1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
King's Inns
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The Honorable Society of Kings Inns is the institution which controls the entry of barristers-at-law into the justice system of Ireland. The full title retains the spelling variant honorable in preference to the contemporary Hiberno-English spelling of honourable. The society was created in 1541,51 years before Trinity College, Dublin was founded, the founders named their society in honour of King Henry VIII of England and his newly established Kingdom of Ireland. The society secured a lease of lands at Inns Quay on the bank of the River Liffey in Dublin. The society was reconstituted in 1607, having been inactive for some time, the building was completed by his pupil Henry Aaron Baker. Only from the middle of the century onwards were courses of legal education provided at Kings Inns. Candidates who have a law degree may apply for the Degree of Barrister-at-Law. Alternatively, candidates without a law degree may undertake the societys Diploma in Legal Studies before presenting for the societys degree. Those who are presented with the degree are entitled to be called to, in 2006, the society had an enrolment of approximately 300 students, whilst there are approximately 2,000 practising barristers. The library collection dates from the end of the 18th century, and was based on part of that of Christopher Robinson, senior judge of the Court of Kings Bench. Books were sold at auction at Sothebys, London, and a stock of them were sold to clients outside Ireland. This was seen at the time as a major cultural outflow, in addition, the societys library had received an annual grant since 1945 for the upkeep of the books from the Irish Exchequer. A Kings Inns team or individual has often won the prestigious Irish Times National Debating Championship, in 2006 the Inns hurling team competed in and won the Fergal Maher Cup in their inaugural year and have subsequently reached the final and semi-final. After crossing Bolton Street, Henrietta Street runs into Kings Inns Street, the latter was renamed due to its proximity to the Kings Inns. In 1756, this appears as Turn Again Lane on Rocques map of Dublin. Henrietta Street is thought to have been named by Luke Gardiner in honour of Henrietta Somerset and her portrait by Enoch Seeman survives
3.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
4.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
5.
Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Grafton
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Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Grafton KG PC FRS was an Irish and English politician. He was the child and heir of Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton by his wife Isabella Bennet. He succeeded to his fathers titles on 9 October 1690 and he was Lord High Steward at King George Is coronation, becoming a Privy Counsellor in 1715 and a Knight of the Garter in 1721. He also served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1720 to 1724, in 1719 he was one of the main subscribers to the Royal Academy of Music, a corporation that produced baroque opera on the stage. In 1739 he supported the creation of what was to one of Londons most notable charities. He sat on that charitys original Court of Governors with such fellow Governors as the Duke of Bedford, the Lord Vere and the Lord Mayor of London. He married Lady Henrietta Somerset, daughter of Charles Somerset, Marquess of Worcester and Rebecca Child, they had seven children, Charles Henry FitzRoy, the Earl was notorious for mistreating his wife, who died seven months after their marriage, and died childless. He was married to Elizabeth Cosby, daughter of Colonel William Cosby and they were parents to two sons, who founded branches of the family still extant today, Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton Charles FitzRoy, 1st Baron Southampton Lord Charles FitzRoy. She married William Stanhope, 2nd Earl of Harrington and they were parents to Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl of Harrington and other six children. She married Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Marquess of Hertford and they were parents to Francis Seymour-Conway, 2nd Marquess of Hertford and eleven other children. They were ancestors of Diana, Princess of Wales via their son Hugh, the Duke also fathered an illegitimate son, Charles FitzRoy-Scudamore. Grafton Street in Dublin was named after him, R. H. Nichols and F A. Wray, The History of the Foundling Hospital
6.
Georgian Dublin
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Dublin was for much of its existence a medieval city, marked by the existence of a particular style of buildings, built on narrow winding medieval streets. Though the city over the century had grown around the River Liffey, as in other medieval cities. This allowed the dumping of waste directly into the river. As Dublins quays underwent development, Ormonde insisted that the frontages of the houses, not their rears, should face the quay sides, by this single regulation Ormonde changed the face of the city. No longer would the river be a sewer hidden between buildings, for his initiative, Ormondes name is now given to one of the city quays. It was, however, only one of a number of crucial developments, as the city grew in size, stature, population and wealth, two changes were needed. The existing narrow street medieval city required major redevelopment, and major new development of areas was required. A new body called the Wide Streets Commission was created to remodel the old medieval city and it created a network of main thoroughfares by wholesale demolition or widening of old streets or the creation of entirely new ones. On the north side of the city, a series of streets were merged and widened enormously to create a new street. At its lower end, a new bridge was erected, beyond which two new streets in the form of a V appeared, known as Westmoreland Street and DOlier Street. Westmoreland Street in turn led to a renamed Hoggen Green, which became College Green because it faced unto Trinity College Dublin, the Castle began the process of rebuilding, turning it from a medieval castle to a Georgian palace. While the rebuilding by the Wide Streets Commission fundamentally changed the streetscape in Dublin, unlike twentieth century building booms in Dublin the eighteenth century developments were carefully controlled. The developing areas were divided into precincts, each of which was given to a different developer, initially developments were focused on the citys north side. Among the earliest developments was Henrietta Street, a street lined on both sides by massive Georgian houses built on a palatial scale. At the top end of the street, a new James Gandon building, in this building, barristers were trained and earned their academic qualifications. Such was the prestige of the street that many of the most senior figures in Irish establishment society, peers of the realm, judges, barristers, bishops bought houses here. Ultimately the north side was laid out centered on two major squares, Rutland Square, at the top end of Sackville Street, and Mountjoy Square, such was the prestige of the latter square that among its many prominent residents was the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Dublin. Many of the streets in the new areas were named after the property developers, among the streets named after developers are Capel Street, Mountjoy Square and Aungier Street
7.
Richard Cassels
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Richard Cassels, who anglicised his name to Richard Castle, ranks with Edward Lovett Pearce as one of the greatest architects working in Ireland in the 18th century. Cassels was born in 1690 in Kassel, Germany, although German, his family were of French origin, descended from the French-Netherlandish Du Ry family, famous for the many architects among their number. A cousin Simon du Ry designed Schloss Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel, Richard Cassels, who originally trained as an engineer, came to Ireland in 1728 at the behest of Sir Gustavus Hume of County Fermanagh to design for Hume a mansion on the shores of Lough Erne. Hume had probably discovered Cassels working in London where he was influenced by the circle of architects influenced by Lord Burlington, Cassels, soon after arrival in Ireland, established a thriving architectural practice in Dublin. Both of these buildings were designed in the newly introduced Palladian style, Palladian architecture was currently enjoying a revival that was to sweep across Europe and be adopted with a fervour in Ireland. Cassels was well versed in the concepts of Palladio and Vitruvius, in Dublin itself, Cassels worked on the Houses of Parliament with Pearce, his mentor and friend. Cassels first solo commission was the Printing House of Trinity College and this portico was an interesting feature symbolising Cassels early work – a portico is an almost essential feature of Palladian architecture. But as Cassels work matured he tended to merely hint at a portico by placing semi-engaged columns supporting a pediment as the point of a facade. Perhaps he felt the huge Italian porticos that provided shelter from the sun were not requisite for houses in the less clement Ireland and this blind, merely suggested, portico is a feature of his final Dublin masterpiece Leinster House built for the Earl of Kildare between 1745 and 1751. In 1741 he designed the Bishops Palace which is now part of Waterford Treasures - Three Museums in the Viking Triangle, Waterford, the untimely death of Edward Lovett Pearce, aged 34, in 1733, made Cassels Irelands leading architect working in the sought after Palladian style. He immediately assumed all of Pearces commissions and thus began designing a series of country houses. This led to the creation of what came to be known as Georgian Dublin, for his exteriors he used a Palladian style that was distinctive for its strength and sobriety. In this he seems to have influenced by Pearce and also James Gibbs. However, when it came to interiors, Cassels gave full rein to his love of the more continental Baroque, walls were covered in stucco reliefs, ceilings medallions and motifs of plaster, segmental mouldings, and carvings, in an almost rococo style peculiar to Ireland. Some of the finest of Cassels works in order of commencement are listed below and this perfect small doric temple, was completed in 1734, and is thought to be Cassels first major solo work. A four-columned portico of doric columns projected from the rusticated severe building, Cassels made large alterations to the Carton house in County Kildare between 1739 and 1745 for the Earl of Kildare. The resultant facades were in his usual restrained and symmetrical style, the great garden facade is terminated by Venetian windows at each end, while in the centre, a single storey portico is so unostentatious as to be almost a porch. The roof-line is hidden by a balustrade, broken by a pediment over the central bay
8.
Archbishop of Armagh (Church of Ireland)
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The Anglican Archbishop of Armagh is the ecclesiastical head of the Church of Ireland, the metropolitan of the Province of Armagh and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Armagh. Like his counterpart the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh, he bears the title Primate of All Ireland, in Irish times, the primacy of Armagh was questioned only by the great southern centre of the Irish Church, at Cashel. Brian Boru recognized the supremacy of Armagh, possibly in a move to gain support from Armagh for Borus claim to the High Kingship. Another noteworthy incumbent was St. Malachy OMorgair, who suffered many tribulations in trying to effect a reformation in the diocese, St. Malachy is honoured as the patron saint of the diocese. When the English kings got a footing in the country, they began to intervene in the election of bishops, the English kings also began to claim possession of the temporalities of the sees during vacancies and to insist on the newly elected bishops suing them humbly for their restitution. Thereupon the king in 1552, appointed Hugh Goodacre to the see and he survived his consecration only three months. In the beginning of the reign of Mary I, Dowdall was again appointed to the see on account of the zeal he had shown against Protestantism. Adam Loftus, from whom the Church of Ireland hierarchy derive their orders, was consecrated by Hugh Curwin, Archbishop of Dublin. He left his library, comprising several thousand printed books and manuscripts, to Trinity College, Dublin. His judgment against toleration of Roman Catholics, i. e. John Bramhall, another learned divine and his works on polemic and other subjects have been published in four folio volumes. Richard Robinson raised Armagh by his munificence from extreme decay to a state of opulence and he built an episcopal headquarters, a public library, an infirmary, and an observatory. Lord John George Beresford was also distinguished by his munificence and he restored Armagh Cathedral and is said to have spent £280,000 in acts of public benevolence. The following is a basic list of the Church of Ireland archbishops of Armagh
9.
Tenement
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The term tenement originally referred to tenancy and therefore to any rented accommodation. In Scotland, it continues to be the most common word for a multiple-occupancy building, late 19th-century social reformers in the U. S. were hostile to both tenements and apartment houses. The adapted buildings were known as rookeries, and were a particular concern as they were prone to collapse. Mulberry Bend and Five Points were the sites of notorious rookeries that the city worked for decades to clear, in both rookeries and purpose-built tenements, communal water taps and water closets were squeezed into what open space there was between buildings. In parts of the Lower East Side, buildings were older and had courtyards, generally occupied by shops, stables. Prior to the 1867 law, tenements often covered more than 90 percent of the lot, were five or six stories high, yards were a few feet wide and filled with privies where they had not been entirely eliminated. Early housing reformers urged the construction of tenements to replace cellars, and beginning in 1859 the number of people living in cellars began to decline. This was amended by the Tenement House Act of 1879, known as the Old Law, which required lot coverage of no more than 65 percent. ”The New York City Board of Health, empowered to enforce the regulations, declined to do so. As a compromise, the Old Law tenement became the standard, this had a shape, with air and light shafts on either side in the center. Public concern about New York tenements was stirred by the publication in 1890 of Jacob Riis How the Other Half Lives and it used both charts and photographs, the first such official use of photographs. Together with the publication in 1895 by the U. S and these rules are still the basis of New York City law on low-rise buildings, and made single-lot development uneconomical. The Lower East Side Tenement Museum, a brick former tenement building in Manhattan that is a National Historic Site, is a museum devoted to tenements in the Lower East Side. Tenements make up a percentage of the housing stock of Edinburgh. Edinburghs tenements are much older, dating from the 17th century onwards, and some were up to 15 storeys high when first built, which made them among the tallest houses in the world at that time. Glasgow tenements were built no taller than the width of the street on which they were located, therefore. Virtually all Glasgow tenements were constructed using red or blonde sandstone, a large number of the tenements in Edinburgh and Glasgow were demolished in the 1960s and 1970s because of slum conditions, overcrowding and poor maintenance of the buildings. The Gorbals is a small area and at one time had an estimated 90,000 people living in its tenements, leading to very poor living conditions. However, the many remaining tenements in areas of both cities have experienced a resurgence in popularity due to their large rooms, high ceilings
10.
Albert Nobbs
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Albert Nobbs is a 2011 British-Irish drama film directed by Rodrigo García and starring Glenn Close. The screenplay, by Close, John Banville, and Gabriella Prekop, is based on a novella by George Moore and they also received Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations. The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Makeup. The novella had been adapted as a play titled The Singular Life of Albert Nobbs in which Close starred Off-Broadway in 1982. Albert Nobbs works with extreme dedication as a butler in 19th-century Ireland. Assigned as female at birth, and initially raised as a girl, Albert has been secretly saving money to buy a tobacco shop to gain some measure of freedom and independence. Meanwhile, recently unemployed Joe Mackins arrives at the hotel to repair the boiler, flirtatious maid Helen Dawes is attracted to him, and they become lovers. However, Joe soon shows himself to be an alcoholic bully, at this time, a Mr. Hubert Page, who was tasked with painting the hotel, discovers Alberts secret, only to reveal that he is keeping the very same secret about himself. Albert visits Hubert at his home and meets Cathleen, who lives with him as his wife. Albert tells Hubert the story of his life, born a bastard and then abandoned, Albert was raised and educated in a convent before being kicked out after the death of Mrs Nobbs, Alberts mother. One night, aged 14 and still presenting as female, Albert was brutally gang-raped, immediately afterwards, after hearing there was a need for waiters, Albert bought a suit, was interviewed and was hired, and began his life with a male identity. Alberts former name is not revealed, believing Helen may be the ideal wife to run a shop with, Albert asks her to walk out. She refuses, but Joe, believing that Albert will give Helen money that could help the pair emigrate to America and she agrees to this approach, allowing Albert to buy her expensive gifts. Helen is uncomfortable with Albert and the arrangement that Joe forced her to make, Albert tells Helen about long-kept plans to buy a shop, though she only wants to leave Ireland for America. A typhoid epidemic breaks out in Dublin, and when some staff fall ill, customers avoid the hotel, Albert becomes infected but recovers, while Helen discovers she is pregnant with Joes child. Joe is terrified, fearing he will become like his abusive father, Albert goes to Huberts home and learns that Cathleen died, leaving Hubert devastated. As a tribute to her, Albert and Hubert don dresses Cathleen made, though both at first are extremely uncomfortable, they eventually enjoy spending the day together dressed as women. They take a walk along the beach where Albert, feeling free, but a stumble and fall bring Albert back to reality
11.
Foyle's War
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It has been broadcast on ITV since 2002. On 12 January 2015, ITV announced that no more episodes will be commissioned due to the costs of production. The last episode was broadcast on 18 January 2015 and he is assisted by his driver Samantha Sam Stewart and Detective Sergeant Paul Milner. From Series 7, it sees a retired Foyle working for MI5, Foyle, a widower, is quiet, methodical, sagacious, and scrupulously honest, yet he is frequently underestimated by his foes. Many of his cases concern profiteering, the market. Foyle often comes up against high-ranking officials in the British military or intelligence services who would prefer that he mind his own business, Christopher was the nearest male name to Christina. After Christina Foyles death, control of Foyles passed in 1999 to her nephew, Christopher Foyle was given a cameo in the episode Bad Blood, though the scene was cut from the PBS airings in the US. There are some running strands, mainly involving the career of Foyles son Andrew, each episode runs for about 90 to 100 minutes, filling a two-hour time slot on ITV when commercials are included. To fit its PBS 90-minute time slot in the United States, Acorn Media contracted Cre-a-TV, Inc. to repackage the entire Foyles War programme into two-part episodes to run within PBS allotted airtime. In this incarnation, each episode was aired in two parts, each in a time slot – with each part running about 50 minutes. To fill in the slot, the station aired excerpts of interviews of the series creator and some cast members. After five series, the show was cancelled by Simon Shaps. This forced Horowitz to throw out scripts set during most of 1943 and 1944, in April 2008, the presumed final episode, All Clear, during which the end of the war is announced, was broadcast. At the time the figures for the final episode were released, ITV confirmed that it had entered and was continuing early discussions with Horowitz. These negotiations eventually led to the series being recommissioned for a three episodes. Series six commenced filming in February 2009 and premiered on UK television 11 April 2010, Series seven was filmed in Ireland and London from late August 2012 to December 2012 and was broadcast on UK television in March and April 2013. Series eight comprised three episodes and aired in the UK in January 2015. This is typical of the modesty, courtesy and precision of speech that he displays throughout the series, Foyle is a longstanding widower, he has one son, Andrew, to whom he is close, although their relationship is not demonstrative
12.
Dead end (street)
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A dead end, also known as a cul-de-sac, is a street with only one inlet/outlet. While historically built for reasons, one of its modern uses is to calm vehicle traffic. The term dead end is understood in all varieties of English, some of these are used only regionally. In the United States and other countries, cul-de-sac is often not a synonym for dead end and refers to dead ends with a circular end. See below for regionally used terms, Dead ends existed in towns and cities long before the automotive 20th century, particularly in Arab and Moorish towns. The earliest example was unearthed in the El-Lahun workers village in Egypt, the village is laid out with straight streets that intersect at right angles, akin to a grid, but irregular. Dead-end streets appeared also during the period of Athens and Rome. The 15th century architect and planner Leon Battista Alberti implies in his writings that dead-end streets may have been used intentionally in antiquity for defense purposes, the same opinion is expressed by an earlier thinker, Aristotle, when he criticized the Hippodamian grid. But for security in war the opposite, as it used to be in ancient times, for that is difficult for foreign troops to enter and find their way about when attacking. In the UK, their existence is implied by an 1875 law which banned their use in new developments. In the earlier periods, traffic was excluded from residential streets simply by gates or by employing the cul-de-sac and it was in the UK that the cul-de-sac street type was first legislated into use, with The Hampstead Garden Suburb Act 1906. Unwins applications of the cul-de-sac and the related crescent always included pedestrian paths independent of the road network, the 1906 Act defined the nature of the cul-de-sac as a non-through road and restricted its length to 500 feet. Garden cities in the UK that followed Hampstead, such as Welwyn Garden City all included culs-de-sac, the US Federal Housing Authority recommended and promoted their use through their 1936 guidelines and the power of lending development funds. In Canada, a variation of Stein’s Radburn 1929 plan that used crescents instead of culs-de-sac was built in 1947 in Manitoba, Wildwood Park, Winnipeg, the Varsity Village and Braeside, subdivisions in Calgary, Alberta also used the Radburn model in the late 1960s. Although dead end streets, i. e. Doxiadis has additionally argued their important role in separating man from machine, originally unplanned dead ends have been created in the centers of cities that are laid on a grid by blocking through traffic. A recent variation of limiting traffic is the closure by using retractable bollards which are activated by designated card holders only. However, not only do they stop cars, they also stop ambulances and other emergency vehicles, Dead ends are created in urban planning to limit through-traffic in residential areas. This design improvement, which selectively excludes one mode of transport while permitting others and its application retains the dead ends primary function as a non-through road, but establishes complete pedestrian and bicycle network connectivity
13.
Peerages in the United Kingdom
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The peerage is a legal system historically comprising hereditary titles in the United Kingdom, comprising various noble ranks, and forms a constituent part of the British honours system. The term peerage can be used collectively to refer to the entire body of nobles, and individually to refer to a specific title. British peerage title holders are termed peers of the Realm, New Labour, elected to power in 1997, sought to eject all hereditary peers from Parliament but PM Tony Blair relented by allowing only 92 members to remain by legislation enacted in 1999. The House of Lordss purpose is now that of a legislative chamber. Peerages are created by the British monarch, like all Crown honours, HMG recommends to the Sovereign who to be elevated to the peerage, after external vetting by the House of Lords Appointments Commission. The Sovereign, traditionally the fount of honour, cannot hold a British peerage, succession claims to existing hereditary peerages are regulated by the House of Lords Committee for Privileges and Conduct and administered by The Crown Office. The modern-day parliamentary peerage is a continuation of the renamed medieval baronage system which existed in feudal times, certain other office-holders such as senior clerics and Freemen of the Cinque Ports were deemed barons. This right, entitlement or title, began to be granted by decree in the form of a Writ of Summons from 1265, additionally, many holders of smaller fiefdoms per baroniam ceased to be summoned to parliament, resulting in baronial status becoming personal rather than territorial. In the UK, five peerages co-exist, namely, The Peerage of England — titles created by the Kings, the Peerage of Scotland — titles created by the Kings and Queens of Scotland before 1707. The Peerage of Ireland — titles created for the Kingdom of Ireland before the Act of Union of 1801, the Peerage of Great Britain — titles created for the Kingdom of Great Britain between 1707 and 1801. The Peerage of the United Kingdom — most titles created since 1801 to the present, Peers are of five ranks, in descending order of hierarchy, Duke comes from the Latin dux, leader. The first duke in a peerage of the British Isles was created in 1337, Marquess comes from the French marquis, which is a derivative of marche or march. This is a reference to the borders between England, Scotland, and Wales, a more evident in the feminine form. The first marquess in a peerage of the British Isles was created in 1385, earl comes from the Old English or Anglo-Saxon eorl, a military leader. The meaning may have been affected by the Old Norse jarl, meaning free-born warrior or nobleman, during the Danelaw, since there was no feminine Old English or Old Norse equivalent for the term, Countess is used, from the Latin comes. Viscount comes from the Latin vicecomes, vice-count, Baron comes from the Old Germanic baro, freeman. In the Peerage of Scotland alone, a holder of the rank is not called a Baron. Barons in Scotland were traditionally holders of feudal dignities, not peers, baronets, while holders of hereditary titles, are not peers since baronetcies have never conferred noble status, although socially they came to be regarded as part of the aristocracy
14.
Mews
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The word may also refer to the lane, alley or back street onto which such stables open. It is sometimes applied to rows or groups of garages or, more broadly, today most mews stables have been converted into dwellings. The word derives from the French muer, to moult, reflecting its function to confine hawks while they moulted. From 1377 onwards the kings falconry birds were kept in the Kings Mews at Charing Cross, the name stuck when it became the royal stables starting in 1537 during the reign of King Henry VIII. Following its demolition in the early 19th century Trafalgar Square was built on the site, the Royal Mews relocated to the grounds of Buckingham Palace, where it remains today. The stables of St Jamess Palace, occupying the site where Lancaster House was later built, were occasionally referred to as the Royal Mews. A mews in the sense of a building where birds used for falconry are kept, the words later usage as a residential term originated in London, spreading to parts of Canada, Australia and the United States. The term mews is not used for large individual non-royal British stable blocks, for example, the grand stable block at Chatsworth House is referred to as the stables, not the mews. Instead the word was applied to streets and the stables in them in cities. In the 18th and 19th centuries London housing for wealthy people generally consisted of streets of terraced houses with stables at the back. The mews had horse stalls and a house on the ground floor. Generally this was mirrored by another row of stables on the side of the service street. Sometimes there were such as small courtyards. Most mews are named after one of the streets which they back onto. Most but not all have the word mews in their name and this arrangement was different from most of Continental Europe, where the stables in wealthy urban residences were usually off a front or central courtyard. The advantage of the British system was that it hid the sounds, Mews lost their equestrian function in the early 20th century when motor cars were introduced. At the same time, after World War I and especially after World War II, one place where a mews may still be found put to equestrian use is Bathurst Mews in Westminster, near Hyde Park, London, where several private horses are kept. Nearby, the stables have been put to commercial use, Hyde Park Stables
15.
John Maxwell, 1st Baron Farnham
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John Maxwell, 1st Baron Farnham was an Irish peer and politician. He was appointed Prothonotary of the Court of Common Pleas from 1725 until his death and he was a Member of Parliament of the Irish House of Commons for Cavan County from 1727 to 1756. He inherited Farnham estate from his cousin in 1737 and was appointed High Sheriff of Cavan for 1739, the latter year he was raised to the Peerage of Ireland as Baron Farnham, of Farnham in the County of Cavan. He had married in 1719 Judith Barry, daughter of James Barry of Newton Barry, Barry Maxwell, 1st Earl of Farnham, 3rd Baron Farnham. Rev. Henry Maxwell was Bishop of Dromore and Bishop of Meath and he married in 1759 Margaret Foster, daughter of the Rt. Hon. Anthony Foster, and sister of John Foster, 1st Baron Oriel and their two sons, John and Henry, eventually succeeded as the 5th and 6th Baron Farnham. He died in August 1759 and was succeeded in the barony by his son Robert, in 1760 Robert was created Viscount Farnham and three years later created Earl of Farnham. New York, St Martins Press,1990, leigh Rayments Peerage Pages Maxwell family genealogy, part 03, showing the Maxwell of Calderwood, Maxwell of Farnham, and Maxwell of Finnebrogue families. Cavan County Museum – The Farnham Gallery Farnham Estate
16.
Earl of Thomond
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Earl of Thomond was an hereditary title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created twice for the OBrien dynasty which was an ancient Irish sept native to north Munster, under the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, King Henry VIII of England was created King of Ireland by the Parliament of Ireland. In consequence, all reigning monarchs and clan chiefs in Ireland were ordered to surrender their native titles in return for peerages, the earldom was first created in 1543 for Murrough OBrien. He had previously been styled King of Thomond and was descended from the Ard Ri or High King of Ireland, OBrien was also created Baron Inchiquin, on 1 July 1543. On the same day his nephew and heir, Donough OBrien, was created Baron Ibrickane, the titles of Ibrickane and Thomond merged on the first Earls death in 1551, and the barony of Inchiquin went to his eldest son. The 8th Earl was created Viscount Tadcaster, in the Peerage of Great Britain, however, when he died in 1741, the next heir would have been a descendant of Daniel OBrien, 3rd Viscount Clare who was attainded in 1691, so the three titles became forfeit. However, Charles OBrien, 6th Viscount Clare, a Jacobite exile used the title Earl of Thomond, as did his son, the second creation was on 11 December 1756 when Percy Wyndham-OBrien was created Earl of Thomond and Baron Ibracken. On his death in 1774, both became extinct. Murrough OBrien, 1st Earl of Thomond Donough OBrien, 2nd Earl of Thomond – created Baron Ibrickane in 1543, all titles forfeit on his death
17.
George Stone (bishop)
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George Stone was the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh from 1747 to his death. Born in London, the son of Andrew Stone, a London goldsmith and he was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. Having taken holy orders, his advancement in the Church was very rapid, in 1733 Stone was made Dean of Ferns, and in the following year he exchanged this deanery for that of Derry. In 1740 he became Bishop of Ferns and Leighlin, in 1743 Bishop of Kildare, in 1745 Bishop of Derry, during the two years that he occupied the See of Kildare he was also Dean of Christ Church, Dublin. From the moment that he became Primate of All Ireland, Stone proved himself more a politician than an ecclesiastic and he was said to have been selfish, worldly-minded, ambitious and ostentatious, and he was accused, though very probably falsely, of gross private vice. These two, afterwards joined by the old rival Lord Shannon, and usually supported by the Earl of Kildare, regained control of affairs in 1758. In the same year Stone wrote a letter, preserved in the Bedford Correspondence, in which he speaks very despondingly of the material condition of Ireland. According to Horace Walpole, his death was due to ruining his constitution by an excess of food and alcohol. Although this much-abused prelate, as Lecky calls him, was a supporter of the English government in Ireland. It was due to his influence that in the disturbances in Ulster in 1763 the government acted with conspicuous moderation. Archbishop Stone, who never married, was a man of remarkably handsome appearance, richard Cumberland, who was struck by the Polish magnificence of the primate, speaks in the highest terms of his courage, tact, and qualities as a popular leader. He was himself the author of volumes of sermons which were published during his lifetime. Richard Cumberland, Memoirs Francis Hardy, Memoirs of the earl of Charlemont Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George II
18.
Nathaniel Clements
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Nathaniel Clements was an Irish politician and financial figure, important in the political and financial administration of Ireland in the mid-18th century. Clements was the son of Robert Clements. He married Hannah Gore, daughter of William Gore, D. D, dean of Down, on 31 January 1730. Clements became Member of Parliament for Duleek in 1727 under the patronage of Luke Gardiner and he commenced as a junior at the Irish Treasury in 1720 and held extensive offices there. He became the financial manager of the British and Irish Government in Ireland during the period. He assumed the offices of Deputy Vice-Treasurer and Deputy Paymaster General on Gardiners retirement in 1755, in 1761, Clements was returned for Cavan Borough in, holding this seat until 1768. In this year, he was elected for Roscommon Borough as well as Leitrim, in 1776, Clements stood for again for Cavan Borough as well as Carrick and represented the latter constituency until his death in 1777. Clements was appointed to the office of Chief Ranger of the Phoenix Park and Master of Game and he had an extensive property portfolio, including Abbotstown, County Dublin, estates in County Leitrim and County Cavan. He was a developer of property in Georgian Dublin, including part of Henrietta Street where he lived at No.7 from 1734 to 1757 and he was one of the richest commoners in Ireland, notwithstanding his involvement in a failed banking venture in 1759. Clements was involved in charitable activities including Dr Steevens Hospital, the Erasmus Smith Educational Foundation, the Royal Hospital Kilmainham for retired soldiers. Nathaniel Clements and Hannah Gore had six children, Robert Clements, created Earl of Leitrim in 1795, hon. Henry Theophilus Clements, MP Elizabeth, m. 1750, Francis Burton, second Baron Conyngham Hannah, m,1752, George Montgomery, Ballyconnell, MP Catherine, m. Eyre Massey, 1st Baron Clarina Alice, m, sir Ralph Gore, sixth Baronet, created Earl of Ross. Nathaniel Clements, government and the elite in Ireland, 1725-75. Irish House of Commons Áras an Uachtaráin
19.
Edward Lovett Pearce
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Sir Edward Lovett Pearce was an Irish architect, and the chief exponent of palladianism in Ireland. He is thought to have studied as an architect under his fathers first cousin. He is best known for the Irish Houses of Parliament in Dublin, the architectural concepts he employed on both civic and private buildings were to change the face of architecture in Ireland. He could be described as the father of Irish Palladian architecture, following his time in the army, he decided circa 1722, to return to his first career and again began to study architecture, he did this by studying the architectural masterpieces of France and Italy. However it was in the Veneto that he found the style of architecture which was to him most. He made detailed drawings of many of the great villas designed by Palladio which were to serve as the inspiration for his later work and he met in Italy the Florentine architect Alessandro Galilei, who was working from afar on a vast grandiose mansion near Dublin – Castletown. About 1725 Edward married Ann, his own first-cousin, daughter of General Thomas Pearce and they were to have four daughters who inherited great-grandfather Pearces manor of Whitlingham by Norwich, Norfolk. Mary, Mrs Lewis Thomas then Mrs James Slator but mother of Major-General Lewis Thomas, Anne, Mrs Chambre Hallowes, Frances, Mrs Benjamin Lake and Henrietta and he remained a Captain in Colonel Clement Nevilles Dragoons. Castletown House is the largest and one of the most important country houses in Ireland, the mansion was commissioned by William Conolly, a self-made man who had risen from humble origins through astute property dealings to become one of the wealthiest and influential men in Ireland. The original plans were drawn by Alessandro Galilei circa 1718, the new mansion was intended to reflect Connolys political power as Lord Justice of Ireland, Galilei though returned to Italy in 1719, having drawn the plans, but not waiting to see building on the Castletown site commence. In fact work was not to start until 1722, for two years, the project seems to have continued unsupervised, until in 1724, it was taken over by the twenty-five-year-old Edward Lovett Pearce. Just returned to Ireland from Italy, it is likely that Pearce had been working on the plans with Galilei there, hence Pierces connection with Castletown probably predates his return to Ireland. It is possible that it was to oversee the building of Castletown that provided Pearce with the impetus to return home to Ireland, building at Castletown was to continue for the rest of Pearces life. It is not known precisely how much of Castletown is Galileis work, if in Italy Pearce had been employed by Galilei and worked on the plans, then, as was the custom of the time, Pearces work as an employee would have been credited to his master. Galilei was certainly responsible for devising the overall scheme of a principal centre mansion, Castletown was the first house in Ireland designed with this layout. The rigid symmetry of Castletowns classical facades, designed by Galilei was to be typical too of Pearces later work. The interiors and final plans are believed to be the work of Pearce. Such a mansion as Castletown, in Italy, would have been a town Palazzo rather than a country villa
20.
William Stewart, 1st Earl of Blessington
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Stewart was the son of William Stewart, 2nd Viscount Mountjoy and Anne Boyle. He married Eleanor Fitzgerald, daughter of Robert Fitzgerald on 10 January 1733 and they had two children, William Stewart and Lionel Robert, both of whom died before their father. He succeeded his father as Viscount Mountjoy on 10 January 1727 and he was Grand Master of the Freemasons between 1738 and 1740. He was created Earl of Blessington on 7 December 1745, his mother having been sister and sole heiress of Charles, 2nd and he was made Governor of County Tyrone and in 1748, was sworn of the Privy Council of Ireland. On his death in London on 14 August 1769 he was buried at Silchester in Hampshire and his peerages became extinct, but his baronetcy was inherited by a distant cousin, Sir Annesley Stewart
21.
Nicholas Hume-Loftus, 1st Earl of Ely
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Nicholas Hume-Loftus, 1st Earl of Ely PC was a British peer and member of the House of Lords. He was the son of Nicholas Loftus, 1st Viscount Loftus and he sat in the Irish House of Commons as the Member of Parliament for Bannow from 1736 to 1760 and for Fethard, County Wexford between 1761 and 1763. In 1763 he succeeded to his fathers titles and assumed his seat in the Irish House of Lords, in 1764 he was invested as a member of the Privy Council of Ireland. On 23 October 1766 he was created Earl of Ely in County Wicklow in the Peerage of Ireland and he married Mary Hume, daughter of Sir Gustavus Hume, 3rd Baronet, on 18 August 1736. He was succeeded by his son, Nicholas Hume-Loftus, 2nd Earl of Ely
22.
Richard Molesworth, 3rd Viscount Molesworth
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Field Marshal Richard Molesworth, 3rd Viscount Molesworth, PC, styled The Honourable Richard Molesworth from 1716 to 1726, was an Anglo-Irish military officer, politician and nobleman. He served with his regiment at the Battle of Blenheim before being appointed aide-de-camp to the Duke of Marlborough during the War of the Spanish Succession, during the Battle of Ramillies Molesworth offered Marlborough his own horse after Marlborough fell from the saddle. Molesworth then recovered his masters charger and slipped away, by these actions he saved his masters life, during the Battle of Ramillies, which took place the following day, Molesworth offered Marlborough his own horse after Marlborough fell from the saddle. Molesworth then recovered his masters charger and slipped away, by these actions he saved his masters life and he commanded an infantry regiment in Catalonia under the Duke of Argyll from July 1710 until he returned to England in late 1712. Molesworth became Lieutenant of the Ordnance in Ireland in December 1714 and was elected Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons for Swords in 1715. He raised a regiment of Dragoons in 1715 and was wounded at the Battle of Preston in November 1715 during the Jacobite rising of that year, after taking part in the competition to develop a marine chronometer, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in March 1722. Molesworth became colonel of the Inniskilling Regiment of Foot in March 1725, promoted to the local rank of lieutenant-general in Ireland in 1739, he became Master-General of the Ordnance in Ireland in 1740. Promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general on 1 July 1742 and to general of the horse on 24 March 1746, he became Commander-in-Chief. At this time he lived at 14 Henrietta Street in Dublin, promoted to field marshal on 3 December 1757, Molesworth became Governor of the Royal Hospital Kilmainham, he died in London on 12 October 1758 and was buried in Kensington. Molesworth first married Jane Lucas, they had one child, Mary, following the death of his first wife he married Mary Jenney Usher on 7 February 1744 and had four children from this union, Henrietta, Melosina, Mary and Louisa
23.
Robert King, 1st Baron Kingsborough
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Robert King, 1st Baron Kingsborough, known as Sir Robert King, Bt, between 1740 and 1748, was an Irish landowner and politician. King was the son of Sir Henry King, 3rd Baronet, by Isabella Wingfield, daughter of Edward Wingfield and sister of Richard Wingfield. He succeeded his father in the baronetcy in 1740, in 1744 he was returned to the Irish Parliament for Boyle, a seat he held until 1748, when, aged only 24, he was raised to the Irish peerage as Baron Kingsborough. He was also Custos Rotulorum of Roscommon, lord Kingsborough died in May 1755, aged 31. He never married and the barony died with him and he was succeeded in the baronetcy by his younger brother, Edward, who was created Earl of Kingston in 1768
24.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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