the soul. The Jain theory seeks to explain the process by specifying the various causes of karmic influx and bondage, placing equal emphasis on deeds themselves. The Jain karmic theory attaches great responsibility to individual actions, the Jain doctrine also holds that it is possible for us to both modify our karma, and to obtain release from it, through the austerities and purity of conduct. According to Jains, all souls are pure in their inherent and ideal state, possessing the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss. However, in experience, these qualities are found to be defiled and obstructed. The soul has been associated with karma in this way throughout an eternity of beginningless time and this bondage of the soul is explained in the Jain texts by analogy with gold ore, which—in its natural state—is always found unrefined of admixture with impurities. Similarly, the pure state of the soul has always been overlaid with the impurities of karma. This analogy with gold ore is also taken one step further, Jainism speaks of karmic dirt, as karma is thought to be manifest as very subtle and microscopically imperceptible particles pervading the entire universe. They are so small that one space-point—the smallest possible extent of space—contains an infinite number of karmic particles and it is these karmic particles that adhere to the soul and affect its natural potency. This material karma is called dravya karma, and the resultant emotions—pleasure, pain, love, hatred, the relationship between the material and psychic karma is that of cause and effect. The material karma gives rise to the feelings and emotions in worldly souls, which—in turn—give rise to psychic karma and these emotions, yet again, result in influx and bondage of fresh material karma. Jains hold that the matter is actually an agent that enables the consciousness to act within the material context of this universe. They are the carrier of a souls desire to physically experience this world. When attracted to the consciousness, they are stored in an interactive karmic field called kārmaṇa śarīra, thus, karma is a subtle matter surrounding the consciousness of a soul
12.
Moksha (Jainism)
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Sanskrit moksha or Prakrit mokkha means liberation or salvation. It is a state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from saṃsāra. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge, such a soul is called siddha and is revered in Jainism. In Jainism, it is the highest and the noblest objective that a soul should strive to achieve, in fact, it is the only objective that a person should have, other objectives are contrary to the true nature of soul. With the right view, knowledge and efforts all souls can attain this state and that is why Jainism is also known as mokṣamārga or the path to liberation. According to the Sacred Jain Text, Tattvartha sutra, Owing to the absence of the cause of bondage, from the point of view of potentiality of mokṣa, Jain texts bifurcates the souls in two categories–bhavya and abhavya. Bhavya souls are those souls who have faith in mokṣa and hence will make some efforts to achieve liberation and this potentiality or quality is called bhavyata. However, bhavyata itself does not guarantee mokṣa, as the needs to expend necessary efforts to attain it. On the other hand, abhavya souls are those souls who cannot attain liberation as they do not have faith in mokṣa, according to Jainism, the Ratnatraya or three Gems, samyagdarśana, samyagjñāna and samyakcāritra, together constitute the mokṣamarga or the path to liberation. According to Acharya KundaKundas Samayasara, Belief in the nine substances as they are is right faith, Knowledge of these substances without doubt, delusion or misapprehension, is right knowledge. Being free from attachment etc. is right conduct and these three, together, constitute the path to liberation. Samyak Darsana or rational perception is the faith in the true nature of every substance of the universe. Samyak Caritra or rational conduct is the conduct of a living being. It consists in following austerities, engaging in activities and observance of vows, carefulness. Once a soul secures samyaktva, mokṣa is assured within a few lifetimes, the fourteen stages on the path to liberation are called Gunasthāna. These are, Those who pass the last stage are called siddha and become established in Right Faith, Right Knowledge. Nirvāna means final release from the karmic bondage, when an enlightened human, such as an Arhat or a Tirthankara, extinguishes his remaining aghatiya karmas and thus ends his worldly existence, it is called nirvāna. Technically, the death of an Arhat is called their nirvāṇa, as he has ended his worldly existence, however, the terms moksa and nirvana are often used interchangeably in the Jain texts
13.
Kevala Jnana
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Kevala jñāna means omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated as absolute knowledge or supreme knowledge. Kevala jnana is believed to be a quality of all souls. This quality is masked by karmic particles that surround the soul, every soul has the potential to obtain omniscience by shedding off these karmic particles. Jain scriptures speak of stages through which the soul achieves this goal. A soul who has attained kevala jnana is called a kevalin According to the Jains, only kevalins can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations, the views of two sects of Jainism, Digambara and Śvētāmbara Jains differ on the subject of kevalins. According to Digambaras, a kevalin does not experience hunger or thirst, whereas according to Svetambaras, According to both traditions, the last kevalin was a disciple of one of the eleven chief disciples of the last tirthankara, Mahāvīra, his name is recorded as Jambuswami. It is also believed that no one after Jambuswami will have the ability to obtain kevala jnana, the claim of existence of omniscience by Jains, who deny the existence of a creator god, is a unique phenomenon. The Sutrakritanga text of the Svetambara school, elaborates the concept as all-knowing, immediately after the death of Mahavira, his disciple Indrabhuti Gautama became a kevalin. As per the tradition, the teachings of the tirthankara were memorized and preserved over many centuries, in the second Upanga Agama, the Rājapraśnīya, there is a dialogue between Kesi, a disciple of Pārśva, and Payasi, a materialist king. In this dialogue, Kesi proves the existence of jiva and its ability to obtain kevala jñana to the king, the Jains have a long debate with Hindus and Buddhists regarding omniscience. Bhikkhu Dhamakriti criticized the Jain notion of omniscience in his Pramanavartika, the Hindu philosopher Kumarila argued that only Veda had the authority to define human moral values since they were beginningless, authorless and of self-sufficient validity. In response, the Jain monk Haribhadra wrote that already had knowledge of everything knowable. It only had to be illuminated or uncovered, omniscience was, according to Haribhadra, inherent to living beings. The one who perceives directly the objects of knowledge that are minute, past, and distant is the Omniscient, akalanka put forward the concept of suniscita-asambhavad-badhaka-pramana as a reason for the existence of omniscience. This concept is a fact which is we have no valid methods of knowing to deny the existence of omniscience. Hemacandra combined Samantabhadra and Akalankas ideas of sarvajña in his Pramanamimasa to establish the existence of omniscience, in Jain epistemology, there are two kinds of valid methods of knowledge, pratyakṣa or direct knowledge and parokṣa or indirect knowledge. Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with Anekantavada, which can be explained through the parable of the blind men, in this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant. All the men claimed to understand and explain the appearance of the elephant
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Ethics of Jainism
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Jain ethical code prescribes two dharmas or rules of conduct. One for those who wish to become ascetic and another for the śrāvaka, five fundamental vows are prescribed for both votaries. These vows are observed by śrāvakas partially and are termed as anuvratas, ascetics observe these fives vows more strictly and therefore observe complete abstinence. Falsehood etc. have been mentioned only to make the disciple understand through illustrations. Apart from five main vows, a householder is expected to observe seven supplementary vows, mahavrata are the five fundamental observed by the Jain ascetics. Ahimsa is formalised into Jain doctrine as the first and foremost vow, according to the Jain text, Tattvarthsutra, The severance of vitalities out of passion is injury. Not to lie or speak what is not commendable, the underlying cause of falsehood is passion and therefore, it is said to cause hiṃsā. According to the Jain text, Sarvārthasiddhi, that causes pain and suffering to the living is not commendable. The fourth great vow of asceticism is concerned with abrahma, brahmacharya refers to the self-control in respect of sex-function. It means avoiding all the kinds of natural and unnatural sex-gratification, according to Tattvarthsutra, Infatuation is attachment to possessions. Jain texts mentions that attachment to possessions is of two kinds, attachment to internal possessions, and attachment to external possessions, according to Jain texts, both internal and external possessions are proved to be hiṃsā. Apart from five fundamental vows seven supplementary vows are prescribed for a śrāvaka and these include three guņa vratas and four śikşā vratas. The vow of sallekhanâ is observed by the votary at the end of his life and it is prescribed both for the ascetics and householders. Digvrata- restriction on movement with regard to directions, bhogopabhogaparimana- vow of limiting consumable and non-consumable things Anartha-dandaviramana- refraining from harmful occupations and activities. Samayika- vow to meditate and concentrate periodically, desavrata- limiting movement to certain places for a fixed period of time. Atihti samvibhag- Vow of offering food to the ascetic and needy people, an ascetic or householder who has observed all the prescribed vows to shed the karmas, takes the vow of sallekhanā at the end of his life. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, sallekhana enable a householder to carry with him his wealth of piety, there are five, five transgressions respectively for the vows and the supplementary vows. Institute of Indology, This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain
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Sallekhana
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Sallekhana is the last vow prescribed by the Jain ethical code of conduct. The vow of sallekhana is observed by the Jain ascetics and lay votaries at the end of their life by reducing the intake of food. Sallekhana is allowed when normal life according to religion is not possible due to old age and it is a highly respected practice among the members of the Jain community. According to Jain texts, sallekhana leads to ahimsā, as a person observing sallekhana subjugates the passions, in 2015, the Rajasthan High Court banned the practice, calling it suicide. On 31 August 2015, the Supreme Court of India stayed the decision of the Rajasthan High Court, Sallekhana is made up from two words sal and lekhana, which means to thin out. Properly thinning out of the passions and the body is sallekhana, Sallekhana is prescribed both for householders and ascetics. In Jainism, both ascetics and householders have to follow five fundamental vows, ascetics must observe complete abstinence and their vows are thus called mahavratas, the vows of the laity are called anuvratas. Jain ethical code also prescribes seven supplementary vows, which include three guņa vratas and four śikşā vratas, an ascetic or householder who has observed all the vows prescribed to shed the karmas, takes the vow of sallekhana at the end of his life. According to the Jain text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, sallekhana enable a householder to carry with him his wealth of piety, Sallekhana is treated as a supplementary to the twelve vows taken by Jains. However, some Jain Acharyas such as Kundakunda, Devasena, Padmanandin and Vasunandin have included it under the last vow, according to famous Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, the sallekhana can be observed only on the arrival of unavoidable calamity, distress, senescence and disease. The duration of the practice could be up to years or more. Sixth part of the Jain text, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra is on sallekhana, the procedure expounded is as follows— Giving up solid food by degrees, one should take to milk and whey, then giving them up, to hot or spiced water. Giving up hot water also, and observing fasting with full determination, he should give up his body, the purpose is to purge old karmas and prevent the creation of new ones. The vow of Sallekhana can not be taken by a lay person on his own without being permitted by a monk, in around 300 BC, Chandragupta Maurya undertook sallekhana atop Chandragiri Hill, Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa, Karnataka. Chandragupta basadi at Shravanabelagola marks the place where the saint Chandragupta died, the Doddahundi nishidhi inscription, a hero stone from Doddahundi,18 km from Tirumakudalu Narasipura in the Mysore district, Karnataka state, India. It has an undated old Kannada language inscription which historians J. F. Fleet, I. K. Sarma, rice have dated by context to 840 or 869 C. E. The hero stone has a depiction in frieze of the ritual death of the Western Ganga Dynasty king Ereganga Nitimarga I. The memorial was raised by the kings son Satyavakya, such nishidhis were raised in medieval India in honor of important Jain personalities who ended their life voluntarily after following severe ritual vow
16.
Tirthankara
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In Jainism, a tirthankara is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the dharma. The word tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which is a passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths. According to Jains, a tirthankara is an individual who has conquered the saṃsāra. After understanding the nature of the Self or soul, the Tīrthaṅkara attains Kevala Jnana. Tirthankara provides a bridge for others to follow the new teacher from saṃsāra to moksha, according to Jain cosmology, in each half of the cosmic time cycle, exactly twenty-four tirthankaras grace this part of the universe. The first tirthankara was Rishabhanatha, who is credited for formulating and organising humans to live in a society harmoniously, the 24th and last tirthankara of present half-cycle was Mahavira. History records the existence of Mahavira and his predecessor, Parshvanatha, a tirthankara organises the sangha, a fourfold order of male and female monastics, srāvakas and śrāvikās. The tirthankaras teachings form the basis for the Jain canons, the inner knowledge of tirthankara is believed to be perfect and identical in every respect and their teachings do not contradict one another. However, the degree of elaboration varies according to the spiritual advancement, the higher the spiritual advancement and purity of mind of the society, the lower the elaboration required. While tirthankaras are documented and revered by Jains, their grace is said to be available to all living beings, Tīrthaṅkaras are arihants who after attaining kevalajñāna preach the true dharma. An Arihant is also called Jina, that is one who has conquered inner enemies such as anger, attachment, pride and they dwell exclusively within the realm of their Soul, and are entirely free of kashayas, inner passions, and personal desires. As a result of this, unlimited siddhis, or spiritual powers, are available to them – which they use exclusively for the spiritual elevation of living beings. Through darśana, divine vision, and deshna, divine speech, they help others in attaining kevalajñana, the word tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Tirthankaras are variously called Teaching Gods, Ford-Makers, Crossing Makers and Makers of the River-Crossing, Jain texts propound that a special type of karma, the tīrthaṅkara nama-karma, raises a soul to the supreme status of a Tīrthaṅkara. Five auspicious events called, Pañca kalyāṇaka marks the life of tirthankara, Gārbha kalyāṇaka. Janma kalyāṇaka, Birth of a tirthankara, indra performs a ceremonial bath on tirthankara on Mount Meru. Dīkṣā kalyāṇaka, When a tirthankara renounces all worldly possessions and become an ascetic, jñāna kalyāṇaka, The event when a tirthankara attains kevalajñāna. A samavasarana is erected from where he delivers sermons and restores sangha after that, nirvāṇa kalyāṇaka, When a tirthankara leaves his mortal body, it is known as nirvana
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Rishabhanatha
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Rishabhanatha also Ṛṣabhadeva, Rishabhadeva, or Ṛṣabha is the first Tirthankara of the present half cycle of time in Jainism. The word Tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across a sea, the Tirthankara shows the fordable path across the sea of interminable births and deaths. Rishabhanatha is also known as Ādinātha which translates into First Lord and he was born to King Nabhi and Queen Marudevi in Ayodhya. He is associated with his Bull emblem, the Nyagrodha tree, Gomukha Yaksha and he had two wives, Sunanda and Sumangala. Sumangala was the mother of sons and one daughter, Brahmi. Sunanda was the mother of Bahubali and Sundari, the sudden fatal death of Nilanjana, one of the dancers of Indra, reminded him of the worlds transitory nature and he developed a desire for renunciation. After being initiated as a Digambara monk, he is said to have wandered without food for a whole year, the day on which he got his first ahara, is celebrated as Akshaya Tritiya by Jains. He is said to have attained Moksha from Mount Kailash, adi Purana contains the information over legends related to Rishabhanatha. His colossal statues include Statue of Ahimsa, Bawangaja and those erected in Gopachal hill, Jain cosmology divides the Worldly Time cycle into two halves with six aras in each half. Twenty-four Tirthankaras grace this part of the universe in the period, known as duşamā-suşamā. The present half cycle being a case, Rishabhanatha, the first tīrthaṅkara was born at the end of the third period itself. This cycle will start reversing at the onset of utsarpinī kāl with the Dukhama-dukhamā being the first period, according to Jain texts, Rishabhanatha was born in the age when there was happiness all around with no work for men to do. Gradually as the cycle moved, and Kalpavriksha disappeared, people rushed to their King for help, Rishabhanatha is then said to have taught the men six main professions. These were, Asi, Masi, Krishi, Vidya, Vanijya, in other words, he is credited with introducing karma-bhumi by teaching these professions to householders to enable them to earn a livelihood. The institution of marriage is said to have come into existence after he married to set an example for humans to follow. In total, Rishabhanatha is said to have taught seventy-two sciences which include, arithmetic, the plastic and visual arts, Jain chronology places the date of Rishabhanatha at an almost immeasurable antiquity in the past. Rishabhanatha is said to be the founder of Jainism in the present half cycle, there is no doubt that Jainism prevailed even before Vardhamāna or Pārśvanātha. The Yajurveda mentions the name of three Tīrthaṅkaras - Ṛṣabha, Ajitnātha and Ariṣṭanemi, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa endorses the view that Ṛṣabha was the founder of Jainism
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Parshvanatha
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Parshvanatha, also known as Parshva, was the twenty-third Tirthankara of Jainism. He is the earliest Jain leader for whom there is evidence of having been a historical figure. Circumstantial evidence including a description of the teachings of Parshvanatha in the Sayings of the Seers, Parshvanatha was born on the tenth day of the dark half of the month of Paush to King Asvasena and Queen Vamadevi of Benaras. He belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty and he assumed and began to practice the twelve basic vows of the adult Jain householder when he reached the age of eight. Parshvanatha lived as formal prince of Benaras and at the age of thirty and he meditated for eighty-four days before attaining Kevala Jnana under a Dhaataki tree near Benaras. His first disciples were his mother and wife, after preaching for 70 years, he achieved moksha at the age of one hundred atop Shikharji, which is known today as the Parasnath Hills after him. Parshvanatha was called purisādāṇīya, a name which shows that he must have been a genial personality, Marubhuti - Visvabhuti, the prime minister of King Aravinda had two sons, elder one named Kamath and younger one named Marubhuti. Kamath killed Marubhuti and died as a criminal, elephant - He was then reborn as an elephant in the forests of Vindyachal. Meanwhile, King Aravinda, after death of his minister Marubhuti, when the elephant came near Aravinda, he recalled his previous human life by the blessings of Aravinda and became calm. Kamath was reborn as a serpent this time, one day, when the elephant went to a river to quench his thirst, the serpent attacked him and he died the peaceful death of absolute renunciation. Sasi-prabha - Vajraghosha was reborn as Sasi-prabha in the twelfth heaven, Agnivega - After spending a luxurious life in heaven, he was reborn as prince Agnivega. He ascended the throne of his father which he renounced to lead an ascetic life. Kamath was reborn as a serpent again after hell and again killed the ascetic in Himalayas during penance, when he was a prince he saved two snakes that had been trapped in a log in an Kamath’s fire. Later, the snakes were reborn as Dharnendra, the lord of the kingdom of the nāgas. Dharnendra and Padmavati sheltered Parshvanatha from a storm sent by a Meghmali, according to the Kalpa Sūtra, Parshvanatha had 164,000 śrāvakas and 327,000 śrāvikās and 16,000 sādhus and 38,000 sādhvīs. He had eight ganadharas, Śubhadatta, Āryaghoṣa, Vasiṣṭha, Brahmacāri, Soma, Śrīdhara, Vīrabhadra, after his death, the ganadhara Śubhadatta became the head of the monastic order. He was then succeeded by Haridatta, Āryasamudra and Keśī, one of the question as mentioned in Śvētāmbara text was The Law taught by Parsva, recognizes but four vows, whilst that of Vardhamana enjoins five. Therefore, according to texts, Parshvanatha taught four vows instead of the presently famous five vows
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Mahavira
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Mahavira, also known as Vardhamāna, was the twenty-fourth and last Jain Tirthankara. Mahavira was born into a family in what is now Bihar, India. At the age of 30, he left his home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, and abandoned worldly things, including his clothes, for the next twelve-and-a-half years, Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe penance, after which he became kevalī. For the next 30 years, he travelled throughout the Indian subcontinent to teach Jain philosophy, Mahavira taught that the observance of the vows ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha is necessary to elevate the quality of life. He gave the principle of Anekantavada, Syadvada and Nayavada, the teachings of Mahavira were compiled by Gautama Swami and were called Jain Agamas. Most of these Agamas are not available today, jains believe Mahavira attained moksha at the age of 72. In Jainism, a Tirthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across the sea of interminable births and deaths, according to the Jain texts, twenty-four Tirthankaras grace each half of the cosmic time cycle. Mahavira was the last Tirthankara of avasarpani, Samantabhadra, an illustrious Digambara monk, who lived in the 2nd century A. D. called the tīrtha of Mahavira by the name Sarvodaya. Mahavira is often called the founder of Jainism, but this was not the case because the Jain tradition recognizes his predecessors, in addition to that, Parshvanatha is accepted as a historical figure. According to Jain texts, Mahaviras childhood name was Vardhamāna, because of the prosperity in the kingdom at the time of his birth. He was called Mahavira because of the acts of bravery he performed during his childhood, Mahavira was given the title Jīnā, which later became synonymous with Tirthankara. Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as Nigaṇṭha Jñātaputta, Nigaṇṭha means without knot, tie, or string and Jñātaputta, refers to his clan of origin as Jñāta or Naya. He is also known as Sramana, in the Gregorian calendar, this date falls in March or April and is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti. Traditionally, Kundalpur in the ancient city of Kashtriya Kund Lachhuar is regarded as his birthplace, in the present-day Sikandra Division of Jamui district, according to Jainism, after his birth, anointment and abhisheka —carried out by Indra on Mount Meru. Most modern historians agree he was born at Kundagrama, now Basokund in Muzaffarpur district in the state of Bihar, Jain traditions date Mahavira as living from 599 B. C. to 527 B. C. Western historians date Mahavira as living from 480 BC to 408 BC, some Western scholars suggest Mahavira died around 425 BC. His height was seven cubits as per the description given in Aupapatika Sutra, as the son of a king, Mahavira had all luxuries of life at his disposal. According to the chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Acharanga Sutra
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Arihant (Jainism)
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Arihant or jina, is a soul who has conquered inner passions such as attachment, anger, pride and greed. Arihant are also called kevalins as they possess Kevala Jnana, an arihant is also called a Jina conqueror. At the end of their life, arihants destroy all four gathiya karmas and attain moksha, the Ṇamōkāra mantra, fundamental prayer dedicated to Pañca-Parameṣṭhi begin with, Ṇnamō arihantāṇnamṁ--Obeisance to the arihants. Kevalī are said to be of two kinds- Tirthankara kevalī-24 human spiritual guides who after attaining omniscience teach the path to salvation, sāmānya kevalī- Kevalī who are concerned with their own liberation. According to Jains, every soul has the potential to become arihant, a soul which destroys all kashayas or inner enemies like anger, ego, deception, and greed - responsible for the perpetuation of ignorance - becomes an Arihant. According to Jain texts, omniscience is attained on the destruction of the deluding, the knowledge-obscuring, the perception-obscuring, according to Jain texts, omniscience is the natural attribute of the pure souls. The Self attaining omniscience becomes a kevalī, the four infinitudes are, ananta jñāna, infinite knowledge ananta darśana, perfect perception due to the destruction of all darshanavarniya karmas. Ananta sukha, infinite bliss, and ananta vīrya – infinite energy and those Arihants who re-establish Jain faith are called Tirthankaras. Tirthankaras revitalize the sangha, the order consisting of male saints, female saints, male householders. The first Tirthankara of the current time cycle was R̥ṣabhadēva, and the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara was Mahavira, Jain texts mention forty-six attributes of arihants or tirthankaras. These attributes comprise four infinitudes, thirty-four miraculous happenings, and eight splendours, at the time of nirvana, the arihant sheds off the remaining four aghati karmas, Nam Karma Gotra Karma, Vedniya Karma, Ayushya Karma. These four karmas do not affect the nature of the soul and are therefore called aghati karmas. After attaining salvation from these arihants become siddhas, since siddhas have attained ultimate liberation, they are not accessible. However arihants are accessible for spiritual guidance to human society until their nirvana, Jains Jainism and Jainness, Living Jainism, An Ethical Science, John Hunt Publishing, ISBN 978-1780999111 Jain, Vijay K. Ācārya Nemichandras Dravyasaṃgraha
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Kundakunda
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Acharya Kundakunda is a revered Digambara Jain monk and philosopher. He authored many Jain texts such as, Samayasara, Niyamasara, Pancastikayasara, Pravachanasara, Atthapahuda and he occupies the highest place in the tradition of the Jain acharyas. Modern scholarship has found it difficult to locate him chronologically, with a possible low date in the 2nd-3rd centuries CE and a late date in 8th century. His proper name was Padmanandin, he is referred to as Kundakunda possibly because the modern village of Kondakunde in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh might represent his native home. Upadhye has shown that possibly apart from the name Elacarya, all the other names ascribed to Kundakunda go against the tradition of the epigraphic records. Acharya Kundakunda belonged to the Mula Sangh order and he is closely associated with the Digambara sect, also in recent decades, his books have become popular among Śvētāmbaras also. He is dated to have flourished around second century CE by Natubhai Shah, for Digambaras, his name has auspicious significance and occupies third place after Lord Mahavira and Gautama Ganadhara in the sacred litany. This would make him the first significant and independent thinker of the period whose views are accepted as representing the Jain thought. The mundane aspect is associated with the qualities of the soul mainly the influx of karmic particles. The ultimate perspective meanwhile, is that of the soul or atman, the jiva, which is blissful, energetic, perceptive. According to Long, this view shows influence from Buddhism and Vedanta, the works attributed to Kundakunda, all of them in Prakrit, can be divided in three groups. The first group comprises four original works described as The Essence — namely, the Niyamasara, the Pancastikayasara, the Samayasara, and the Pravachanasara. The second group is a collection of ten bhaktis, short compositions in praise of the acharya, the scriptures, the mendicant conduct, and so forth. The last group consists of eight short texts called Prabhrta, probably compilations from some sources, on such topics as the right view, right conduct, the scripture. Various Jain texts mention that Acharya Kundkunda wrote 84 Pahurs, simandhar Swami Jain, Vijay K. Essays in Jaina Philosophy and Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1977-2 Cort, John E
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Siddhasena
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Siddhasēna Divākara was an Digambara monk in the fifth century CE who wrote works on Jain philosophy and epistemology. He was like the lamp of the Jain order and therefore came to be known as Divākara Lamp-Maker. He is credited with the authorship of books, most of which are not available. Sanmatitarka is the first major Jain work on logic written in Sanskrit, Siddhasena Divakara is said to have lived from 500 CE to 610 CE. He was a Brahmin by birth and a scholar and he was initiated by Acharya Vruddhavadi. According to the tradition, Siddhasena Divakara once planned to all the Jaina works from prakrit to Sanskrit. He was asked by his master to all the Jain temples as a punishment. He thus visited the Jain temples for twelve years and he then came upon a Linga temple in Ujjain. He slept at the temple with his feet towards the Linga, king Vikramaditya had him beaten for the sin on request of the devotees. However, with powers, Siddhasena Divakara made that the Kings wife received the beating instead of him. He broke the Linga by raising his hand and an idol of Parshvanatha emerged from there, siddhasenas main contribution in the Sanmatitarka is his analysis of the Jain theory of Anekantavada. This view sees the best account of reality as one which includes permanence and impermanence, identity, Siddhasena also argued that the number of possible nayas or viewpoints of reality is potentially limitless. He then goes on to each of the nayas with the positions of Indian philosophical schools, showing how each view is only a partial. He was the author of Sammati-tarka-prakarana and is said to have written the Nyāyāvatāra, Sanmati sutra, shrotri, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1376-6
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Digambara
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Digambara is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being Śvētāmbara. The word Digambara is a combination of two words, dig and ambara, referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space, Digambara monks do not wear any clothes. The monks carry picchi, a made up of fallen peacock feathers, kamandalu. One of the most important scholar-monks of Digambara tradition was Kundakunda and he authored Prakrit texts such as the Samayasāra and the Pravacanasāra. Other prominent Acharyas of this tradition were, Virasena, Samantabhadra, the Satkhandagama and Kasayapahuda have major significance in the Digambara tradition. The word Digambara is a combination of two Sanskrit words, dik and ambara, referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space. Digambara monks do not wear any clothes as it is considered to be parigraha, a Digambara monk has 28 mūla guņas. These are, five mahāvratas, five samitis, pañcendriya nirodha, Şadāvaśyakas, the monks carry picchi, a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers for removing small insects without causing them injury, Kamandalu and shastra. The head of all monastics is called Āchārya, while the saintly preceptor of saints is the upādhyāya, the Āchārya has 36 primary attributes in addition to the 28 mentioned above. The monks perform kayotsarga daily, in a rigid and immobile posture, with the arms held stiffly down, knees straight, female monastics in Digambara tradition are known as aryikas. According to Digambara texts, after liberation of the Lord Mahavira, during the next hundred years, five Āchāryas had complete knowledge of the scriptures, as such, called Śruta Kevalīs, the last of them being Āchārya Bhadrabahu. Spiritual lineage of heads of orders is known as Pattavali. Relics found from Harrapan excavations like seals depicting Kayotsarga posture, idols in Padmasana, the presence of gymnosophists in Greek records as early as the fourth century BC, supports the claim of the Digambaras that they have preserved the ancient Śramaṇa practice. The Digambara Jains worship completely nude idols of tirthankaras and siddha, the tirthankara is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the Kayotsarga posture. The truly sky-clad Jaina statue expresses the perfect isolation of the one who has stripped off every bond and his is an absolute abiding in itself, a strange but perfect aloofness, a nudity of chilling majesty, in its stony simplicity, rigid contours, and abstraction. The Digambara sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the texts accepted by the other major sect, according to the Digambaras, Āchārya Dharasena guided two Āchāryas, Pushpadanta and Bhutabali, to put the teachings of Mahavira in written form,683 years after the nirvana of Mahavira. The two Āchāryas wrote Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama on palm leaves which is considered to be among the oldest known Digambara texts, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original Jain Agamas. Later on, some learned Āchāryas started to restore, compile and put into words the teachings of Lord Mahavira
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Jain Agamas
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Agamas are original texts of Jainism based on the discourses of the tirthankara. The discourse delivered in a samavasarana is called Śhrut Jnāna and comprises eleven angas, the discourse is recorded by Ganadharas, and is composed of twelve angas. It is generally represented by a tree with twelve branches and this forms the basis of the Jaina Agamas or canons. These are believed to have originated from Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara, the earliest versions of Jain Agamas known were composed in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit language. Agama is a Sanskrit word which signifies the coming of a body of doctrine by means of transmission through a lineage of authoritative teachers and these scriptures are said to have contained the most comprehensive and accurate description of every branch of learning that one needs to know. According to the Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had knowledge of the original canon. Later on, some learned Āchāryas started to restore, compile and put into words the teachings of Lord Mahavira. Āchārya Dharasen, in first century CE, guided two Āchāryas, Āchārya Pushpadant and Āchārya Bhutabali, to put these teachings in the written form, the two Āchāryas wrote, on palm leaves, Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama- among the oldest known Digambara Jaina texts. This was about 683 years after the nirvana of Mahavira, the general consensus amongst western scholars, like Ian Whicher and David Carpenter is that the earliest portions of Jain siddhanta were composed around the 4th or 3rd century BC. However, with time, it became difficult to keep the entire Jain literature committed to memory, chandragupta Maurya was the ruler of Magadha and Bhadrabahu, was the head of Jain community. Predicting a 12 year long famine, Bhadrabahu went south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra, during this time the knowledge of the doctrine was getting lost. A council was formed at Pataliputra where eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled, due to the twelve years of famine it was extremely difficult for the Jain ascetics to preserve the entire canonical literature. The Purvas or the ancient texts were already forgotten and lost after the famine, the existing Svetambara texts are based on the Vallabhi council texts. Digambaras reject the authority of the Agamas compiled at Valabhi, the knowledge of Shruta-Jnana, may be of things which are contained in the Angas or of things outside the Angas. The most authoritative Jain text accepted both by Digambara and Svetamberas is Tattvartha Sutra and it is the first Jain scripture written in the Sanskrit language. Other Sanskrit Jain literature includes śrāvakācāras such as the Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, Digambaras group texts into four literary categories called exposition. The Jain literature includes both religious texts and books on generally secular topics such as sciences, history, and grammar, the Jains have used several languages at different times and in different regions of India. The earliest versions of Jain Agamas known were written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit language, Prakrit Prakrit literature includes the Aagams, Aagam-tulya texts, and Siddhanta texts
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Tattvartha Sutra
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Tattvartha Sutra is an ancient Jain text written by Acharya Umaswati, sometime between the 2nd- and 5th-century AD. It is the one of the Jain scripture written in the Sanskrit language, Tattvartha Sutra is also known in Jainism as the Moksha-shastra. The Tattvartha Sutra is regarded as one of the earliest, most authoritative books on Jainism, and its importance in Jainism is comparable with that of the Brahma Sutras and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in Hinduism. It is a text in sutra or aphorisms, and presents the complete Jainism philosophy in 350 sutras over 10 chapters, the term Tattvartha is composed of the Sanskrit words tattva which means reality, truth and artha which means nature, meaning, together meaning nature of reality. One of its sutra, Parasparopagraho Jivanam is the motto of Jainism and its meaning is interpreted as of souls is to help one another, or Souls render service to one another. Tattvartha Sutra is also known in Jainism as the Moksha-shastra, the first verse of Tattvārthsūtra, सम्यग्दर्शनज्ञानचारित्राणि मोक्षमार्ग, summarizes the Jaina path to liberation. It means that the Ratnatraya collectively constitutes the path to liberation or moksha, the next three chapters deal with the Jīva, lower worlds, naraka, and celestial abodes, deva. The fifth chapter discusses the Non-soul, the next three chapters deal with the karmas and their manifestations and the influx, asrava, good and bad karma, shubha-ashubha karma and the bondage of the karmas. The ninth chapter describes the blocking, samvara and shedding of the karmas, the final chapter discusses moksha or the liberation of the soul. The theology in Tattvartha Sutra presents seven categories of truth in sutra 1 and he adds that knowledge is also acquired through literature, clairvoyance, and omniscience. In chapter 2, Umaswati presents sutras on soul, in chapter 3 through 6, Umaswati presents sutras for his first three categories of truth. In chapter 7, Umaswati presents the Jaina vows and explains their value in stopping karmic particle inflow to the soul, the vows, translates Nathmal Tatia, are ahimsa, anirta, asteya, brahmacharya, and aparigraha. Umaswati, in chapter 8 of Tattvartha Sutra presents his sutras on how karma affects rebirths. He asserts that accumulated karma in life determine the length of life and realm of rebirth for each soul in each of four states – infernal beings, plants and animals, human beings and as gods. Further, states Umaswati, karma also affects the body, the shape, the accumulated and new karma are material particles, states Umaswati, which stick to the soul and these travel with the soul from one life to the next as bondage, where each ripens. Once ripened, the particles fall off, states Umaswati. The chapter 9 of Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati describe how karmic particles can be stopped from attaching to the soul and he asserts that gupti, dharma, contemplation, endurance in hardship, and with good character towards others, a soul stops karmic accumulations. The state of liberation is presented in Chapter 10 by Umaswati and it is achieved when deluding and obstructive karmas have been destroyed
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Dravyasamgraha
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Dravyasaṃgraha is a 10th-century Jain text in Jain Sauraseni Prakrit by Acharya Nemicandra belonging to the Digambara Jain tradition. It is a composition of 58 gathas giving an exposition of the six dravyas that characterize the Jain view of the world, sentient, non-sentient, principle of motion, principle of rest, space and it is one of the most important Jain works and has gained widespread popularity. Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is often memorized because of its comprehensiveness as well as brevity, 10th century Jain Acarya, Nemicandra Siddhānta Cakravartin is regarded as the author of Dravyasaṃgraha. He was the teacher of Camundaraya—the general of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Karnataka, Nemicandra was a prolific author and a specialist in summarizing and giving lucidly the essence of teachings in various fields, saṃgrahas and sāras were his specialty. He also wrote Trilokasāra, Labdhisāra, Kṣapaṇasāra, and Gommaṭasāra, although not much is known about him from his own works, at the end of the Trilokasāra and of the Gommaṭasāra, he introduces himself as a pupil of Abhayanandi, Vīranandi, Indranandi and Kanakanandi. He is said to have inspired Camundaraya to build the famous Bāhubali statue at Shravanabelagola, vahuvali Charitra notes that Nemicandra belonged to the monastic order of Desiya gana. After establishing the statue of Bāhubali, Camundaraya offered villages yielding a revenue of 96,000 gold coins to Nemicandra for daily worship of, Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is often memorized because of its comprehensiveness and brevity. According to Nalini Balbir, the Dravyasaṃgraha is largely a work of definitions of concepts with mnemonic perspective, in its 58 verses, the author makes skillful use of āryā metre. Nemicandra’s presentation is often articulated around the opposition between the conventional and the points of view, or around the contrast between the material and the spiritual angles. In tine opening verse, along with the usual mangalacharana, it is mentioned that dravya consists of jiva and ajiva. In the second verse Jiva is defined, The sentient substance is characterized by the function of understanding, is incorporeal and it is the enjoyer, located in the world of rebirth emancipated has the intrinsic movement upwards. The various characteristics of Jiva mentioned in the definition are taken up one by one in verses 3–14, Dravyasaṃgraha classifies the embodied souls on the basis of the number of senses possessed by it, from one to five senses. After this detailed description of Jivas the author proceeds to describe Ajivas—Pudgala, Dharma, adharma, Akasa and Kala, among these, as per verse 23, the Jiva, pudgala, dharma, adharma, and akasa are called astikayas, the extensibles or conglomerates. The second part deals with the seven tattvas, jīva, ajīva, āsrava, bandha, saṃvara, nirjarā, together with puṇya and pāpa they form nine padartha. Some call all nine as navatattava or nine tattvas, the third part of Dravyasaṃgraha begins with verse 39 describing the means to attain liberation from conventional and real point of views. Do not act, do not talk, do not think at all, verses 49 to 54 of the Dravyasaṃgraha, succinctly characterizes the five Supreme Beings and their characteristics. One of the most popular commentaries of Dravyasaṃgraha is that by Brahmadeva from around the 14th century, ramacandra – Commentary on Nemicandras Dravyasamgraha. Jain Agamas Jainism List of Jain texts Jain, Vijay K. Ācārya Nemichandras Dravyasaṃgraha, ISBN9788190363952, Non-copyright Acarya Nemicandra, Brahmadeva, Ghoshal, Sarat Chandra, ed
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History of Jainism
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Jainism is an ancient religion of India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four tirthankara and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara, the last two tirthankara, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira are historical figures. There is limited evidence for the 22nd tirthankara Neminatha who was the cousin of Krishna. Jainism is a philosophy of eternity and Jains consider their religion to be eternal, according to Heinrich Zimmer, Jainism can be traced back as far as third or fourth millennium BC, due to the discovery of a series of great late Stone Age cities in the Indus Valley. Of the two sects of Jainism, the Digambara sect is the oldest, and the Śvētāmbara sect was formed in the 3rd century BC as a separate division from the Digambara sect. They were later subdivided into several sub-sects, Jainism faced a period of decline in medieval India till 19th century due to attacks from Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam, after which it was revived by various Jain saints. The origins of Jainism are obscure, the Jains claim their religion to be eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha to be the founder in the present time-cycle. Different scholars have had different views on the origin, the archeological evidence does not support traditional Jain view of antiquity. According to Glasenapp, the first century after the year 1000 BCE would be the limit to the origin of Jainism. Regarding the antiquity of Jainism, Dr. C, in the first volume of The Cultural Heritage of India, The Jains claim a great antiquity for their religion. Their earliest tirthankar of present cycle was Rishabhdeva, who is mentioned even in the Vishnu, in the earliest Brahmanic literature are found traces of the existence of a religious Order. Similar to Buddhism, the concept of earlier teachers existed as early as the 3rd century, the number gradually increased to seven and then to twenty four. By the first or second century CE, the tradition of 24 Tirthankaras was well established, in Buddhist sources, Mahavira is not mentioned as a founder of new tradition so he mught have been reformer of tradition already established by his predecessor Parsvanatha. During the 6th century BCE, Mahāvīra became one of the most influential teachers of Jainism, Jains revere him as the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara of present cosmic age. Though, Mahavira is sometimes regarded as the founder, he appears in the tradition as one who. There is reasonable evidence that the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha. Neminatha was the predecessor of Parshvanatha,84,000 years earlier, in 1890–91, Kankali Tila at Mathura was excavated by Dr. Fuhrer. After studying the findings of excavation, Dr. Fuhrer was of the view that Neminatha was a historical figure
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Jain flag
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The flag of Jainism has five colours, orange or red, yellow, white, green and black or dark blue. These five colours represent the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi and it also represents the five main vows, small as well as great. It also denotes peace or ahimsa, red - represents the siddha, souls that have attained salvation and truth. Yellow - represents the acharya the Masters of Adepts, the colour also stands for non-stealing. Green - represents the upadhyaya, those who teach scriptures to monks, dark blue or black - represents the sadhus and sadhvis or monks and nuns. It is also believed that the complexion of all the 24 Tirthankaras was of one of these 5 colours, the swastika in the centre of the flag represents the four states of existence of soul. The purpose of soul is to itself from these four stages. The curve above the three dots denotes Siddhashila, a place in the highest realms of Universe, composed of pure energy and it is above hell, earth, or heaven. It is the place where souls that have attained salvation, for instance, Arihants, respect for Jain Flag is respect for Pañca-Parameṣṭhi. According to Jainism, respect for Pañca-Parameṣṭhi abiding the Ratnatraya destroys the sorrow of the four states of existence and finally guides one to the sweet home of infinite bliss
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Jain symbols
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Jain symbols are symbols based on the Jain philosophy. The swastika is an important Jain symbol and this perfect state of liberation is symbolized by the crescent and dot at the top of the svastika. It also represents the four columns of the Jain Sangha, sadhus, sadhvis, sravakas and shravikas - monks, nuns and it also represents the four characteristics of the soul, infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite happiness, and infinite energy. The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism, the word in the middle is ahiṃsā. The wheel represents the dharmachakra, which stands for the resolve to halt the saṃsāra through the pursuit of Ahimsa. Since then, this emblem is used in almost all of Jain magazines, on wedding cards, on Jain festival cards, the Jain emblem is composed of many fundamental concepts and symbols. The outline of the image represents the universe as described in Jain Agamas, the upper portion indicates heaven, the middle portion indicates the material world and the lower portion indicates hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes siddhashila, which is a zone beyond the three realms, All of the siddhas or liberated bodiless souls reside on this forever, liberated from the cycle of life and death. The three dots on the top under the semi-circle symbolize the Ratnatraya – right belief, right knowledge, every creature in this world can become free from the cycle of life and death. This gives the message that it is necessary to have the Ratnatraya in order to attain moksha, in the top portion, the swastika symbol is present. The symbol of hand in the lower portion shows fearlessness and symbolizes the feeling of ahimsa towards all the creatures in this world. The circle in the middle of the hand symbolizes saṃsāra and the 24 spokes represent the preachings from the 24 Tirthankaras, the meaning of the mantra at the bottom, Parasparopagraho Jivanam, is All life is bound together by mutual support and interdependence. In short, the Jain emblem represents many important concepts to show the path to enlightenment by following the principles of ahimsa. It is important that an emblem or symbol is used consistently in the format to preserve its value. There are many variations of the symbol in use currently, however, they do not show all the fundamental concepts embedded in the current emblem. For example, JAINA in North America uses a version of the standard Jain symbol. It replaces the swastika with Om because the swastika is associated with Nazi Germany there, the Om symbol is also used in ancient Jain scriptures to represent the five lines of the Navakar mantra, which is the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion. The Navakar mantra honors the panch parmeshtis, the Ashtamangala are a set of eight auspicious symbols
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Parasparopagraho Jivanam
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Parasparopagraho Jīvānām is a Jain aphorism from the Tattvārtha Sūtra. It is translated as Souls render service to one another and it is also translated as, All life is bound together by mutual support and interdependence. The aphorism Parasparopagraho Jīvānām has been accepted as the motto of Jainism and it stresses the philosophy of non-violence and ecological harmony on which the Jain ethics and doctrine—especially the doctrines of Ahimsa and Anekantavada—are based. This motto is inscribed in Devanagari script at the base of the symbol of Jainism which was adopted by all sects of Jainism while commemorating the 2500th anniversary of nirvana of Mahavira. Jain cosmology recognizes the fundamental natural phenomenon of symbiosis or mutual dependence and it is relevant to recall that the term ecology’ was coined in the latter half of the nineteenth century from the Greek word oikos, meaning home’, a place to which one returns. Ecology is the branch of biology deals with the relations of organisms to their surroundings. The ancient Jain scriptural aphorism Parasparopagraho Jīvānām is refreshingly contemporary in its premise and it defines the scope of modern ecology while extending it further to a more spacious ‘home’. It means that all aspects of nature belong together and are bound in a physical as well as a metaphysical relationship, life is viewed as a gift of togetherness, accommodation and assistance in a universe teeming with interdependent constituents
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Jain schools and branches
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Jainism is an Indian religion which is traditionally believed to be propagated by twenty-four spiritual teachers known as tirthankara. Broadly, Jainism is divided into two sects, Digambara and Svetambara. These are further divided into different sub-sects and traditions, while there are differences in practices, the core philosophy and main principles of each sect is same. Traditionally, the doctrine of Jainism was contained in scriptures called Purva. These are believed to have originated from Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara, there was a twelve-year famine around fourth century BCE. At that time, Chandragupta Maurya was the ruler of Magadha, Bhadrabahu went south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra, another Jain leader remained behind. During this time the knowledge of the doctrine was getting lost, a council was formed at Pataliputra where eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled and the remnant of fourteen purvas were written down in 12th Anga, Ditthivaya by the adherents of Sthulbhadra. When followers of Bhadrabahu returned, there was a dispute between them regarding the authenticity of the Angas, also, those who stayed at Magadha started wearing white clothes which was unacceptable to the other who remain naked. This is how the Digambara and Svetambara sect came about, the Digambara being the naked ones where as Svetambara being the white clothed. According to Digambara, the purvas and the angas were lost, in course of time, the cannons of svetambara were also getting lost. About 980 to 993 years after the death of Mahavira, a Vallabhi council was held at Vallabhi and this was headed by Devardhi Ksamashramana. It was found that the 12th Anga, the Ditthivaya, was lost too, the other Angas were written down. This is an account of schism. According to Svetambara, there were eight schisms, according to Digambara tradition, Gandhara knew fourteen Purva and eleven Anga. Knowledge of Purva was lost around 436 years after Mahavira and Anga were lost around 683 years after Mahavira, the texts which do not belong to Anga are called Angabahyas. The first four Anga bahayas, Samayika, Chaturvimasvika, Vandana and Pratikramana corresponds to sections of second Mulasutra of svetambara, the only texts of anga bahyas which occurs in svetambara texts are Dasavaikalika, Uttaradhyayana and Kalpavyavahara. Digambara is one of the two sects of Jainism. This sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the Jain Agama compiled by Sthulabhadra and they believe that by the time of Dharasena, the twenty-third teacher after Gandhar Gautama, knowledge of only one Anga was there
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Timeline of Jainism
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Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. It prescribes ahimsa towards all living beings to the most possible extent, the three main teachings of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada, aparigraha. Followers of Jainism take five main vows, ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya, monks follow them completely whereas śrāvakas observe them partially. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism,584, 979–574,979 BCE, Naminatha, 21st Tirthankara Neminatha, 22nd Tirthankara, According to Jain beliefs, he lived 84,650 years before the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha. He existed in the Mahabharata era and was the brother of Krishna. 877–777 BCE, Parshva, 23rd Tirthankar of Jainism and he is the earliest Jain leader who can be reliably dated. 599–527 BCE, Mahavira, 24th and last Tirthankar of this era, 5th century BCE, Siddhasen Diwakar d.507 BCE, Ganahar Sudharma Swami d.357 BCE, Acharya Bhadrabahu d.162 BCE, Hathigumpha inscription mentions the Navkar Mantra and Jain monarch Kharvela. The Tirumalai complex in Tamil Nadu is established, 10th century Ancient Jain temple of Gurjiwada, Cudnem, Bicholim, Goa was constructed. 17th century 1664, Digambar Terapanth 1658, Digambara Jain Lal Mandir temple in Delhi built, carving work began in 1966 under the sculptor Rejala Gopalkrishna Shenoy of Karkala. 1976, In Arya Samaj Education Trust, Delhi & Others v,2006, the Supreme Court opined that Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu religion 2008, Delhi city government declares Jain community as a minority as per the Supreme Court Orders. 2014, Jain community is notified as minority at national level, Buddhism and Jainism History of Jainism Jain philosophy Shramana Timeline of Buddhism Kerkar, Rajendra, TNN, Jain heritage dwindles as govt sits pretty, The Times of India Bedrij, Orest. The Greatest Achievement, Miracle after Miracle the Easy Way, exodus III, Great Joy and Glory to the Most High as You. Framing the Jina, Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History, shah, Natubhai, Jainism, The World of Conquerors,1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1938-2 Sangave, Dr. Vilas Adinath. Facets of Jainology, Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture
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