1.
Charles William Jefferys
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Charles William Jefferys was a Canadian painter, illustrator, author, and teacher best known as a historical illustrator. Born in Rochester, England, Jefferys arrived in Toronto, Ontario with his family around 1880, after attending school, he apprenticed with the york, Lithography Company from 1885 to 1890. From 1889 to 1892 he worked for the Toronto Globe as an illustrator, from 1893 to 1901, he worked for the New York Herald. Returning to Toronto, he became a magazine and book illustrator, along with Ivor Lewis and other artists, Jefferys co-founded the Graphic Arts Club, which by the 1940s became the primary artists group in Canada. As well, from 1912 to 1939 he taught painting and drawing in the Department of Architecture at the University of Toronto, during World War I he was commissioned by the Canadian War Records department to paint soldiers training at Camp Petawawa and Niagara. Jefferys had an intense interest in history and his reputation rests principally on his accurate, the best known collection of his historical sketches is The Picture Gallery of Canadian History. He was made a member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts, a plaque in his honour quotes him, If my work has stirred any interest in our country and its past, I am more than paid. C. W. Jefferys Collegiate Institute, a high school in Toronto, is named in his honour. There are works in the art collection of the Royal Military College of Canada by Charles William Jefferys, Canadian official war artists War artist War art Artists Organizations, The Canadian Encyclopedia. Kingston, Ontario, Hanson & Edgar,1976
2.
Greenwich
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Greenwich is an early-established district of todays London, England, centred 5.5 miles east south-east of Charing Cross. The town lends its name to the Royal Borough of Greenwich, Greenwich is generally described as being part of South-east London and sometimes as being part of East London. Greenwich is notable for its history and for giving its name to the Greenwich Meridian. The town became the site of a palace, the Palace of Placentia from the 15th century. The palace fell into disrepair during the English Civil War and was rebuilt as the Royal Naval Hospital for Sailors by Sir Christopher Wren and his assistant Nicholas Hawksmoor. These buildings became the Royal Naval College in 1873, and they remained an establishment for military education until 1998 when they passed into the hands of the Greenwich Foundation. The historic rooms within these buildings remain open to the public, other buildings are used by University of Greenwich and Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance. The town became a resort in the 18th century and many grand houses were built there, such as Vanbrugh Castle established on Maze Hill. From the Georgian period estates of houses were constructed above the town centre, Greenwich formed part of Kent until 1889 when the County of London was created. The place-name Greenwich is first attested in a Saxon charter of 918 and it is recorded as Grenewic in 964, and as Grenawic in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1013. It is Grenviz in the Domesday Book of 1086, and Grenewych in the Taxatio Ecclesiastica of 1291, the name means green wic or settlement. An article in The Times of 13 October 1967 stated, East Greenwich, gateway to the Blackwall Tunnel, remains solidly working class, the manpower for one eighth of Londons heavy industry. West Greenwich is a hybrid, the spirit of Nelson, the Cutty Sark, the Maritime Museum, an industrial waterfront and a number of elegant houses, ripe for development. Royal charters granted to English colonists in North America, often used the name of the manor of East Greenwich for describing the tenure as that of free socage, New England charters provided that the grantees should hold their lands as of his Majesty’s manor of East Greenwich. Grants named the castle of Windsor, places in North America that have taken the name East Greenwich include a township in Gloucester County, New Jersey, a hamlet in Washington County, New York, and a town in Kent County, Rhode Island. Tumuli to the south-west of Flamsteed House, in Greenwich Park, are thought to be early Bronze Age barrows re-used by the Saxons in the 6th century as burial grounds, to the east between the Vanbrugh and Maze Hill Gates is the site of a Roman villa or temple. A small area of red paving tesserae protected by railings marks the spot and it was excavated in 1902 and 300 coins were found dating from the emperors Claudius and Honorius to the 5th century. This was excavated by the Channel 4 television programme Time Team in 1999, broadcast in 2000, the Roman road from London to Dover, Watling Street crossed the high ground to the south of Greenwich, through Blackheath
3.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
4.
St Alfege Church, Greenwich
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St Alfege Church is a Church of England place of worship in the town centre of Greenwich in the eponymous London Borough. Of medieval origin, the church was rebuilt in 1712–14 to the designs of Nicholas Hawksmoor, the Danes took him to their camp at Greenwich, and killed him when the large ransom they demanded was not forthcoming. The church was rebuilt in around 1290 and it was in this building that Henry VIII was baptised in 1491. The patronage of the church was given to the abbey at Ghent during the 13th century, following the suppression of alien priories under Henry V, it was granted to the priory at Sheen with which it remained until transferred to the Crown by exchange under Henry VIII in 1530. During a storm in 1710 the medieval church collapsed, having had its foundation weakened by burials both inside and outside. The first church to be built by the commissioners, it was begun in 1712, the church is rectangular in plan with a flat ceiling, and a small apse serving as a chancel. The east front, towards the street, has a portico in the Tuscan order, with a central arch cutting through the entablature and pediment – a motif used in Wrens Great Model for St Pauls Cathedral. On the north and south sides of the wide projecting vestibules rise to the full height of the building. Hawksmoor planned a west tower, in the position of the existing one, however the commission was reluctant to fund it, and the medieval tower was retained. In 1730 John James refaced it, and added a spire, hawksmoors design, published in an engraving in 1714 had an octagonal lantern at the top, a motif he was later to use at St George in the East. An organ, built by George England, was installed in the mid-18th century, during the Blitz on 19 March 1941, incendiary bombs landed on the roof causing it to collapse, burning into the nave. The walls and the tower remained standing, but much of the interior was gutted, the church was restored by Sir Albert Richardson in 1953. In 2015 a fund-raising cream tea garden party for Christian Aid, the police proceeded to the adjacent Saint Alfrege Park, where a man was arrested and a firearm found. The Church is currently used to celebrate Founders Day of Addey and Stanhope School, notable burials, in and around the church, include, Renaissance composer Thomas Tallis, General James Wolfe, English-born explorer of Canada Henry Kelsey, and actress Lavinia Fenton. Noted merchant, Lloyds underwriter and art collector John Julius Angerstein was a churchwarden there during the early 19th century, Sir James Creed lies against the outer north wall. Sir John Lethieullier lies on the outer south-west corner of the church, in Charles Dickenss novel Our Mutual Friend, Bella Wilfer marries John Rokesmith in St Alfege Church. List of churches and cathedrals of London St. Alfege Church Website Mystery Worshipper Report at the Ship of Fools website
5.
Fur trade
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The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the modern period, furs of boreal, polar. Historically the trade stimulated the exploration and colonization of Siberia, northern North America, today the importance of the fur trade has diminished, it is based on pelts produced at fur farms and regulated fur-bearer trapping, but has become controversial. Animal rights organizations oppose the fur trade, citing that animals are brutally killed, Fur has been replaced in some clothing by synthetic imitations, for example, as in ruffs on hoods of parkas. Before the European colonization of the Americas, Russia was a supplier of fur pelts to Western Europe. Its trade developed in the Early Middle Ages, first through exchanges at posts around the Baltic, the main trading market destination was the German city of Leipzig. Originally, Russia exported raw furs, consisting in most cases of the pelts of martens, beavers, wolves, foxes, squirrels and hares. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Russians began to settle in Siberia, in a search for the prized sea otter pelts, first used in China, and later for the northern fur seal, the Russian Empire expanded into North America, notably Alaska. From the 17th through the half of the 19th century. The fur trade played a role in the development of Siberia, the Russian Far East. As recognition of the importance of the trade to the Siberian economy, the sable is a symbol of the Ural Sverdlovsk Oblast. Fur was relied on to make clothing, a critical consideration prior to the organization of coal distribution for heating. Portugal and Spain played major roles in fur trading after the 15th century with their business in fur hats and they began by establishing trading posts along the Volga and Vychegda river networks and requiring the Komi people to give them furs as tribute. Novgorod, the chief fur-trade center prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League, Novgorodians expanded farther east and north, coming into contact with the Pechora people of the Pechora River valley and the Yugra people residing near the Urals. Both of these native tribes offered more resistance than the Komi, as Muscovy gained more power in the 15th century and proceeded in the gathering of the Russian lands, the Muscovite state began to rival the Novgorodians in the North. During the 15th century Moscow began subjugating many native tribes, one strategy involved exploiting antagonisms between tribes, notably the Komi and Yugra, by recruiting men of one tribe to fight in an army against the other tribe. Campaigns against native tribes in Siberia remained insignificant until they began on a larger scale in 1483 and 1499. Besides the Novgorodians and the indigenes, Muscovites also had to contend with the various Muslim Tatar khanates to the east of Muscovy, at this point the phrase ruler of Obdor, Konda, and all Siberian lands became part of the title of the Tsar in Moscow
6.
Hudson's Bay Company
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The Hudsons Bay Company, commonly referred to as The Bay, is a Canadian retail business group. HBCs head office is in the Simpson Tower in Toronto, Ontario, the company is listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange under the symbol HBC. It was once the worlds largest landowner, with the area of the Hudson Bay watershed, known as Ruperts Land, having 15% of North American acreage. From its long-time headquarters at York Factory on Hudson Bay, the company controlled the fur trade throughout much of the English, undertaking early exploration, its traders and trappers forged relationships with many groups of aboriginal peoples. Its network of trading posts formed the nucleus for later official authority in areas of Western Canada. By the mid-19th century, the company evolved into a business selling everything from furs to fine homeware. They quickly introduced a new type of client to the HBC – one that shopped for pleasure and not with skins, in July 2008, HBC was acquired by NRDC Equity Partners, which also owns the upmarket American department store Lord & Taylor. From 2008 to 2012, the HBC was run through a company of NRDC, Hudsons Bay Trading Company. Since 2012, the HBC directly oversees its Canadian subsidiaries Hudsons Bay and Home Outfitters, on 29 July 2013, the HBC announced its takeover of Saks, Inc. operator of the Saks Fifth Avenue brand. The merger was completed on 3 November 2013, in September 2015, HBC acquired the German department store chain Galeria Kaufhof and its Belgian subsidiary from Metro Group for $3.2 billion U. S. In May 2016, HBC announced it would expand to the Netherlands by taking over up to 20 former Vroom & Dreesmann sites by 2017, v&D was an historic Dutch department store chain that went bankrupt and shut down in early 2016. HBC said the expansion would cost CAD $340 million and create 2,500 jobs in the stores, the Dutch stores would operate under the Hudsons Bay and Saks Off Fifth brands. In January 2016, HBC announced it would also expand deeper in the space with its acquisition of online flash sales site. In the 17th century the French had a de facto monopoly on the Canadian fur trade with their colony of New France. Assuming this was Hudson Bay, they sought French backing for a plan to set up a trading post on the Bay, despite this refusal, in 1659 Radisson and Groseilliers set out for the upper Great Lakes basin. A year later returned with premium furs, evidence of the potential of the Hudson Bay region. Subsequently, they were arrested for trading without a licence and fined, determined to establish trade in the Hudson Bay, Radisson and Groseilliers approached a group of businessmen in Boston, Massachusetts to help finance their explorations. The Bostonians agreed on the plans merits but their speculative voyage in 1663 failed when their ship ran into pack ice in Hudson Strait, boston-based English commissioner Colonel George Cartwright learned of the expedition and brought the two to England to raise financing
7.
Saskatchewan
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Saskatchewan is a prairie and boreal province in west-central Canada, the only province without natural borders. It has an area of 651,900 square kilometres, nearly 10 percent of which is water, composed mostly of rivers, reservoirs. As of December 2013, Saskatchewans population was estimated at 1,114,170, residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern boreal half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Of the total population, roughly half live in the provinces largest city, Saskatoon, or the provincial capital, other notable cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, North Battleford, and the border city Lloydminster. Saskatchewan is a province with large distances to moderating bodies of waters. As a result, its climate is continental, rendering severe winters throughout the province. Southern areas have very warm or hot summers, Midale and Yellow Grass near the U. S. border are tied for the highest ever recorded temperatures in Canada with 45 °C observed at both locations on July 5,1937. In winter, temperatures below −45 °C are possible even in the south during extreme cold snaps, Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups, and first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North-West Territories, in the early 20th century the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy, North Americas first social-democratic government was elected in 1944. The provinces economy is based on agriculture, mining, and energy, Saskatchewans current premier is Brad Wall and its lieutenant-governor is Vaughn Solomon Schofield. In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan. The First Nations received compensation and were permitted to buy land on the market for the tribes, they have acquired about 3,079 square kilometres. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas and its name derived from the Saskatchewan River. The river was known as kisiskāciwani-sīpiy in the Cree language, as Saskatchewans borders largely follow the geographic coordinates of longitude and latitude, the province is roughly a quadrilateral, or a shape with four sides. However the 49th parallel boundary and the 60th northern border appear curved on globes, additionally, the eastern boundary of the province is partially crooked rather than following a line of longitude, as correction lines were devised by surveyors prior to the homestead program. S. States of Montana and North Dakota, Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features. Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land-locked provinces, the overwhelming majority of Saskatchewans population is located in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel. Saskatchewan contains two natural regions, the Canadian Shield in the north and the Interior Plains in the south
8.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
9.
Great Plains
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The region is known for supporting extensive cattle ranching and dry farming. The Canadian portion of the Plains is known as the Prairies, some geographers include some territory of northern Mexico in the Plains, but many stop at the Rio Grande. The term Great Plains is used in the United States to describe a sub-section of the even more vast Interior Plains physiographic division and it also has currency as a region of human geography, referring to the Plains Indians or the Plains States. There is no region referred to as the Great Plains in The Atlas of Canada, in terms of human geography, the term prairie is more commonly used in Canada, and the region is known as the Prairie Provinces or simply the Prairies. The region is about 500 mi east to west and 2,000 mi north to south, much of the region was home to American bison herds until they were hunted to near extinction during the mid/late 19th century. It has an area of approximately 500,000 sq mi, current thinking regarding the geographic boundaries of the Great Plains is shown by this map at the Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln. The term Great Plains, for the region west of about the 96th or 98th meridian, nevin Fennemans 1916 study, Physiographic Subdivision of the United States, brought the term Great Plains into more widespread usage. Before that the region was almost invariably called the High Plains, today the term High Plains is used for a subregion of the Great Plains. The Great Plains are the westernmost portion of the vast North American Interior Plains, during the Cretaceous Period, the Great Plains were covered by a shallow inland sea called the Western Interior Seaway. However, during the Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene, the seaway had begun to recede, leaving thick marine deposits. During the Cenozoic era, specifically about 25 million years ago during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, existing forest biomes declined and grasslands became much more widespread. The grasslands provided a new niche for mammals, including many ungulates and glires, traditionally, the spread of grasslands and the development of grazers have been strongly linked. The vast majority of animals became extinct in North America at the end of the Pleistocene. In general, the Great Plains have a variety of weather through the year, with very cold and harsh winters and very hot. Wind speeds are very high, especially in winter. Grasslands are among the least protected biomes, humans have converted much of the prairies for agricultural purposes or to create pastures. The Great Plains have dust storms mostly every year or so, the 100th meridian roughly corresponds with the line that divides the Great Plains into an area that receive 20 in or more of rainfall per year and an area that receives less than 20 in. The region is subjected to extended periods of drought, high winds in the region may then generate devastating dust storms
10.
Plains Indians
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Plains Indians are usually divided into two broad classifications which overlap to some degree. The first group became a nomadic horse culture during the 18th and 19th centuries, following the vast herds of buffalo. These include the Blackfoot, Arapaho, Assiniboine, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Lakota, Lipan, Plains Apache, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwe, Sarsi, Nakoda, and Tonkawa. The second group of Plains Indians were semi-sedentary, and, in addition to hunting buffalo, they lived in villages, raised crops, and actively traded with other tribes. These include the Arikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kaw, Kitsai, Mandan, Missouria, Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, Quapaw, Wichita, and the Santee Dakota, Yanktonai and Yankton Dakota. Both groups included people indigenous to the region as well as those who were pushed west by population pressure linked to the expansion of white culture. Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains are often separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes, the tribes followed the seasonal grazing and migration of buffalo. The Plains Indians lived in teepees because they were disassembled and allowed the nomadic life of following game. When horses were obtained, the Plains tribes rapidly integrated them into their daily lives, people in the southwest began to acquire horses in the 16th century by trading or stealing them from Spanish colonists in New Mexico. As horse culture moved northward, the Comanche were among the first to commit to a fully mounted nomadic lifestyle and this occurred by the 1730s, when they had acquired enough horses to put all their people on horseback. The Spanish explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was the first European to describe the Plains Indian culture, while searching for a reputedly wealthy land called Quivira in 1541, Coronado came across the Querechos in the Texas panhandle. The Querechos were the later called Apache. According to the Spaniards, the Querechos lived in tents made of the skins of the cows. They empty a large gut and fill it with blood, Coronado described many common features of Plains Indians culture, skin tepees, travois pulled by dogs, Plains Indian Sign Language, and staple foods such as jerky and pemmican. The Plains Indians found by Coronado had not yet obtained horses, by the 19th century, the typical year of the Lakota and other northern nomads was a communal buffalo hunt as early in spring as their horses had recovered from the rigors of the winter. In June and July the scattered bands of the gathered together into large encampments. These gatherings afforded leaders to meet to make decisions, plan movements, arbitrate disputes. In the fall, people would split up into smaller bands to facilitate hunting to procure meat for the long winter, between the fall hunt and the onset of winter was a time when Lakota warriors could undertake raiding and warfare
11.
American bison
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The American bison, also commonly known as the American buffalo or simply buffalo, is a North American species of bison that once roamed the grasslands of North America in massive herds. Bison were seen in North Carolina near Buffalo Ford on the Catawba River as late as 1750. Two subspecies or ecotypes have been described, the bison, smaller in size and with a more rounded hump. Furthermore, the bison has been suggested to consist of a northern. However, this is not supported. The wood bison is one of the largest wild species of bovid in the world, surpassed by only the Asian gaur and it is the largest extant land animal in the Americas. The American bison is the mammal of the United States. The term buffalo is considered to be a misnomer for this animal, and could be confused with true buffalos, the Asian water buffalo. The name buffalo is listed in dictionaries as an acceptable name for American buffalo or bison. In reference to animal, the term buffalo dates to 1625 in North American usage when the term was first recorded for the American mammal. It thus has a longer history than the term bison. The American bison is very related to the wisent or European bison. In Plains Indian languages in general, male and female buffaloes are distinguished, a bison has a shaggy, long, dark-brown winter coat, and a lighter-weight, lighter-brown summer coat. As is typical in ungulates, the bison is slightly larger than the female and, in some cases. Plains bison are often in the range of sizes. Head-and-body lengths range from 2 to 3.5 m long, shoulder heights in the species can range from 152 to 186 cm. Weights can range from 318 to 1,000 kg Mature bulls tend to be larger than cows. Cow weights have had reported medians of 450 to 495 kg, with one small sample averaging 479 kg, the heaviest wild bull ever recorded weighed 1,270 kg
12.
York Factory
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York Factory was one of the first fur-trading posts established by the HBC, built in 1684 and used in that business for more than 270 years. The settlement was headquarters of the HBCs Northern Department from 1821 to 1873, the complex was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1936. In 1957, the HBC closed it down and it has been owned by the Canadian government since 1968 and the site is now operated by Parks Canada. There is currently no one living permanently at York Factory, aside from a residence for Parks Canada staff. The wooden structure at the site dates from 1831 and is the oldest and largest wooden structure built on permafrost in Canada. York Factory is located on the bank of the Hayes River about 11 kilometres inland. The mouth of the Nelson River is to the north, across Point of Marsh, the Hayes is a more practical canoe route, although the Nelson is much larger. Seagoing ships anchored at Five Fathom Hole 11 km from the due to the shallow bottom. The Shamattawa Airport and Gillam Airport are close, the first three HBC posts were established on James Bay about 1670. In 1684, Fort Nelson was established at the mouth of the nearby Nelson River, the company built a second fort, York Factory, on the Hayes river, naming it after the Duke of York. The establishment of these provoked a response from New France. In the Hudson Bay expedition, the French marched overland from Quebec, during King Williams War, France several times sent a naval force to Hudson Bay to capture or destroy the fort. In 1690, Pierre Le Moyne dIberville tried but was driven away by a larger English ship, in 1694, dIberville returned and captured York Factory with a show of force. English forces returned the year and retook the fort from its small French garrison. In 1697, dIberville won the Battle of Hudsons Bay, the largest Arctic naval battle in North American history, York Factory was held by the French until 1713, when it was returned to the British in the Treaty of Utrecht. At that time, the HBC again placed its headquarters at York Factory. Between 1788 and 1795, the constructed a octagonal star fort of stone. The choice of material was poor, however, as the stone and brick could not stand up to heaving permafrost, and in 1831, the three-story center section of the current compound was completed that same year, with the two-story wings finished within the two years that followed
13.
Nelson River
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The Nelson River is a river of north-central North America, in the Canadian province of Manitoba. The river drains Lake Winnipeg and runs 644 kilometres before it ends in Hudson Bay, the Nelson River flows into Playgreen Lake from Lake Winnipeg then flows from two channels into Cross Lake. The west channel flows out of the ends of Playgreen Lake, Kiskittogisu Lake and Kiskitto Lake into Cross Lake at the Manitoba Hydros Jenpeg Generating Station. From Cross Lake it flows though Sipiwesk Lake, Split Lake, since it drains Lake Winnipeg, it is the last part of the large Saskatchewan River system, as well as that of the Red River and Winnipeg River. Devils Lake is unusual for a lake in being presently closed. Besides Lake Winnipeg, its tributaries include the Grass River, which drains a long area north of Lake Winnipeg, and the Burntwood River. The river flows into Hudson Bay at Port Nelson, just north of the Hayes River, other communities upriver from there include Bird, Sundance, Long Spruce, Gillam, Split Lake, Arnot, Cross Lake, and Norway House. North America has just one port on the Arctic Ocean, linked to the North American railway grid -- at Churchill, Manitoba, originally port facilities were to be built at Port Nelson, a rail link was to be built to Port Nelson. Practical problems lead to the relocation to Churchill. Those difficulties included a greater need for dredging, because the Nelson Rivers water was more full of silt, in absolute terms. The river was named by Sir Thomas Button, a Welsh explorer from St. Lythans, Glamorganshire, who wintered at its mouth in 1612, after Robert Nelson, a ships master who died there. At that time, the Cree people who lived along its banks called it Powinigow or Powinini-gow, the area was fought over for the fur trade, though the Hayes River, whose mouth is near the Nelsons, became the main route inland. Fort Nelson, a historic Hudsons Bay Company trading post, was located at the mouth of the Nelson River at Hudson Bay and was a key trading post in the early 18th century, today, Fort Nelson no longer exists. Port Nelson, the shipping port, remains on the opposite side of the river mouth on Hudson Bay. The Nelson Rivers huge volume and long drop make it useful for generating hydroelectricity, travelling up the Nelson River, it’s easy to see the impacts of hydro development. The once-pristine water is now silty and not to be trusted for drinking, trees fall into the river everywhere along the shore, thanks to erosion caused by constantly fluctuating water levels. Ancient graves are being exposed, and sacred sites are now under water, what was once a highway for hunters is now dangerous to travel in winter, as the location of ice pockets created by flooding and retreating water cannot be predicted. A river that was once the basis for life has become deadly, peter Kulchyski 2012 List of longest rivers of Canada Nelson River Hydroelectric Project List of Manitoba rivers Manitoba Hydro Nelson River Bipole Information and a map of the Nelsons watershed
14.
Hudson Bay
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Hudson Bay is a large body of saltwater in northeastern Canada with a surface area of 1,230,000 square kilometres. Hudson Bays southern arm is called James Bay, the Eastern Cree name for Hudson and James Bay is Wînipekw or Wînipâkw, meaning muddy or brackish water. Lake Winnipeg is similarly named by the local Cree, as is the location for the city of Winnipeg, Hudson Bay encompasses 1,230,000 square kilometres, making it the second-largest bay in the world. The bay is shallow and is considered an epicontinental sea. It is about 1,370 km long and 1,050 km wide, on the east it is connected with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, on the north, with the Arctic Ocean by Foxe Basin, and Fury and Hecla Strait. Geographic coordinates, 78° to 95° W, 51° to 70° N. Hudson Bay is part of the North Atlantic Ocean, sometimes the Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait basins are considered part of the Arctic Ocean even though their waters flow predominantly to the Atlantic. Some sources describe Hudson Bay as a sea of the Atlantic Ocean. English explorers and colonists named Hudson Bay after Sir Henry Hudson who explored the bay beginning August 2,1610 on his ship Discovery. On his fourth voyage to North America, Hudson worked his way around Greenlands west coast and into the bay, Discovery became trapped in the ice over the winter, and the crew survived onshore at the southern tip of James Bay. When the ice cleared in the spring, Hudson wanted to explore the rest of the area and they left Hudson and others adrift in a small boat. No one knows the fate of Hudson or the crew members stranded with him, in 1668, Nonsuch reached the bay and traded for beaver pelts, leading to the creation of the Hudsons Bay Company which still bears the historic name. The HBC negotiated a trading monopoly from the British crown for the Hudson Bay watershed, called Ruperts Land, france contested this grant by sending several military expeditions to the region, but abandoned its claim in the Treaty of Utrecht. See Anglo-French conflicts on Hudson Bay, during this period, the Hudsons Bay Company built several forts and trading posts along the coast at the mouth of the major rivers. The strategic locations were bases for inland exploration, more importantly, they were trading posts with the indigenous peoples who came to them with furs from their trapping season. The HBC shipped the furs to Europe and continued to use these posts until the beginning of the 20th century, the port of Churchill is still an important shipping link for trade with Europe and Russia. HBCs trade monopoly was abolished in 1870, and it ceded Ruperts Land to Canada, starting in 1913, the Bay was extensively charted by the Canadian Governments CSS Acadia to develop it for navigation. This mapping progress led to the establishment of Churchill, Manitoba as a port for wheat exports in 1929. Due to a change in naming conventions, Hudsons Bay is now called Hudson Bay, as a result, the names of the body of water and the company are often mistaken for one another
15.
Fort Severn First Nation
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Fort Severn First Nation is a Cree First Nation band government located on Hudson Bay and is the most northern community in Ontario, Canada. In 2001, the population was 401, consisting of 90 families in an area of 40 square kilometres, the legal name of the reserve is Fort Severn 89, with the main settlement of Fort Severn. The town is linked by winter/ice road called the Wapusk Trail in the winter to Peawanuck, Ontario in the east, Fort Severn is policed by the Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service, an Aboriginal-based service. This area was inhabited for thousands of years by varying cultures of indigenous peoples, at the time of European contact, the historic Swampy Cree, and Algonquian-speaking people, lived in the area. In 1689 the Hudsons Bay Company built Fort Severn at this site, in 1973, the reserve was relocated to the mouth of the Severn River on Hudson Bay, for more direct access to shipping. The reserve achieved full status on January 11,1980, the local band council consists of an elected chief, a deputy chief, and four band councilors. There is no hospital in Fort Severn with either medical needs provided at local nursing station or via Keewaytinook Okimakanak Telemedicine link, there are only local roads in town and residents travel by car, snowmobile or walking. The Fort Severn Airport is located a distance from the settlement and is accessible by an access road. Wasayo First Nation School is the only full functioning school providing primary education needs, Keewaytinook Internet High School is housed in a small building and provides distance learning for residents needing secondary education. Fort Severn First Nation Stats Canada Question and Answer
16.
Churchill River (Hudson Bay)
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The Churchill River is a major river in Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada. From the head of the Churchill Lake it is 1,609 kilometres long and it was named after John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough and governor of the Hudsons Bay Company from 1685 to 1691. The Cree name for the river is Missinipi, meaning big waters, the river is located entirely within the Canadian Shield. The drainage basin includes a number of lakes in Central-East Alberta which flow into a series of lakes in Saskatchewan, the main tributary, the Beaver River, joins at Lac Île-à-la-Crosse. Nistowiak Falls—the tallest falls in Saskatchewan—are on the Rapid River, which flows north, a large amount of flow of the Churchill River after Manitoba–Saskatchewan border comes from the Reindeer River, which flows from Wollaston and Reindeer lakes. Flow from Reindeer Lake is regulated by the Whitesand Dam
17.
Beaver
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The beaver is a large, primarily nocturnal, semiaquatic rodent. Castor includes two extant species, the North American beaver and Eurasian beaver, Beavers are known for building dams, canals, and lodges. They are the second-largest rodent in the world and their colonies create one or more dams to provide still, deep water to protect against predators, and to float food and building material. The North American beaver population was more than 60 million. Beavers, along with pocket gophers and kangaroo rats, are castorimorph rodents, Beavers are known for their natural trait of building dams on rivers and streams, and building their homes in the resulting pond. Beavers also build canals to float building materials that are difficult to haul over land and they use powerful front teeth to cut trees and other plants that they use both for building and for food. In the absence of existing ponds, beavers must construct dams before building their lodges, first they place vertical poles, then fill between the poles with a crisscross of horizontally placed branches. They fill in the gaps between the branches with a combination of weeds and mud until the dam impounds sufficient water to surround the lodge and this serves as a warning to beavers in the area. Once a beaver has sounded the alarm, nearby beavers will dive, Beavers are slow on land, but are good swimmers, and can stay under water for as long as 15 minutes. Beavers are herbivores, and prefer the wood of quaking aspen, cottonwood, willow, alder, birch, maple and they also eat sedges, pondweed, and water lilies. Beavers do not hibernate, but store sticks and logs in a pile in their ponds, some of the pile is generally above water and accumulates snow in the winter. This insulation of snow often keeps the water freezing in and around the food pile. Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and a broad, scaly tail and they have poor eyesight, but keen senses of hearing, smell, and touch. A beavers teeth grow continuously so that they not be worn down by chewing on wood. Their four incisors are composed of hard orange enamel on the front, the chisel-like ends of incisors are maintained by their self-sharpening wear pattern. The enamel in a beavers incisors contains iron and is resistant to acid than enamel in the teeth of other mammals. Beavers continue to grow throughout their lives, adult specimens weighing over 25 kg are not uncommon. Females are as large as or larger than males of the same age, Beavers live up to 24 years of age in the wild
18.
The Pas
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The Pas is a town in Manitoba, Canada, located at the confluence of the Pasquia River and the Saskatchewan River within Division No.21 in the Northern Region. It is approximately 630 km northwest of the capital, Winnipeg. It is sometimes still called Paskoyac by locals after the first trading post, called Fort Paskoya, the Pasquia River begins in the Pasquia Hills in east central Saskatchewan. The French in 1795 knew the river as Basquiau, known as The Gateway to the North, The Pas is a multi-industry northern Manitoba town serving the surrounding region. The main components of the economy are agriculture, forestry, commercial fishing, tourism, transportation. The main employer is a paper and lumber mill operated by Canadian Kraft Papers, the Pas contains one of the two main campuses of the University College of the North. The Pas is bordered by the Rural Municipality of Kelsey, as well as part of the Opaskwayak Cree Nation, the areas original inhabitants were the Cree. Their ancestors are thought to have migrated from the southeastern prairies over 9000 years ago, the first European recorded to encounter the Cree was Henry Kelsey, an employee of the Hudsons Bay Company. He travelled through the area between 1690 and 1692 on his way to the Canadian prairies, during the years of New France, La Vérendrye, the first western military commander, directed the construction of Fort Paskoya near here. It was named after the people of the Pasquia River, for years the settlement was called Pascoyac, sometimes shortened to Le Pas. The Pas Indian Band was relocated to the side of the Saskatchewan River. The area today is composed of three communities, The Town of The Pas, the Opaskwayak Cree Nation, and the Rural Municipality of Kelsey. The history of the city and the region may be seen at the Sam Waller Museum, the population of The Pas in 2011 was 5,513, while its population density was 115.3 per km². According to the 2011 National Household Survey, the composition of its population was Aboriginals, First Nations and Metis, the visible minority population was 2. 1%. The religious make up of The Pas is, Christian, non-religious, most of the residents are Canadian citizens. About 10. 3% of the population can speak a language that is not recognized as a language of Canada. Aboriginal languages are the most common spoken non-official language, the median age in The Pas is 34.1 years old. Age groups are as follows,9 and younger,10 to 19, 20s, 30s, 40s,50 to 64, for the peoples ages 24 to 65, the highest levels of education as follows, post-secondary educated, high school educated and nothing beyond high school
19.
Portage
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Portage or portaging is the practice of carrying water craft or cargo over land, either around an obstacle in a river, or between two bodies of water. A place where this occurs is also called a portage. Early French explorers in New France and French Louisiana encountered many rapids, the Native Americans carried their canoes over land to avoid river obstacles. Over time, important portages were sometimes provided with canals with locks, primitive portaging generally involves carrying the vessel and its contents across the portage in multiple trips. Small canoes can be portaged by carrying them inverted over ones shoulders, historically, voyageurs often employed tump lines on their heads to carry loads on their backs. Portages can be many kilometers in length, such as the 19-kilometre Methye Portage, some portages involve very little elevation change, such as the very short Mavis Grind in Shetland, which crosses an isthmus. This section deals mostly with the freight canoes used by the Canadian Voyageurs. Portage trails usually began as animal tracks and were improved by tramping or blazing, in a few places iron-plated wooden rails were laid to take a handcart. Heavily used routes sometimes evolved into roads when sledges, rollers or oxen were used, sometimes railways or canals were built. If the second course were chosen, the boat would be controlled by the avant standing in front with a long paddle, the avant had a better view and was in charge but the gouvernail had more control over the boat. The other canoemen provided power under the instructions of the avant, going upstream was more difficult, as there were many places where the current was too swift to paddle. Where the river bottom was shallow and firm, voyageurs would stand in the canoe and push it upstream with 3-metre poles. If the shoreline was reasonably clear the canoe could be tracked or lined, that is, in worse conditions, the demi-chargé technique was used. Half the cargo was unloaded, the canoe forced upstream, unloaded, in still worse currents, the entire cargo was unloaded and carried overland while the canoe was forced upstream. In the worst case a full portage was necessary, the canoe was carried overland by two or four men The cargo was divided into standard 41-kilogram packs or pièces with each man responsible for about six. One pack would be carried by a tumpline and one on the back, to allow regular rests the voyageur would drop his pack at a pose about every 1 kilometre and go back for the next load. The time for a portage was estimated at one hour per half mile, the Diolkos was a paved trackway in Ancient Greece which enabled boats to be moved overland across the Isthmus of Corinth between the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf. It was constructed to high ranking Despots to conduct business in the justice system
20.
Taiga
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Taiga also known as boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces and larches. The taiga is the worlds largest biome apart from the oceans, in North America it covers most of inland Canada and Alaska as well as parts of the extreme northern continental United States, where it is known as the Northwoods or North woods. However, the tree species, the length of the growing season. Hoffman discusses the origin of this use in North America. Although at high elevations taiga grades into alpine tundra through Krummholz, it is not an alpine biome only like subalpine forest, Taiga is the worlds largest land biome, and makes up 29% of the worlds forest cover, the largest areas are located in Russia and Canada. The taiga is the terrestrial biome with the lowest annual average temperatures after the tundra, extreme winter minimums in the northern taiga are typically lower than those of the tundra. The lowest reliably recorded temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere were recorded in the taiga of northeastern Russia, the taiga or boreal forest has a subarctic climate with very large temperature range between seasons, but the long and cold winter is the dominant feature. This climate is classified as Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd and Dwd in the Köppen climate classification scheme, meaning that the summer lasts 1–3 months. In Siberian taiga the average temperature of the coldest month is between −6 °C and −50 °C, the mean annual temperature generally varies from -5 °C to 5 °C, but there are taiga areas in eastern Siberia and interior Alaska-Yukon where the mean annual reaches down to -10 °C. According to some sources, the boreal forest grades into a mixed forest when mean annual temperature reaches about 3 °C. The winters, with temperatures below freezing, last five to seven months. Temperatures vary from −54 °C to 30 °C throughout the whole year, the summers, while short, are generally warm and humid. In much of the taiga, -20 °C would be a winter day temperature and 18 °C an average summer day. In Canada, Scandinavia and Finland, the season is often estimated by using the period of the year when the 24-hour average temperature is +5 °C or more. For the Taiga Plains in Canada, growing season varies from 80 to 150 days, some sources claim 130 days growing season as typical for the taiga. Other sources mention that 50–100 frost-free days are characteristic, data for locations in southwest Yukon gives 80–120 frost-free days. The closed canopy boreal forest in Kenozersky National Park near Plesetsk, Arkhangelsk Province, Russia, the longest growing season is found in the smaller areas with oceanic influences, in coastal areas of Scandinavia and Finland, the growing season of the closed boreal forest can be 145–180 days. High latitudes mean that the sun not rise far above the horizon
21.
Aspen parkland
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This is the largest boreal-grassland transition zone in the world and is a zone of constant competition and tension as prairie and woodlands struggle to overtake each other within the parkland. This article focuses on this biome in North America, similar biomes also exist in Russia north of the steppes and in northern Europe. According the Ecological Framework of Canada, published in 1999, the Aspen Parkland ecoregion is the largest and northernmost section of Prairies Ecozone and this definition is the arc-shapped region. Partly, defined by climate, it had an annual temperature of approximately 1. 5°C circa 1999. By this definition, there are approximately 5,500,000 hectares of this ecoregion in the province of Alberta and these ecoregions lie in both the Boreal Plains Ecozone and the Prairies Ecozone. The Boreal sections are Manitoba Lowlands, Aspen-Oak, Aspen Grove, Mixedwood, the aspen parkland biome runs in a thin band no wider than 500 km through the Prairie Provinces, although it gets broader to the west, especially in Alberta. This is a landscape with many small lakes and ponds. There are three sections of aspen parkland, Peace River, Central, and Foothills. The Foothills parkland covers the Foothills of the Rocky Mountains as far south as Waterton Lakes National Park, the region has a Humid continental climate accompanied by a subhumid low boreal transitional grassland ecoclimate. Summers are warm and short and winters can be long and cold, the Mean annual temperatures range from 0.5 to 2.5 °C, with Summers ranging 13 to 16 °C, and winters ranging −14.5 to −12.5 °C. The Peace River Country in northwestern Alberta and northeastern areas of the North Interior in British Columbia has the coolest climate, annual precipitation is usually between 375 to 700 millimetres. Chinook winds off the foothill is also winter, mainly effecting Alberta, four significantly different habitats are common in the aspen parklands, The fescue prairie, the woodlands, the ravines and the wetlands and lakes. A rarer habitat type, tallgrass aspen parkland, occurs only in the southeastern corner of the aspen parklands biome. The fescue prairie is a meadowland rich in vegetation variety which forms the cover for the development of the soils that underlie the parklands. The close association with woodlands and wetlands makes this a choice location for many plants, the richer soil and increased precipitation favours the natural growth of fescue grass. However, varying conditions such as level and grazing pressures allow for the invasion of secondary plant species. There are numerous grasses and sedges in the fescue prairie, gravelly and rocky terrain is a good location for parry oat grass. Dry areas favour June, porcupine and spear grass, wet areas are often covered with slender wheat grass and timber oat grass
22.
Prairie
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Temperate grassland regions include the Pampas of Argentina, southern Brazil and Uruguay as well as the steppes of Eurasia. Lands typically referred to as prairie tend to be in North America, the Central Valley of California is also a prairie. The Canadian Prairies occupy vast areas of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Prairie is the French word for meadow, but the ultimate root is the Latin pratum. The formation of the North American Prairies started with the upwelling of the Rocky Mountains near Alberta, the mountains created a rain shadow that resulted in lower precipitation rates downwind, creating an environment in which most tree species will not tolerate. The parent material of most prairie soil was distributed during the last glacial advance that began about 110,000 years ago, the glaciers expanding southward scraped the landscape, picking up geologic material and leveling the terrain. As the glaciers retreated about 10,000 years ago, it deposited this material in the form of till, wind based loess deposits also form an important parent material for prairie soils. Tallgrass Prairie evolved over tens of thousands of years with the disturbances of grazing, native ungulates such as bison, elk, and white-tailed deer, roamed the expansive, diverse, plentiful grassland before European colonization of the Americas. For 10, 000-20,000 years native people used fire annually as a tool to assist in hunting, transportation, evidence of ignition sources of fire in the tallgrass prairie are overwhelmingly human as opposed to lightning. Humans, and grazing animals, were participants in the process of prairie formation. Fire has the effect on prairies of removing trees, clearing dead plant matter, fire kills the vascular tissue of trees, but not prairie, as up to 75% of the total plant biomass is below the soil surface and will re-grow from its deep roots. Without disturbance, trees will encroach on a grassland, cast shade, Prairie and widely spaced oak trees evolved to coexist in the oak savanna ecosystem. In spite of long recurrent droughts and occasional torrential rains, the grasslands of the Great Plains were not subject to soil erosion. The root systems of native prairie grasses firmly held the soil in place to prevent run-off of soil, when the plant died, the fungi, bacteria returned its nutrients to the soil. These deep roots also helped native prairie plants reach water in even the driest conditions, the native grasses suffered much less damage from dry conditions than the farm crops currently grown. Prairie in North America is usually split into three groups, wet, mesic, and dry and they are generally characterized by tallgrass prairie, mixed, or shortgrass prairie, depending on the quality of soil and rainfall. In wet prairies the soil is very moist, including during most of the growing season. The resulting stagnant water is conducive to the formation of bogs, wet prairies have excellent farming soil. The average precipitation amount is 10-30 inches a year, mesic prairie /ˈmiːzɪk/ has good drainage, but good soil during the growing season
23.
Cree
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The Cree are one of the largest groups of First Nations in North America, with over 200,000 members living in Canada. The major proportion of Cree in Canada live north and west of Lake Superior, in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, in the United States, this Algonquian-speaking people historically lived from Lake Superior westward. Today, they live mostly in Montana, where they share a reservation with the Ojibwe, the documented westward migration over time has been strongly associated with their roles as traders and hunters in the North American fur trade. The Cree are generally divided into eight groups based on dialect and these divisions do not necessarily represent ethnic sub-divisions within the larger ethnic group, Naskapi and Montagnais are inhabitants of an area they refer to as Nitassinan. Their territories comprise most of the political jurisdictions of eastern Quebec. Their cultures are differentiated, as the Naskapi are still caribou hunters and more nomadic than the Montagnais, the total population of the two groups in 2003 was about 18,000 people, of which 15,000 lived in Quebec. Their dialects and languages are the most distinct from the Cree spoken by the groups west of Lake Superior, Attikamekw are inhabitants of the area they refer to as Nitaskinan, in the upper St. Maurice River valley of Quebec. James Bay Cree – Grand Council of the Crees, approximately 18,000 Cree of Eeyou Istchee and Nunavik regions of Northern Quebec. Moose Cree – Moose Factory in the Cochrane District, Ontario, Swampy Cree – this group lives in northern Manitoba along the Hudson Bay coast and adjacent inland areas to the south and west, and in Ontario along the coast of Hudson Bay and James Bay. Some also in eastern Saskatchewan around Cumberland House, Woods Cree group in northern Alberta and Saskatchewan. Plains Cree 34,000 people in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, due to the many dialects of the Cree language, there is no modern collective autonym. The Plains Cree and Attikamekw refer to using modern forms of the historical nêhiraw, namely nêhiyaw and nêhirawisiw. Moose Cree, East Cree, Naskapi, and Montagnais all refer to using modern dialectal forms of the historical iriniw. Moose Cree use the form ililiw, coastal East Cree and Naskapi use iyiyiw, inland East Cree use iyiniw, the Cree use Cree, cri, Naskapi, or montagnais to refer to their people only when speaking the languages of the European colonists, French or English. Bands would usually have strong ties to their neighbours through intermarriage and would assemble together at different parts of the year to hunt and socialize together. Besides these regional gatherings, there was no formal structure. Each band remained independent of each other, however, Cree-speaking bands tended to work together and with their neighbours against outside enemies. When a band went to war, they would nominate a temporary military commander and this office was different from that of the peace chief, a leader who had a role more like that of diplomat
24.
Carrot River
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The Carrot River is a river in north-eastern Saskatchewan, and north-western Manitoba. The river begins at Waterhen Marsh located south of Kinistino, Saskatchewan and continues through north-east Saskatchewan until it empties into the Saskatchewan River north-west of The Pas, the Carrot River serves as the main watershed for north-eastern Saskatchewan as all smaller streams and rivers empty into the Carrot River. This causes major problems during the spring run off and rainy seasons around the Town of Carrot River. The floods usually strand everyone east of the river with few ways around the flooded area. Another Carrot River enters Oxford Lake on the Hayes River, the Carrot River valley was initially inhabited by Cree and Saulteaux Aboriginal people. English fur trader and explorer Henry Kelsey explored the river in the summer of 1691, louis de la Corne, Chevalier de la Corne and Anthony Henday also explored the valley during the 1750s. During the 1980s the Royal Saskatchewan Museum explored the banks and rock edges of the Carrot River, the tests on the found fossils showed them to be approximately 92 million years old. The sites along the Carrot River proved to be some of the wealthiest deposits of fossils and showed deposits from other species including sharks. The most notable find was in 1991, when the Royal Saskatchewan Museum, during the next couple of years, using shovels, pick-axes, and explosives, they retrieved a six-meter skeleton of Terminonaris Robustus but everyone called it Big Bert. Big Bert turned out to be well preserved and the only one of its kind found in Canada. They also found a fossil of xiphactinus and toothed birds. The fish species include walleye, yellow perch, northern pike, burbot and white sucker
25.
Yorkton
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Yorkton is a city located in south-eastern Saskatchewan, Canada. It is about 450 kilometres north-west of Winnipeg and 300 kilometres south-east of Saskatoon, as of 2016 the census population of the city was 16,343. Yorkton has had a rate of 4. 3% since 2011. Yorkton was founded in 1882 and incorporated as a city in 1928, the city is bordered by the RM of Orkney No.244 to the west and the RM of Wallace No.243 on the east. In 1882 a group of businessmen and investors formed the York Farmers Colonization Company and they were impressed with what they saw and the group purchased portions of 6 townships near the Little Whitesand River for the purpose of settlement and to establish a centre for trade there. This centre would become known as York Colony, the company founded the settlers colony on the banks of the Little Whitesand River where lots were given freely to settlers who purchased land from them. The colony remained at its site until 1889 and it was originally located at PT SE 1/4 13-26-4 W2M. In 1889 the rail line was extended to the Yorkton area and it was at this time the colony townsite relocated alongside the new rail line. Yorkton is located in the aspen parkland ecosystem, the terrain is mainly one of agriculture and there is no forestry industry. It is also in an area of black calcareous chernozemic soils, the Yorkton area was located on the edge of an area of a maximum glacial lake. The quaternary geology has left the area as a moraine plain consisting of glacial deposits, the bedrock geology is the pembina member of Vermillion River Formation and Riding Mountain Formation. Yorkton is located in the region of the Quill Lake-Yorkton Plain region of the Saskatchewan Plains Region. Yorkton has a continental climate, with extreme seasonal temperatures. It has warm summers and cold winters, with the daily temperatures ranging from −17.9 °C in January to 17.8 °C in July. The highest temperature recorded in Yorkton was 40.6 °C on 19 July 1941. The coldest temperature recorded was −46.1 °C on 20 January 1943. On the evening of July 1,2010, Yorkton received a severe thunderstorm warning, soon after, Yorkton was experiencing pea sized hail, strong winds, lightning and heavy rain. The rain created a flash flood, broadway Street received the worst of the flood with local businesses being severely damaged, with one being completely destroyed
26.
Assiniboine
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The Assiniboine or Assiniboin people, also known as the Hohe and known by the endonym Nakota, are a First Nations/Native American people originally from the Northern Great Plains of North America. Today, they are centered in present-day Saskatchewan and they have also populated parts of Alberta and southwestern Manitoba in Canada, and northern Montana and western North Dakota in the United States. They were well known throughout much of the late 18th and early 19th century, images of Assiniboine people were painted by such 19th-century artists as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin. The Europeans and Americans adopted names that other tribes used for the Assiniboine, they did not until later learn the tribes autonym, in Siouan, they traditionally called themselves the Hohe Nakota. With the widespread adoption of English, however, many now use the name became common in English. The English adopted Assiniboine, used by the Canadian French colonists and it was a transliteration into French phonetics of what they heard the Ojibwe use as a term for these western people. In the same way, Assnipwan comes from the word asinîpwâta in the western Cree dialects, from asiniy ᐊᓯᓂᐩ NA – rock, stone – and pwâta ᐹᐧᑕ NA – enemy, early French traders in the west were often familiar with Algonquian languages. They transliterated many Cree or Ojibwe exonyms for other western Canadian indigenous peoples during the colonial era. The English referred to the Assiniboine by adopting terms from the French spelled using English phonetics, other tribes associated stone with the Assiniboine because they primarily cooked with heated stones. They dropped hot stones into water to heat it to boiling for cooking meat, some writers believed that the name was derived from the Ojibway term Assin, stone, and the French bouillir, to boil, but such an etymology is very unlikely. Assiniboine is a Mississippi Valley Siouan language, in the Western Siouan language family, in the early 21st century, about 150 people speak the language and most are more than 40 years old. The majority of the Assiniboine today speak only American English, the 2000 census showed 3,946 tribal members who lived in the United States. Assiniboine are closely linked by language to the Stoney First Nations people of Alberta, the latter two tribes speak varieties of Nakota, a distant, but not mutually intelligible, variant of the Sioux language. The Assiniboine, along with the Stoney of Alberta, share an ancestry with the Sioux nation. The separation of the Assiniboine from the Sioux must have occurred at some prior to 1640. The Assiniboine and Sioux were both gradually pushed westward onto the plains from the woodlands of Minnesota by the Ojibwe, who had acquired firearms from their French allies. Later, the Assiniboine acquired horses via raiding and trading with neighboring tribes of Plains Indians such as the Crow, the first person of European descent to describe the Assiniboine was an employee of the Hudsons Bay Company named Henry Kelsey in the 1690s. The Assiniboine obtained guns, ammunition, metal tomahawks, metal pots, wool blankets, wool coats, wool leggings, beaver furs and bison hides were the most commonly traded furs
27.
Grizzly bear
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The grizzly bear, less commonly known as the silvertip bear, is a large subspecies of brown bear inhabiting North America. Scientists generally do not use the name grizzly bear but call it the North American brown bear, on average bears near the coast tend to be larger while inland Grizzlies tend to be smaller. The Ussuri brown bear inhabiting Russia, Northern China, and Korea is sometimes referred to as black grizzly although it is a different subspecies from the bears in America, meriwether Lewis and William Clark named it to be grisley or grizzly, which could have meant grizzled or fear-inspiring. Nonetheless, after study, naturalist George Ord formally classified it in 1815 – not for its hair. Classification has been revised along genetic lines, there are two morphological forms of Ursus arctos, the grizzly and the coastal brown bears, but these morphological forms do not have distinct mtDNA lineages. Brown bears originated in Eurasia and traveled to North America approximately 50,000 years ago, in the 19th century, the grizzly was classified as 86 distinct species. However, by 1928 only seven grizzlies remained and by 1953 only one species remained globally, however, modern genetic testing reveals the grizzly to be a subspecies of the brown bear. Rausch found that North America has but one species of grizzly, therefore, everywhere it is the brown bear, in North America, it is the grizzly, but these are all the same species, Ursus arctos. Kodiak grizzly bears were also at one time considered distinct, therefore, at one time there were five different species of brown bear, including three in North America. Most adult female grizzlies weigh 130–180 kg, while males weigh on average 180–360 kg. Average total length in this subspecies is 198 cm, with a shoulder height of 102 cm. Newborn bears may weigh less than 500 grams, in the Yukon River area, mature female grizzlies can weigh as little as 100 kg. One study found that the weight for an inland male grizzly was around 272 kilograms. For a female, these average weights would be 136 kilograms inland and 227 kilograms coastal, on the other hand, an occasional huge male grizzly has been recorded which greatly exceeds ordinary size, with weights reported up to 680 kg. A large coastal male of this size may stand up to 3 metres tall on its hind legs, although variable in color from blond to nearly black, grizzly bear fur is typically brown with darker legs and commonly white or blond tipped fur on the flank and back. A pronounced hump appears on their shoulders, the hump is a way to distinguish a grizzly bear from a black bear. Aside from the distinguishing hump a grizzly bear can be identified by a dished in profile of their face with short, rounded ears, whereas a black bear has a straight face profile and longer ears. A grizzly bear can also be identified by its rump, which is lower than its shoulders, a grizzly bears front claws measure about 2-4 inches in length and a black bears measure about 1-2 inches in length
28.
Saskatoon
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Saskatoon is the largest city in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The City of Saskatoon has estimated its population to be 265,300 as of the end of 2016, the Rural Municipality of Corman Park No. 344, the most populous municipality in Saskatchewan, surrounds the city and contains many of the developments associated with it. Saskatoon is named after the berry of the name, which is native to the region. The city has a significant Indigenous population and several urban Reserves and it is known for its diverse and vibrant culture and its eight river crossings that give it the nicknames Paris of the Prairies and Bridge City. Historic neighbourhoods of Saskatoon include Nutana and Riversdale, which were separate towns before amalgamating with the town of Saskatoon, Sutherland, the rail town the city annexed in 1956 that lies beyond the University lands, is now another historic neighbourhood. The name Saskatoon comes from the Cree inanimate noun misâskwatômina saskatoon berries, in 1882, the Toronto-based Temperance Colonization Society was granted 21 sections of land straddling the South Saskatchewan River, between what is now Warman and Dundurn. The aim of the group was to escape the liquor trade in that city, the following year settlers, led by John Neilson Lake, arrived on the site of what is now Saskatoon and established the first permanent settlement. The settlers travelled by railway from Ontario to Moose Jaw and then completed the leg via horse-drawn cart as the railway had yet to be completed to Saskatoon. In 1885 the Northwest Rebellion affected the community in a variety of ways. Chief Whitecap and Charles Trottier passed through the present day University campus on their way to join Louis Riels armed forces at Batoche, Saskatchewan. Following the fighting at the Battle of Fish Creek, and the Battle of Batoche, a few died in care and were buried in the Pioneer Cemetery near the Exhibition Grounds. A town charter for the west side of the river was obtained in 1903, in 1906 Saskatoon became a city with a population of 4,500, which included the communities of Saskatoon, Riversdale and Nutana. In 1955 Montgomery Place and in 1956 the neighbouring town of Sutherland were annexed by the fast-growing City of Saskatoon, the economy of Saskatoon has been associated with potash, oil and agriculture, resulting in the moniker POW City. Various grains, livestock, oil and gas, potash, uranium, gold, diamond, coal, the worlds largest publicly traded uranium company, Cameco, and the worlds largest potash producer, PotashCorp, have corporate headquarters in Saskatoon. Saskatoon is also the new home of BHP Billitons Diamonds and Specialty Products business unit, nearly two-thirds of the worlds recoverable potash reserves are in the Saskatoon region. Saskatoon is also home to the Canadian Light Source, Canadas national synchrotron facility, saskatoon’s digital media scene is growing with start-up tech companies such as Noodlecake, OneStory, Point2, Vendasta Technologies, and Zu. Another of Saskatoons nicknames, Hub City, refers to its central location within Canada for distribution
29.
Nakoda (Stoney)
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The Nakoda are an indigenous people in Western Canada and, originally, the United States. Through their language they are related to the Dakota and Lakota nations of the Great Plains and they refer to themselves in their own language as Nakoda, meaning friend, ally. The name Stoney was given them by white explorers, because of their technique of using fire-heated rocks to boil broth in rawhide bowls and they are very closely related to the Assiniboine, who are also known as Stone Sioux. Albertas Nakoda First Nation comprises three bands, Bearspaw, Chiniki and Wesley, the Stoney were excluded from Banff National Park between 1890 and 1920. In 2010 they were welcomed back. The Stoney are descendants of bands of Dakota, Lakota and Nakota, in particular of western groups of Assiniboine. In 1877, representatives of the Nakoda Nations of Bearspaw, Chiniki, in exchange for use of traditional native lands, the Crown agreed to honor their right to self-government and an ancestral way of life. Sioux language Nakota First Nations in Alberta List of Indian reserves in Alberta
30.
Hidatsa
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The Hidatsa are a Siouan people. Hidatsa are enrolled in the federally recognized Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota and their language is related to that of the Crow, and they are sometimes considered a parent tribe to the modern Crow in Montana. According to the tradition, the word hiraacá derives from the word willow, however, the etymology is not transparent. The present name Hidatsa was formerly borne by one of the three tribal villages, when the villages consolidated, the name was adopted for the tribe as a whole. For hundreds of years the Knife River area in present North Dakota was the home of the Hidatsa, the first villages dates back to the 13th century. Accounts of recorded history in the early 18th century identify three closely related village groups to which the term Hidatsa is applied, the Awaxawi or Amahami have a creation tradition similar to that of the Mandan, which describes their emergence long ago from the Earth, at Devils Lake. Later they moved westward to the Painted Woods and settled near a village of Mandan, the Awatixa originated not from the earth, but from the sky, led by Charred Body. According to their tradition, their first people lived near Painted Woods, after that they always lived between the Heart River and Knife River along the Middle Missouri River. The Hidatsa proper or Hiraacá / Hiratsa, largest of the three, were a confederation of numerous nomadic Hidatsa bands from the north, who separated from the Amahami in what is now western Minnesota, first they settled to the north, then later moved south to Devils Lake. In their travels they met the Mandans Indians and then moved westward and settled with these distant relatives north of the Knife River, later they moved to the mouth of Knife River. Their territory ranged upstream along the Missouri River, its tributary regions to the west, and they were initially part of those who would become the River Crow. The Hidatsa originally lived in Miri xopash / Miniwakan, the Devils Lake region of North Dakota, as they migrated west, the Hidatsa came across the Mandan at the mouth of the Heart River. The two groups formed an alliance, and settled into a division of territory along the areas rivers. Prior to the epidemic of 1782, they had few enemies, the Hidatsa hunted upstream from the earthlodge villages at and below the Knife River. Here, between the Knife and Yellowstone Rivers, they were enough to withstand attacks of the Assiniboine. A remarkable siege of the village Big Hidatsa by the Sioux around 1790 ended with a victory for the inhabitants. They killed 100 or more retreating Sioux in a counter attack, white traders from the north, like North West Company man David Thompson, began to visit the Hidatsa and Mandan villages during the 1790s. In 1800, a group of Hidatsa abducted Sacagawea and several girls in a battle that resulted in death among the Shoshone of four men, four women
31.
Mandan
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The Mandan are a Native American tribe residing in North Dakota. They are enrolled in the Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation, about half of the Mandan still reside in the area of the reservation, the rest reside around the United States and in Canada. The Mandan historically lived along the banks of the Missouri River, speakers of Mandan, a Siouan language, developed a settled, agrarian culture. They established permanent villages featuring large, round, earth lodges, some 40 feet in diameter, while the bison was key to the daily life of the Mandan, they also farmed and actively traded goods with other Great Plains tribes. The Mandan population was 3,600 in the early 18th century, in 1836, there were over 1,600 fullblood Mandans, but this number was estimated to have dropped to 125 by 1838. In the 1990s,6,000 people were enrolled in the Three Affiliated Tribes, in the 2010 Census,1,171 people reported Mandan ancestry. 365 of them were full-bloods, and 806 had partial ancestry, the English name Mandan is derived from the French-Canadian explorer Pierre Gaultier, Sieur de la Verendrye, who heard it as Mantannes from his Assiniboine guides in 1738. He had previously heard the earth lodge peoples referred to by the Cree as Ouachipouennes, nearby Siouan speakers had exonyms similar to Mantannes in their languages, for instance, Teton Miwátąni, Yanktonai Miwátani, Yankton Mawátani or Mąwátanį, Dakota Mawátąna or Mawátadą, etc. Later, this fell to disuse and instead two divisions names were used, Nuweta or Ruptare. Later, the term Rų́ʔeta was extended to refer to a tribal entity. The name Mi-ah´ta-nēs recorded by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden in 1862, reportedly means people on the river bank, gloria Jahoda in Trail of Tears states that they also call themselves the Pheasant people. George Catlin states The Mandans The Mandan language belongs to the Siouan language family and it was initially thought to be closely related to the languages of the Hidatsa and the Crow. However, since the Mandan language has been in contact with Hidatsa and Crow for many years, for this reason, linguists classify Mandan most often as a separate branch of the Siouan family. Mandan has two dialects, Nuptare and Nuetare. Only the Nuptare variety survived into the 20th century, and all speakers were bilingual in Hidatsa, linguist Mauricio Mixco of the University of Utah has been involved in fieldwork with remaining speakers since 1993. As of 1999, there were only six fluent speakers of Mandan still alive, as of 2010, programs in local schools encourage students learning the language. The Mandan and their language received much attention from European Americans, in the 1830s, Prince Maximilian of Wied spent more time recording Mandan over all other Siouan languages and additionally prepared a comparison list of Mandan and Welsh words. The theory of the Mandan/Welsh connection, now discounted, was supported by George Catlin
32.
Missouri River
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The Missouri River is the longest river in North America. Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana, the Missouri flows east and south for 2,341 miles before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri. The river takes drainage from a populated, semi-arid watershed of more than half a million square miles. When combined with the lower Mississippi River, it forms the fourth longest river system. For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation. More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, most leading a nomadic lifestyle, the Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century. The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region, pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s, first by covered wagon, then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river. Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers, leading to some of the most longstanding, during the 20th century, the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation, flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power. Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river, with more on tributaries. Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation, from the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River. The longest begins near Browers Spring,9,100 feet above sea level, on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains. Flowing west then north, it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek, then west into the Red Rock, swings northeast to become the Beaverhead and these two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana. The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks, Montana, the Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake, a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains. Issuing from the mountains near Cascade, the flows northeast to the city of Great Falls, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri. Farther on, the passes through the Fort Peck Dam, and immediately downstream. At the confluence, the Yellowstone is actually the larger river, the Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea, the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam. Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota and it slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence. While it continues south, eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota, the Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains, receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest
33.
North Dakota
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North Dakota is the 39th state of the United States, having been admitted to the union on November 2,1889. The state capital is Bismarck, and the largest city is Fargo, North Dakota is the 19th most extensive but the 4th least populous and the 4th least densely populated of the 50 United States. The development has driven strong job and population growth, and low unemployment, North Dakota is located in the U. S. region known as the Great Plains. The state shares the Red River of the North with Minnesota on the east, South Dakota is to the south, Montana is to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba are to the north. North Dakota is situated near the middle of North America with a marker in Rugby. With an area of 70,762 square miles, North Dakota is the 19th largest state, the western half of the state consists of the hilly Great Plains as well as the northern part of the Badlands, which are to the west of the Missouri River. The states high point, White Butte at 3,506 feet, the region is abundant in fossil fuels including natural gas, crude oil and lignite coal. The Missouri River forms Lake Sakakawea, the third largest man-made lake in the United States, the central region of the state is divided into the Drift Prairie and the Missouri Plateau. The eastern part of the consists of the flat Red River Valley. Its fertile soil, drained by the meandering Red River flowing northward into Lake Winnipeg, Devils Lake, the largest natural lake in the state, is also found in the east. Eastern North Dakota is overall flat, however, there are significant hills, most of the state is covered in grassland, crops cover most of eastern North Dakota but become increasingly sparse in the center and farther west. This diverse terrain supports nearly 2,000 species of plants, the state of North Dakota is home to the geographical center of North America located near Rugby, North Dakota North Dakota has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. The temperature differences are rather extreme because of its far inland position and being in the center of the Northern Hemisphere, with equal distances to the North Pole. As such, summers are almost subtropical in nature, but winters are cold enough to plant hardiness is very low. Native American peoples lived in what is now North Dakota for thousands of years before the coming of Europeans and their tribes included the Mandan people, the Dakota people and the Yanktonai, the latter two from the Lakota peoples. The first European to reach the area was the French-Canadian trader Pierre Gaultier, sieur de La Vérendrye, in 1762 the region became part of Spanish Louisiana until 1802. Dakota Territory was settled sparsely by European Americans until the late 19th century, with the advantage of grants of land, they vigorously marketed their properties, extolling the region as ideal for agriculture. An omnibus bill for statehood for North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and his successor, Benjamin Harrison, signed the proclamations formally admitting North Dakota and South Dakota to the Union on November 2,1889
34.
Gros Ventre
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The Gros Ventre, also known as the Aani, Aaninin, Haaninin, and Atsina, are a historically Algonquian-speaking Native American tribe located in north central Montana. The Fort Belknap Indian Reservation is in the northernmost part of Montana, just south of the town of Harlem. Aani, Aaninin, and Haaninin are the tribes autonyms and these terms mean White Clay People or Lime People. The French used the term Gros Ventre, which was interpreted from their sign language. They were once known as the Gros Ventres of the Prairies, the Piegan Blackfoot, enemies of the Gros Ventre throughout most of history, called the Aaninin, Piik-siik-sii-naa, which translates as snakes. According to the Piegan Institute, the contemporary Piegan name for the Gros Ventre is Assinee, meaning big bellies, Atsina, a Pieagan word, translates to either gut people or like a Cree. Further clarification of the name is required, after the division of peoples, their relations the Arapaho, who considered them inferior, called them Hitúnĕna, meaning beggars. Other interpretations of the term have been hunger, waterfall, the Gros Ventres are believed to have lived in the western Great Lakes region 3000 years ago, where they lived an agrarian lifestyle, cultivating maize. With the ancestors of the Arapaho, they formed a single, large Algonquian-speaking people who lived along the Red River valley in northern present-day Minnesota and in Manitoba and they were closely associated with the ancestors of the Cheyenne. They spoke the now nearly extinct Gros Ventre language, a similar Plains Algonquian language like their kin the Arapaho, in the early 18th century, the large tribe split into two, forming the Gros Ventres and the Arapaho. These, with the Cheyenne, were among the last to migrate into Montana, after they migrated to Montana, the Arapaho moved southwards to the Wyoming and Colorado area. The Cheyenne who migrated with the Gros Ventre and Arapaho also migrated onwards, the Gros Ventres acquired horses in the mid-18th century. The earliest known contact of Gros Ventres with whites was around 1754, exposure to smallpox severely reduced their numbers about this time. In 1832, the Gros Ventres made contact with the German explorer and naturalist, along with the naturalist painter Karl Bodmer, the Europeans painted portraits and recorded their meeting with the Gros Ventres, near the Missouri River in Montana. The Gros Ventres joined the Blackfoot Confederacy, after allying with the Blackfoot, the Gros Ventres moved to north-central Montana and southern Canada. In 1855, Isaac Stevens, Governor of the Washington Territory, a common hunting ground north of the Missouri River on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation included the Assiniboine and Sioux. In 1861, the Gros Ventres left the Blackfoot Confederacy, allying with the Crow, the Gros Ventres fought the Blackfoot but in 1867, they were defeated. In 1868, the United States government established a trading post called Fort Browning near the mouth of Peoples Creek on the Milk River
35.
Blackfeet Nation
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The Piegan are an Algonquian people from the North American Great Plains. They were the largest of three Blackfoot-speaking groups that made up the Blackfoot Confederacy, the Siksika and the Kainai were the others, the Piegan dominated much of the northern plains during the nineteenth century. These two successor groups are the Blackfeet Nation a federally-recognized tribe in Montana, USA and the Piikani Nation, today many Piegan live on the Blackfeet Reservation in northwestern Montana, with tribal headquarters in Browning. There were 32,234 Blackfeet counted by the 1990 US census, in 2010 the US Census reported 105,304 persons identified as Blackfeet The Piegan are one of the three original tribes of the Blackfoot Confederacy. The Piegan are closely related to the Kainai Nation, and the Siksika Nation, ethnographic literature most commonly uses Blackfoot people, and Canadian Blackfoot people use the singular Blackfoot. The tribal governments and the US government use the term Blackfeet, as in Blackfeet Indian Reservation and Blackfeet Nation, the term Siksika, derived from Siksikáíkoan, may also be used as self-identification. In English, an individual may say, I am Blackfoot or I am a member of the Blackfeet tribe, traditionally, Plains peoples were divided into bands, groups of families who migrated together for hunting and defence. Since the 1870s, Piegan people have been members of either the Blackfeet Nation in the US or the Piikani Nation in Canada and they are closely related to the Kainai and the Siksika nations. All speak dialects of the Blackfoot language and are collectively referred to as the Blackfoot or the Blackfoot Confederacy. Ethnographic literature most commonly uses Blackfoot people, and Canadian Blackfoot people use the term of Blackfoot. The US and tribal governments in that nation officially use Blackfeet, as in Blackfeet Indian Reservation, in 2014, researchers reported on their sequencing of the DNA of a 12, 500+-year-old infant skeleton in west-central Montana, found in close association with several Clovis culture artifacts. It showed strong affinities with all existing Native American populations, there is preliminary evidence of human habitation in north central Montana that may date as far back as 5000 years. There was evidence that the people had made use of buffalo jumps from as early as AD300. Before that, they may have lived further east, as many Algonquian-speaking peoples have lived along the Atlantic Coast. Linguistic studies of the Blackfoot language in comparison to others in the Algonquian-language family indicate that the Blackfoot had long lived in an area west of the Great Lakes, like others in this language family, the Blackfoot language is agglutinative. The people practiced agriculture and were partly nomadic. They moved westward after they adopted use of horses and guns and they became part of the Plains Indians cultures in the early 19th century. According to tribal oral histories, humans lived near the Rocky Mountain Front for thousands of years before European contact, the Blackfoot creation story is set near Glacier National Park in an area now known as the Badger-Two Medicine
36.
Algonquin language
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Algonquin is either a distinct Algonquian language closely related to the Ojibwe language or a particularly divergent Ojibwe dialect. It is spoken, alongside French and to some extent English, by the Algonquin First Nations of Quebec, as of 2006, there were 2,680 Algonquin speakers, less than 10% of whom were monolingual. Algonquin is the language for which the entire Algonquian language subgroup is named, the similarity among the names often causes considerable confusion. Like many Native American languages, it is strongly verb-based, with most meaning being incorporated into verbs instead of using separate words for prepositions, tense, Algonquin is an Algonquian language, of the Algic family of languages, and is descended from Proto-Algonquian. It is considered a divergent dialect of Ojibwe by many. But, although the speakers call themselves Anicinàbe, the Ojibwe call them Odishkwaagamii, among the Algonquins, however, the Nipissing are called Otickwàgamì and their language as Otickwàgamìmowin. The rest of the Algonquin communities call themselves Omàmiwininiwak, and the language Omàmiwininìmowin, other than Algonquin, languages considered as particularly divergent dialects of the Anishinaabe language include Mississauga and Odawa. The Potawatomi language was considered a divergent dialect of the Anishinaabe language, culturally, the Algonquin and the Mississaugas were not part of the Ojibwe–Odawa–Potawatomi alliance known as the Council of Three Fires. The Algonquins maintained stronger ties with the Abenaki, Atikamekw. Among sister Algonquian languages are Nitsitapi, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, the Algic family contains the Algonquian languages and the so-called Ritwan languages, Wiyot and Yurok. Ojibwe and its languages are frequently referred to as a Central Algonquian language, however. Among Algonquian languages, only the Eastern Algonquian languages constitute a genetic subgroup. There are several dialects of the Algonquin language, speakers at Maniwaki consider their language to be Algonquin, though linguistically it is a dialect of Eastern Ojibwa. So kìjig is pronounced, but anokì kìjig is pronounced, /h/ can be pronounced as either or. Aw ay ew ey iw ow Algonquin does have nasal vowels, in Algonquin, vowels automatically become nasal before nd, ng, nj or nz. For example, kìgònz is pronounced, not, word stress in Algonquin is complex but regular. Words are divided into iambic feet, counting long vowels as a full foot, the strong syllables of the remaining iambic feet each carry secondary stress, as do any final weak syllables. For example, /ni. ˈbi/, /ˈsiː. ˌbi/, /mi. ˈki. ˌzi/, /ˈnaː. no. ˌmi. da. ˌna/
37.
Fort Albany First Nation
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Fort Albany First Nation is a Cree First Nation reserve in Cochrane District in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. Situated on the shore of the Albany River, Fort Albany First Nation is only accessible by air or by winter road. The community is policed by the Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service, an Aboriginal-based service and it shares the Fort Albany 67 Indian Reserve with the Kashechewan First Nation. Fort Albany was one of the oldest and most important Hudsons Bay Company posts, the community of Fort Albany is accessible by air, by water and also by the winter road. The winter road is used during the months of early or late January to early or late March depending on the weather conditions. Air Creebec provides Fort Albany with daily flights, with connecting flights to Toronto and/or other points of travel. These arrangements are done in Timmins on Air Creebec, Air Canada, Thunder Air, Fort Albany is also accessible through the waters of James Bay and the Albany River. Moosonee Transportation Limited provides barge service by carrying supplies at least once or twice each summer by traveling up, freighter canoes can travel from Fort Albany to Calstock and return whenever the water levels are sufficient to make river travel possible. Outboard motors and canoes are used during the months for other activities such as hunting, trapping. During the winter months, skidoos are the main transportation around the community, there are pick-up trucks, vans, and all terrain vehicles owed by both businesses and individuals. The winter road was completed in the spring of 1974. It is also used extensively during the winter months and this road is maintained by contractors. The road links all the communities together, such as Attawapiskat, Moosonee, Moose Factory. Air Creebec transports passengers and provides services through Fort Albany Airport. The present passenger rate is $921.90 for a return trip to Timmins. These rates increase on an annual basis, seat sales are available, which are less expensive than the regular fare price. The seat sales have to be booked ten days in advance, Air Creebec also provides charter flights when required. Thunder Airlines tranports mail and provides passenger service and freight services
38.
Inuit
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Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities
39.
Winnipeg
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Winnipeg is the capital and largest city of the province of Manitoba in Canada. It is located near the centre of North America and is 110 kilometres from the U. S. border. It is also the place of the confluence of the Red, the city is named after the nearby Lake Winnipeg, the name comes from the Western Cree words for muddy water. The region was a centre for aboriginal peoples long before the arrival of Europeans. French traders built the first fort on the site in 1738, a settlement was later founded by the Selkirk settlers of the Red River Colony in 1812, the nucleus of which was incorporated as the City of Winnipeg in 1873. As of 2011, Winnipeg is the seventh most populated municipality in Canada, being located very far inland, the local climate is extremely seasonal even by Canadian standards with average January lows of around −21 °C and average July highs of 26 °C. Known as the Gateway to the West, Winnipeg is a railway, Winnipeg was the first Canadian host of the Pan American Games. It is home to professional sports franchises, including the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, the Winnipeg Jets, Manitoba Moose. Winnipeg lies at the confluence of the Assiniboine and the Red River of the North and this point was at the crossroads of canoe routes travelled by First Nations before European contact. Winnipeg is named after nearby Lake Winnipeg, the name is a transcription of the Western Cree words for muddy or brackish water. Estimates of the date of first settlement in this area are varied, in 1805, Canadian colonists observed First Nations peoples engaged in farming activity along the Red River. The practice quickly expanded, driven by the demand by traders for provisions, the rivers provided an extensive transportation network linking northern First Peoples with those to the south along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. The Ojibwe made some of the first maps on birch bark, sieur de La Vérendrye built the first fur trading post on the site in 1738, called Fort Rouge. French trading continued at this site for decades before the arrival of the British Hudsons Bay Company after France ceded the territory following its defeat in the Seven Years War. Many French and later British men who were trappers married First Nations women, their mixed-race children hunted, traded and they gradually developed as an ethnicity known as the Métis because of sharing a traditional culture. Lord Selkirk was involved with the first permanent settlement, the purchase of land from the Hudsons Bay Company, the North West Company built Fort Gibraltar in 1809, and the Hudsons Bay Company built Fort Douglas in 1812, both in the area of present-day Winnipeg. The two companies competed fiercely over trade, the Métis and Lord Selkirks settlers fought at the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816. In 1821, the Hudsons Bay and North West Companies merged, Fort Gibraltar was renamed Fort Garry in 1822 and became the leading post in the region for the Hudsons Bay Company
40.
Henry Kelsey Senior Public School
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Henry Kelsey Senior Public School is a public middle school established in 1971 in the Toronto District School Board located in the Agincourt neighbourhood of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is named after Henry Kelsey, the first European known to have seen the Canadian Prairies, grizzly bears, great buffalo herds, as of October 2013, there were 506 students are enrolled in the school. Henry Kelsey has Special Education, E. S. L. the school offers programs such as drama, art, vocal music and instrumental music. The two-story building includes over 50 rooms and a gymnasium that is able to divide into two. When the school was first built, the second-story was an open-concept, kelseys feeder schools include Chartland Jr P. S. Brimwood Jr P. S. and Iroquois Jr P. S, most students who graduate from the school either go to Agincourt Collegiate Institute or Albert Campbell Collegiate Institute. Henry Kelsey Senior Public School Website Henry Kelsey at TDSB
41.
Scarborough, Toronto
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Scarborough is a suburban district in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Situated atop the Scarborough Bluffs, it occupies the part of the city. Scarborough is contained within the borders of Victoria Park Avenue on the west, Steeles Avenue to the north, Rouge River and the city of Pickering to the east and it was named after the English town of Scarborough, North Yorkshire. First settled by Europeans in the 1790s, Scarborough has grown from a collection of rural villages. Incorporated in 1850 as a township, Scarborough became part of Metropolitan Toronto in 1953 and was reconstituted as a borough in 1967, Scarborough rapidly developed as a suburb of Old Toronto over the next decade and became a city in 1983. In 1998, Scarborough and the rest of Metropolitan Toronto were amalgamated into the present city of Toronto, Scarborough is an administrative district in Toronto and has its own community council. The Scarborough Civic Centre, the city hall, is still used by the municipal government of Toronto. Scarborough is a destination for new immigrants in Canada to reside. As a result, it is one of the most diverse and multicultural areas in the Greater Toronto Area, being home to religious groups. It includes some of Torontos popular natural landmarks, such as Rouge Park, Scarborough has been declared to be greener than any other part of Toronto. The area was named after Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England by Elizabeth Simcoe, the wife of John Graves Simcoe, the bluffs along Scarboroughs Lake Ontario shores reminded her of the limestone cliffs in Scarborough, England. On August 4,1793, she wrote in her diary, The shore is extremely bold, and has the appearance of chalk cliffs and they appeared so well that we talked of building a summer residence there and calling it Scarborough. Before that, the area was named Glasgow, after the Scottish city, the most popular is Scarberia, a portmanteau of Scarborough and Siberia, a reference to its seemingly distant eastern location from downtown Toronto. The word originated sometime in the 1960s and has remained a source of contention ever since. In May 1988, Joyce Trimmer, who was campaigning to be mayor of the city of Scarborough, said, Scarborough has also acquired nicknames related to its diversity. Such nicknames typically use the prefix Scar and a derived from the name of a region, nation, or ethnicity, for instance, Scompton or Scarlem, alluding to Compton. The first known evidence of people in Scarborough comes from a site in Fenwood Heights. The site contains the remains of a camp of nomadic hunters and foragers, after the land was surveyed in 1793, it was opened to settlement by British subjects with the first issue of land patents in 1796, although squatters had already been present for a few years
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Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
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University of Alberta
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The University of Alberta is a public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It was founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford, the first premier of Alberta and its enabling legislation is the Post-secondary Learning Act. The university comprises four campuses in Edmonton, the Augustana Campus in Camrose, the original north campus consists of 150 buildings covering 50 city blocks on the south rim of the North Saskatchewan River valley, directly across from downtown Edmonton. 39,000 students from Canada and 150 other countries participate in 400 programs in 18 faculties, the University of Alberta is a major economic driver in Alberta. The university’s impact on the Alberta economy is an estimated $12.3 billion annually, with more than 15,000 employees, the university is Albertas fourth-largest employer. According to the 2014 QS World University Rankings the top Faculty Area at the University of Alberta is Arts and Humanities, the University of Alberta is also a leading institution for the study of Ukraine and is home to the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. The university was modelled on the American state university, with an emphasis on extension work, the president, appointed by the board, was to provide a link between the two bodies and perform institutional leadership. Heated wrangling took place between the cities of Calgary and Edmonton over the location of the capital and of the university. It was stated that the capital would be north of the North Saskatchewan River, the city of Edmonton became the capital and the then-separate city of Strathcona on the south bank of the river, where Premier Alexander Rutherford lived, was granted the university. When the two cities were amalgamated in 1912, Edmonton became both the political and academic capital, with Henry Marshall Tory as its first president, the University of Alberta started operation in 1908. Under Torys guidance, the years were marked by recruitment of professors. Percy Erskine Nobbs & Frank Darling designed the plan for the University of Alberta in 1909–10. Nobbs designed the Arts Building, laboratories and Power House, with Cecil S. Burgess, Nobbs designed the Provincial College of Medicine. Architect Herbert Alton Magoon designed several buildings on campus, including St. Stephens Methodist College, the University of Alberta awarded its first degrees in 1912, the same year it established the Department of Extension. The Faculty of Medicine was established the year, and the Faculty of Agriculture began in 1915. Despite these setbacks, the university continued to grow, by 1920, it had six faculties and two schools. There were 851 male students and 251 female students, and 171 academic staff, in the early part of the 20th century, professional education expanded beyond the traditional fields of theology, law and medicine. Graduate training based on the German-inspired American model of specialized course work, in 1929, the university established a College of Education
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Edmonton
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Edmonton /ˈɛdməntən/ is the capital city of the Canadian province of Alberta. Edmonton is on the North Saskatchewan River and is the centre of the Edmonton Capital Region, the city anchors the north end of what Statistics Canada defines as the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The city had a population of 932,546 in 2016, making it Albertas second-largest city, also in 2016, Edmonton had a metropolitan population of 1,321,426, making it the sixth-largest census metropolitan area in Canada. Edmonton is North Americas northernmost city with a population over one million. A resident of Edmonton is known as an Edmontonian, Edmontons historic growth has been facilitated through the absorption of five adjacent urban municipalities and a series of annexations ending in 1982. Known as the Gateway to the North, the city is a point for large-scale oil sands projects occurring in northern Alberta. Edmonton is a cultural, governmental and educational centre and it hosts a year-round slate of festivals, reflected in the nickname Canadas Festival City. It is home to North Americas largest mall, West Edmonton Mall, in 1754, Anthony Henday, an explorer for the Hudsons Bay Company, may have been the first European to enter the Edmonton area. By 1795, Fort Edmonton was established on the north bank as a major trading post for the Hudsons Bay Company. The new forts name was suggested by John Peter Pruden after Edmonton, London, the home town of both the HBC deputy governor Sir James Winter Lake, and Pruden. In 1876, Treaty 6, which includes what is now Edmonton, was signed between the Aboriginal peoples in Canada and Queen Victoria as Queen of Canada, as part of the Numbered Treaties of Canada. The agreement includes the Plains and Woods Cree, Assiniboine, and other governments of First Nations at Fort Carlton, Fort Pitt. The area covered by the treaty represents most of the area of the current provinces of Saskatchewan. The arrival of the CPR and the C&E Railway helped bring settlers and entrepreneurs from eastern Canada, Europe, U. S. the Edmonton areas fertile soil and cheap land attracted settlers, further establishing Edmonton as a major regional commercial and agricultural centre. Some people participating in the Klondike Gold Rush passed through South Edmonton/Strathcona in 1897, in November 1905, the Canadian Northern Railway arrived in Edmonton, accelerating growth. During the early 1900s, Edmontons rapid growth led to speculation in real estate, in 1912, Edmonton amalgamated with the City of Strathcona, south of the North Saskatchewan River, as a result, the city extended south of the North Saskatchewan River for the first time. Just prior to World War I, the boom ended, many impoverished families moved to subsistence farms outside the city, while others fled to greener pastures in other provinces. Recruitment to the Canadian army during the war contributed to the drop in population
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Canada Post
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Canada Post Corporation, known more simply as Canada Post, is the crown corporation which functions as the countrys primary postal operator. Originally known as Royal Mail Canada, rebranding was done to the “Canada Post” name in the late 1960s, on October 16,1981, the Canada Post Corporation Act came into effect. This abolished the Post Office Department and created the present day Crown corporation which provides postal service, the act aimed to set a new direction for the postal service by ensuring the postal services financial security and independence. Canada Post provided service to more than 15.8 million addresses and delivered almost 9 billion items in 2015, Delivery takes place via traditional to the door service by 25,000 letter carriers, through a 13,000 vehicle fleet. There are more than 6,200 post offices across the country, in terms of area serviced, Canada Post delivers to a larger area than the postal service of any other nation, including Russia. As of 2004, nearly 843,000 rural Canadian customers received residential mail delivery services, Canada Post operates as a group of companies called The Canada Post Group. It employs approximately 64,000 full and part-time employees to deliver a range of delivery, logistics. The Corporation holds an interest in Purolator Courier, Innovapost, Progistix-Solutions, in 2000, Canada Post created a company called Epost, allowed customers to receive their bill online for free. Canada Post is the Federal Identity Program name, the legal name is Canada Post Corporation in English and Société canadienne des postes in French. On August 3,1527 in St. Johns, Newfoundland, while in St. Johns, John Rut wrote a letter to King Henry VIII about his findings and planned voyage. Mail delivery within Canada first started in 1693 when the Portuguese born Pedro da Silva was paid to deliver mail between Quebec City and Montreal, official postal services began in 1775, under the control of the British Government up to 1851. The first postage stamp went into circulation in Canada that same year and it was not until 1867 when the newly formed Dominion of Canada created the Post Office Department as a federal government department headed by a Cabinet minister, the Postmaster General of Canada. The Act took effect April 1,1868, providing postal service throughout the newly established country. Prior to rural mail delivery, many Canadians living outside major cities, on 10 October 1908, the first free rural mail delivery service was instituted in Canada. The extension of residential mail delivery services to all rural Canadian residents was an achievement for the Post Office Department. The Post Office Department was a pioneer of airmail delivery, with the first airmail flight taking place on June 24,1918. They had with them the first bag of mail to be delivered by air in Canada, wind and rain buffetted the small plane and forced it to make refuelling stops at Kingston and Deseronto. Finally, at 4,55 p. m. Peck, the flight had been arranged by a civilian organization, the Aerial League of the British Empire, to demonstrate that aviation was the way of the future
