1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
King's Inns
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The Honorable Society of Kings Inns is the institution which controls the entry of barristers-at-law into the justice system of Ireland. The full title retains the spelling variant honorable in preference to the contemporary Hiberno-English spelling of honourable. The society was created in 1541,51 years before Trinity College, Dublin was founded, the founders named their society in honour of King Henry VIII of England and his newly established Kingdom of Ireland. The society secured a lease of lands at Inns Quay on the bank of the River Liffey in Dublin. The society was reconstituted in 1607, having been inactive for some time, the building was completed by his pupil Henry Aaron Baker. Only from the middle of the century onwards were courses of legal education provided at Kings Inns. Candidates who have a law degree may apply for the Degree of Barrister-at-Law. Alternatively, candidates without a law degree may undertake the societys Diploma in Legal Studies before presenting for the societys degree. Those who are presented with the degree are entitled to be called to, in 2006, the society had an enrolment of approximately 300 students, whilst there are approximately 2,000 practising barristers. The library collection dates from the end of the 18th century, and was based on part of that of Christopher Robinson, senior judge of the Court of Kings Bench. Books were sold at auction at Sothebys, London, and a stock of them were sold to clients outside Ireland. This was seen at the time as a major cultural outflow, in addition, the societys library had received an annual grant since 1945 for the upkeep of the books from the Irish Exchequer. A Kings Inns team or individual has often won the prestigious Irish Times National Debating Championship, in 2006 the Inns hurling team competed in and won the Fergal Maher Cup in their inaugural year and have subsequently reached the final and semi-final. After crossing Bolton Street, Henrietta Street runs into Kings Inns Street, the latter was renamed due to its proximity to the Kings Inns. In 1756, this appears as Turn Again Lane on Rocques map of Dublin. Henrietta Street is thought to have been named by Luke Gardiner in honour of Henrietta Somerset and her portrait by Enoch Seeman survives
3.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
4.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
5.
Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Grafton
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Charles FitzRoy, 2nd Duke of Grafton KG PC FRS was an Irish and English politician. He was the child and heir of Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton by his wife Isabella Bennet. He succeeded to his fathers titles on 9 October 1690 and he was Lord High Steward at King George Is coronation, becoming a Privy Counsellor in 1715 and a Knight of the Garter in 1721. He also served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1720 to 1724, in 1719 he was one of the main subscribers to the Royal Academy of Music, a corporation that produced baroque opera on the stage. In 1739 he supported the creation of what was to one of Londons most notable charities. He sat on that charitys original Court of Governors with such fellow Governors as the Duke of Bedford, the Lord Vere and the Lord Mayor of London. He married Lady Henrietta Somerset, daughter of Charles Somerset, Marquess of Worcester and Rebecca Child, they had seven children, Charles Henry FitzRoy, the Earl was notorious for mistreating his wife, who died seven months after their marriage, and died childless. He was married to Elizabeth Cosby, daughter of Colonel William Cosby and they were parents to two sons, who founded branches of the family still extant today, Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton Charles FitzRoy, 1st Baron Southampton Lord Charles FitzRoy. She married William Stanhope, 2nd Earl of Harrington and they were parents to Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl of Harrington and other six children. She married Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Marquess of Hertford and they were parents to Francis Seymour-Conway, 2nd Marquess of Hertford and eleven other children. They were ancestors of Diana, Princess of Wales via their son Hugh, the Duke also fathered an illegitimate son, Charles FitzRoy-Scudamore. Grafton Street in Dublin was named after him, R. H. Nichols and F A. Wray, The History of the Foundling Hospital
6.
Georgian Dublin
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Dublin was for much of its existence a medieval city, marked by the existence of a particular style of buildings, built on narrow winding medieval streets. Though the city over the century had grown around the River Liffey, as in other medieval cities. This allowed the dumping of waste directly into the river. As Dublins quays underwent development, Ormonde insisted that the frontages of the houses, not their rears, should face the quay sides, by this single regulation Ormonde changed the face of the city. No longer would the river be a sewer hidden between buildings, for his initiative, Ormondes name is now given to one of the city quays. It was, however, only one of a number of crucial developments, as the city grew in size, stature, population and wealth, two changes were needed. The existing narrow street medieval city required major redevelopment, and major new development of areas was required. A new body called the Wide Streets Commission was created to remodel the old medieval city and it created a network of main thoroughfares by wholesale demolition or widening of old streets or the creation of entirely new ones. On the north side of the city, a series of streets were merged and widened enormously to create a new street. At its lower end, a new bridge was erected, beyond which two new streets in the form of a V appeared, known as Westmoreland Street and DOlier Street. Westmoreland Street in turn led to a renamed Hoggen Green, which became College Green because it faced unto Trinity College Dublin, the Castle began the process of rebuilding, turning it from a medieval castle to a Georgian palace. While the rebuilding by the Wide Streets Commission fundamentally changed the streetscape in Dublin, unlike twentieth century building booms in Dublin the eighteenth century developments were carefully controlled. The developing areas were divided into precincts, each of which was given to a different developer, initially developments were focused on the citys north side. Among the earliest developments was Henrietta Street, a street lined on both sides by massive Georgian houses built on a palatial scale. At the top end of the street, a new James Gandon building, in this building, barristers were trained and earned their academic qualifications. Such was the prestige of the street that many of the most senior figures in Irish establishment society, peers of the realm, judges, barristers, bishops bought houses here. Ultimately the north side was laid out centered on two major squares, Rutland Square, at the top end of Sackville Street, and Mountjoy Square, such was the prestige of the latter square that among its many prominent residents was the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Dublin. Many of the streets in the new areas were named after the property developers, among the streets named after developers are Capel Street, Mountjoy Square and Aungier Street
7.
Richard Cassels
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Richard Cassels, who anglicised his name to Richard Castle, ranks with Edward Lovett Pearce as one of the greatest architects working in Ireland in the 18th century. Cassels was born in 1690 in Kassel, Germany, although German, his family were of French origin, descended from the French-Netherlandish Du Ry family, famous for the many architects among their number. A cousin Simon du Ry designed Schloss Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel, Richard Cassels, who originally trained as an engineer, came to Ireland in 1728 at the behest of Sir Gustavus Hume of County Fermanagh to design for Hume a mansion on the shores of Lough Erne. Hume had probably discovered Cassels working in London where he was influenced by the circle of architects influenced by Lord Burlington, Cassels, soon after arrival in Ireland, established a thriving architectural practice in Dublin. Both of these buildings were designed in the newly introduced Palladian style, Palladian architecture was currently enjoying a revival that was to sweep across Europe and be adopted with a fervour in Ireland. Cassels was well versed in the concepts of Palladio and Vitruvius, in Dublin itself, Cassels worked on the Houses of Parliament with Pearce, his mentor and friend. Cassels first solo commission was the Printing House of Trinity College and this portico was an interesting feature symbolising Cassels early work – a portico is an almost essential feature of Palladian architecture. But as Cassels work matured he tended to merely hint at a portico by placing semi-engaged columns supporting a pediment as the point of a facade. Perhaps he felt the huge Italian porticos that provided shelter from the sun were not requisite for houses in the less clement Ireland and this blind, merely suggested, portico is a feature of his final Dublin masterpiece Leinster House built for the Earl of Kildare between 1745 and 1751. In 1741 he designed the Bishops Palace which is now part of Waterford Treasures - Three Museums in the Viking Triangle, Waterford, the untimely death of Edward Lovett Pearce, aged 34, in 1733, made Cassels Irelands leading architect working in the sought after Palladian style. He immediately assumed all of Pearces commissions and thus began designing a series of country houses. This led to the creation of what came to be known as Georgian Dublin, for his exteriors he used a Palladian style that was distinctive for its strength and sobriety. In this he seems to have influenced by Pearce and also James Gibbs. However, when it came to interiors, Cassels gave full rein to his love of the more continental Baroque, walls were covered in stucco reliefs, ceilings medallions and motifs of plaster, segmental mouldings, and carvings, in an almost rococo style peculiar to Ireland. Some of the finest of Cassels works in order of commencement are listed below and this perfect small doric temple, was completed in 1734, and is thought to be Cassels first major solo work. A four-columned portico of doric columns projected from the rusticated severe building, Cassels made large alterations to the Carton house in County Kildare between 1739 and 1745 for the Earl of Kildare. The resultant facades were in his usual restrained and symmetrical style, the great garden facade is terminated by Venetian windows at each end, while in the centre, a single storey portico is so unostentatious as to be almost a porch. The roof-line is hidden by a balustrade, broken by a pediment over the central bay
8.
Archbishop of Armagh (Church of Ireland)
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The Anglican Archbishop of Armagh is the ecclesiastical head of the Church of Ireland, the metropolitan of the Province of Armagh and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Armagh. Like his counterpart the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh, he bears the title Primate of All Ireland, in Irish times, the primacy of Armagh was questioned only by the great southern centre of the Irish Church, at Cashel. Brian Boru recognized the supremacy of Armagh, possibly in a move to gain support from Armagh for Borus claim to the High Kingship. Another noteworthy incumbent was St. Malachy OMorgair, who suffered many tribulations in trying to effect a reformation in the diocese, St. Malachy is honoured as the patron saint of the diocese. When the English kings got a footing in the country, they began to intervene in the election of bishops, the English kings also began to claim possession of the temporalities of the sees during vacancies and to insist on the newly elected bishops suing them humbly for their restitution. Thereupon the king in 1552, appointed Hugh Goodacre to the see and he survived his consecration only three months. In the beginning of the reign of Mary I, Dowdall was again appointed to the see on account of the zeal he had shown against Protestantism. Adam Loftus, from whom the Church of Ireland hierarchy derive their orders, was consecrated by Hugh Curwin, Archbishop of Dublin. He left his library, comprising several thousand printed books and manuscripts, to Trinity College, Dublin. His judgment against toleration of Roman Catholics, i. e. John Bramhall, another learned divine and his works on polemic and other subjects have been published in four folio volumes. Richard Robinson raised Armagh by his munificence from extreme decay to a state of opulence and he built an episcopal headquarters, a public library, an infirmary, and an observatory. Lord John George Beresford was also distinguished by his munificence and he restored Armagh Cathedral and is said to have spent £280,000 in acts of public benevolence. The following is a basic list of the Church of Ireland archbishops of Armagh
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