1.
Henry Kirke Bush-Brown
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Henry Kirke Bush-Brown was an American sculptor and the adopted nephew of sculptor Henry Kirke Brown. He was raised in Newburgh, New York and attended the National Academy of Design in New York City and he became known for historically accurate realist sculptures illustrating American history. Bush-Brown was married to the painter Margaret Lesley Bush-Brown, with whom he had three surviving children, their daughter, Lydia, became a noted designer, Bush-Brown produced three equestrian bronze sculptures at Gettysburg battlefield. The first equestrian statue ever produced by Bush-Brown was that of General George Meade, located on Hancock Avenue, it is near where Meade watched his Union troops repulse the Confederate charge. This statue was created two years of research, and portrays Meade without a hat, as he appeared during the battle. Meade holds a pair of binoculars in his hand and his hat in his left hand. A sword hangs from the side of his saddle. The sculpture of Meade gazes across the battlefield toward the statue of his opponent, following the production of Meade, Bush-Brown created a 9, 000-pound monument of General John F. Reynolds, in which the horse has only two feet on the ground. This statue was dedicated in 1899 at a ceremony in which Bush-Brown, Reynolds nephew, the sculpture is located approximately 1100 feet from the marker where Reynolds was killed. The statue of Sedgwick incorporates such details as the dents in the Generals scabbard, in addition, Bush-Brown made a bust of Abraham Lincoln, dedicated in 1912 as part of the Lincoln Speech Memorial commemorating Lincolns Gettysburg Address. Bush-Brown created numerous sculptures for the exterior of New York Citys Beaux Arts 1907 Surrogates Courthouse, in 1910 he created a bronze statue of Mary Jemison, The White Woman of the Genesee, which marks her grave in New Yorks Letchworth State Park. Bush-Brown also produced a relief of financier and civic planner Cyrus Clark, brown’s relief of Clark is embedded in a natural rock outcropping near the 83rd Street entrance to Riverside Park. Apart from his numerous sculptures related to American history, Bush-Brown was also the author of an unpublished biographical manuscript detailing the life, one copy of the manuscript is with the Bush-Brown family papers at Smith College and another is held by the Library of Congress. Bush-Brown died in Washington, D. C. and was buried in Memorial Cemetery, Arundel, Henry Kirke Bush-Brown at Gettysburg Sculptures Biographical information Catalog at Smithsonian Figures on New York Citys Surrogates Court Building Image of Spirit of 61 sculpture, Philadelphia, PA
2.
Leyden, Massachusetts
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Leyden is a town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 711 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. Leyden was first settled in 1737 as part of Fall Town, the town was set off from Bernardston in 1784, but it was not incorporated until February 22,1809. The town was named for the city of Leiden, Netherlands, Leyden had several small industries in the eighteenth century, including grist mills, wood product mills, and dairying, but today the largest industry is maple sugar production. The town also has a reservoir which supplies the town of Greenfield, the Brotherhood of the Spirit commune was founded in Leyden in 1968. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 18.0 square miles, of which 17.9 square miles is land and 0.12 square miles. Leyden lies on the northern Massachusetts border, south of Windham County, the town is bordered by Guilford, Vermont, to the north, Bernardston to the east, Greenfield to the south, and Colrain to the west. The town center lies 9 miles north of Greenfield,47 miles north of Springfield, Leyden lies along the eastern edge of the Berkshires, with the town mostly lying along the valleys of the Green River and the branches of Glen Brook. The majority of the town away from the brooks is forested, and the town has a state forest. The confluence of the main and east branches of Glen Brook is dammed to form the Greenfield Reservoir, before the brook flows southward into Greenfield, Leyden is one of only a handful of towns in Massachusetts which does not have any state routes. There are state routes, U. S. routes and interstates in the towns, with Interstate 91 passing to the south. The nearest bus and passenger service is in Greenfield. The nearest national air service is at Bradley International Airport in Windsor Locks, as of the census of 2000, there were 772 people,277 households, and 219 families residing in the town. By population, Leyden ranked 22nd out of the 26 towns in Franklin County, the population density was 42.9 people per square mile, which ranked 18th in the county and 316th in the Commonwealth. There were 306 housing units at a density of 17.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 98. 45% White,0. 39% African American,0. 26% Native American,0. 13% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 26% of the population. 16. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 4. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.78 and the average family size was 3.08. In the town, the population was out with 26. 9% under the age of 18,6. 1% from 18 to 24,28. 5% from 25 to 44,30. 7% from 45 to 64
3.
Newburgh, New York
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Newburgh /ˈnuːbərɡ/ is a city located in Orange County, New York, United States,60 miles north of New York City, and 90 miles south of Albany, on the Hudson River. Newburgh is a part of the New York metropolitan area, the Newburgh area was first settled in the early 18th century by the Germans and British. During the American Revolution, Newburgh served as the headquarters of the Continental Army, prior to its chartering in 1865, the city of Newburgh was part of the town of Newburgh, the town now borders the city to the north and west. East of the city is the Hudson River, the city of Beacon, New York across the river, the entire southern boundary of the city is with the town of New Windsor. Most of this boundary is formed by Quassaick Creek, in May 2016, the city requested help for its PFOS contaminated water supply under Superfund. At the time of European contact the area of Newburgh was occupied by the Waoranek, the area that became Newburgh was first explored by Europeans when Henry Hudson stopped by during his 1609 expedition up the river that now bears his name. Around 1683 provincial governor Thomas Dongan purchased the land from the Woaranek, the first settlement was made in the spring of 1709 by fifty-four Palatine refugees, sponsored by Queen Anne of Great Britain. The settlers named it the Palatine Parish by Quassic, in 1743 a ferry at the foot of First Street had been established between Newburgh and Fishkill Landing. In 1752 the land had been surveyed by Cadwallader Colden and named Newburgh after Newburgh in his native Scotland, shipyards were established and docks and warehouses lined the waterfront. Newburgh was the headquarters of the Continental Army from March,1782 until the part of 1783. While the army was camped at Newburgh, some of its senior officers began the Newburgh conspiracy to overthrow the government, General George Washington was able to persuade his officers to stay loyal to him. The army was disbanded here in 1783, Washington received the famous Newburgh letter from Lewis Nicola proposing that he become king here. It drew a rebuke from Washington. In honor of his refusal of that suggestion, Kings Highway, the year 1793 saw Newburghs first newspaper, The Newburgh Packet. The hamlet of Newburgh was incorporated as a village in 1800, at the time of its settlement it was in Ulster County and was that countys seat. When Rockland County was split from Orange County in 1798, Newburgh, Newburgh thus lost its status as the county seat to Goshen. The former Ulster County courthouse still stands as Newburghs old city courthouse building, by 1793 there were four sloop lines operating out of Newburgh. As new turnpikes opened trade extended into the interior, passenger coaches and farm wagons raveled as far west as Canandaigua
4.
Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
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Portrait
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A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person, for this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumeria between c.2144 -2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality. Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypts Fayum district. These are almost the only paintings from the world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, the art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of a symbol of what that person looked like. In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized, true portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings. Moche culture of Peru was one of the few ancient civilizations which produced portraits and these works accurately represent anatomical features in great detail. The individuals portrayed would have been recognizable without the need for other symbols or a reference to their names. The individuals portrayed were members of the elite, priests, warriors. They were represented during several stages of their lives, the faces of gods were also depicted. To date, no portraits of women have been found, there is particular emphasis on the representation of the details of headdresses, hairstyles, body adornment and face painting. One of the portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vincis painting titled Mona Lisa. What has been claimed as the worlds oldest known portrait was found in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near Angoulême and is thought to be 27,000 years old. Profile view, full view, and three-quarter view, are three common designations for portraits, each referring to a particular orientation of the head of the individual depicted. Such terms would tend to have greater applicability to two-dimensional artwork such as photography, in the case of three-dimensional artwork, the viewer can usually alter their orientation to the artwork by moving around it
6.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
7.
Chester Harding (painter)
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Chester Harding was an American portrait painter. Harding was born at Conway, Massachusetts, brought up in the wilderness of New York state, he was a lad of robust physique, standing over 6 feet 3 inches. His family removed to Caledonia, New York, when he was fourteen years old, in the War of 1812, he marched as a drummer with the militia to the St Lawrence. He became subsequently chairmaker, peddler, inn-keeper, and house-painter, painting signs in Pittsburgh and he worked at this latter occupation a year, when acquaintance with a traveling portrait painter led him to attempt that art. Having succeeded in producing a portrait of his wife, he devoted himself enthusiastically to the profession. He painted several other portraits at Pittsburg, and then went to Paris, Kentucky and he made enough money to take him to the schools at the Philadelphia Academy of Design. He then established himself in St. Louis, and eventually went on the road as an itinerant portrait painter, in August 1823, he went to England and set up a studio in London, and spent three years in studying and painting. He met with success, painting royalty and the nobility. In 1843, he went to England again, and afterward resided in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1828 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician. He painted portraits of many of the prominent men and women of his time. Among the people who sat for him were James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, John Marshall, Nicholas Brown, Jr. Dudley Leavitt Pickman, Charles Carroll, William Wirt, Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, Washington Allston, the Dukes of Norfolk, Hamilton, and Sussex, Samuel Rogers, Harding is the only known painter who painted Daniel Boone from life. His last work was a portrait of Gen. William T. Sherman and his portrait of Daniel Webster went to the Bar Association of New York, and that of John Randolph to the Corcoran Gallery at Washington, D. C. He wrote My Egotistography, which was privately printed, hardings Gallery Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Harding, Chester. Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds, American Art Journal, Vol.15, No. “Chester Harding, ” The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. XIX, January,1867, No, CXI, pp. 485–488 at cdl. library. cornell. edu
8.
Henry Peters Gray
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Henry Peters Gray was an American portrait and genre painter. Born in New York City he was a pupil of Daniel Huntington in New York, elected a member of the National Academy of Design in 1842, he succeeded Huntington as president in 1870, holding the position until 1871. The later years of his life were devoted to portrait work and he was strongly influenced by the old Italian masters, painting in mellow colour with a classical tendency. One of his canvases was an allegorical composition called The Birth of our Flag. He died in New York City, the Greek Lovers was painted by Gray after a trip to Italy, where he was greatly influenced by the art of the Italian Renaissance. This painting was well received in its day, and reflects the nineteenth-century fascination with Greco-Roman antiquity. The painting shows her in her decline, possibly “thinking of her faithless lover. —or were her thoughts wandering to that distant churchyard, into whose bosom she might soon be gathered. ”Attribution Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Gray, Henry Peters. 1893 Biographical Sketch This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
9.
Asher Brown Durand
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Asher Brown Durand was an American painter of the Hudson River School. Durand was born in and eventually died in Maplewood, New Jersey, the eighth of eleven children, his father was a watchmaker and a silversmith. Durand was apprenticed to an engraver from 1812 to 1817 and later entered into a partnership with the owner of the company and he engraved Declaration of Independence for John Trumbull during 1823, which established Durands reputation as one of the countrys finest engravers. Durand helped organize the New York Drawing Association during 1825, which would become the National Academy of Design, ashers engravings on bank notes were used as the portraits for Americas first postage stamps, the 1847 series. Along with his brother Cyrus he also engraved some of the succeeding 1851 issues and his main interest changed from engraving to oil painting about 1830 with the encouragement of his patron, Luman Reed. During 1837, he accompanied his friend Thomas Cole on an expedition to Schroon Lake in the Adirondacks Mountains. Durand is remembered particularly for his portrayals of trees, rocks. He was an advocate for drawing directly from nature with as much realism as possible. Durand wrote, Let scrupulously accept whatever presents him until he shall, like other Hudson River School artists, Durand also believed that nature was an ineffable manifestation of God. He expressed this sentiment and his opinions on art in his essay Letters on Landscape Painting in The Crayon. Wrote Durand, he true province of Landscape Art is the representation of the work of God in the visible creation, Durand is noted for his 1849 painting Kindred Spirits which shows fellow Hudson River School artist Thomas Cole and poet William Cullen Bryant in a Catskills Mountains landscape. This was painted as a tribute to Cole upon Coles death during 1848, at $35 million, however, it would be a record price paid for an American painting at the time. Another of Durands painting is his Progress, commissioned by a railroad executive, the landscape depicts Americas progress, from a state of nature, towards the right, where there are roads, telegraph wires, a canal, warehouses, railroads, and steamboats. During 2007, the Brooklyn Museum exhibited nearly sixty of Durands works in the first monographic exhibition devoted to the painter in more than thirty-five years, the show, entitled Kindred Spirits, Asher B. Durand and the American Landscape, was exhibited from March 30 to July 29,2007, Durand is interred in Brooklyn, New York, in Green-Wood Cemetery. List of Hudson River School artists Books Howat, John K, American Paradise, The World of the Hudson River School. New York, NY, Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Anatomy of Nature, Geology & American Landscape Painting, 1825-1875. The Life and Times of Asher B, hensonville, NY, Black Dome Press Corp
10.
American Art-Union
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Art unions had been popular since the early 19th century in Europe, they first appeared in Switzerland, gaining great popularity in both Germany and the United Kingdom in the 1830s. It was the British version — Art Union of London — that was used as a model for the American Art-Union, in its thirteen years, the AAU became the largest art union in America. It made a significant impact on the art literacy of Americans, developed a taste for an American kind of art which was largely nationalistic, and supported the custom of artists and museums. From 1839 until 1851, New York Citys population would not hit the 400,000 point, the organization grew from 814 subscriptions, in 1840, with art valued at $4,145 to 18,960 subscriptions, valued in excess of $100,000. The timing for the AAU could not have been better, the American public, providers and politics combined to produce a rapid rise in the popularity of the AAU. A growing, literate middle class was keen to pursue scientific, artistic, a new generation of businessmen wanted to surround themselves with all the appearances and habits of their more wealthy counterparts. The numbers of newspapers and periodicals was growing dramatically and the desire for print with images was preferred. T, barnums, Bradys Daguerrean Miniature Gallery and Peales Gallery of Fine Arts. The U. S. Congress was promoting westward advancement, communication, further, emigrants from the plains were pushing the agenda of Manifest Destiny. They would become some of the first to settle what was perceived as Americas Manifest Destiny. Businessman James Herring opened the Apollo Gallery in New York City in 1838, to provide a place for American artists to exhibit and sell their art. The Apollo Gallery was the first gallery open at night, from nine a. m. and it was at this time that he received an analysis of the second year experiment from “The Edinburgh Association for the Promotion of Fine Arts in Scotland”. Thus inspired, he encouraged a group of other prominent New York City businessmen to develop the concept using the Apollo Gallery as their venue for Americas first art union, although the concept was very popular, it was not sufficient to remunerate Herring. However, he would stay active with the group, becoming the first Corresponding Secretary on the Committee of Management, a new venue and a new name—the American Art-Union—set itself a double task within its Charter, dated May 7,1840. The first was a task of developing the taste of the middling classes towards the best kind of American art. The second, was to provide a venue for the exhibition and sale of art from contemporary, the AAUs management were among the wealthiest, most conservative and well connected men in New York City. They were mostly first generation wealth and had ties in business, politics. There were only five presidents in the thirteen years and of the 211 possible choices of individuals for office, pell, Eleazar Parmly, F. W. Edmonds, Treasurer, Benjamin Nathan, Recording Secretary, James Herring, Corresponding Secretary. Further, as “merchant amateurs” they would be the best suited to manage the Art-Union and their goal, pointedly was “to establish a National School of Art, ” one which was originally American—illustrative of American scenery and American manners”
11.
Equestrian statue
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An equestrian statue is a statue of a rider mounted on a horse, from the Latin eques, meaning knight, deriving from equus, meaning horse. A statue of a horse is strictly an equine statue. A full-sized equestrian statue is a difficult and expensive object for any culture to produce, Equestrian statuary in the West goes back at least as far as Archaic Greece. Found on the Athenian acropolis, the sixth century BC statue known as the Rampin Rider depicts a kouros mounted on horseback, a number of ancient Egyptian, Assyrian and Persian reliefs show mounted figures, usually rulers, though no free standing statues are known. The Chinese Terracotta Army has no mounted riders, though cavalrymen stand beside their mounts, the Regisole was a bronze classical or Late Antique equestrian monument of a ruler, highly influential during the Italian Renaissance but destroyed in 1796 in the wake of the French Revolution. It was originally erected at Ravenna, but removed to Pavia in the Middle Ages, a fragment of an equestrian portrait sculpture of Augustus has also survived. Equestrian statues were not very frequent in the Middle ages, nevertheless, there are some examples, like the Bamberg Horseman, located in Bamberg Cathedral. Another example is the Magdeburg Reiter, in the city of Magdeburg, there are a few roughly half-size statues of Saint George and the Dragon, including the famous ones in Prague and Stockholm. The Scaliger Tombs in Verona include Gothic statues at less than lifesize, a well-known small bronze in Paris may be a contemporary portrait of Charlemagne, although its date and subject are uncertain. Leonardo da Vinci had planned an equestrian monument to the Milanese ruler. The The Wax Horse and Rider is a model for an equestrian statue of Charles dAmboise. Titians equestrian portrait of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor of 1548 applied the form again to a ruler, taccas studio would produce such models for the rulers in France and Spain. His last public commission was the equestrian bronze of Philip IV, begun in 1634. The near life-size equestrian statue of Charles I of England by Hubert Le Sueur of 1633 at Charing Cross in London is the earliest large English example, which was followed by many. The Bronze Horseman is an equestrian statue, on a huge base, of Peter the Great of 1782 by Étienne Maurice Falconet in Saint Petersburg. Mills was the first American sculptor to overcome the challenge of casting a rider on a rearing horse, the resulting sculpture was so popular he repeated it, for Washington, D. C. New Orleans, Louisiana and Nashville, Tennessee, cyrus Edwin Dallin made a specialty of equestrian sculptures of American Indians, his Appeal to the Great Spirit stands before the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The Robert Gould Shaw Monument in Boston, Massachusetts is a famous relief including an equestrian portrait, as the 20th century progressed, the popularity of the equestrian monument declined sharply, as monarchies fell, and the military use of horses virtually vanished
12.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
13.
Andrew Jackson (Mills)
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Andrew Jackson refers to an equestrian statue by Clark Mills in Lafayette Square, Washington, D. C. It was commissioned in May 1847, cast in 1852, and dedicated on January 8,1853 and it was the first equestrian statue made in America. Jacksons horse at the Battle of New Orleans was named Duke, Mills trained his horse to pose on its haunches. He completed a model, and started a foundry to produce the casting. He produced six castings until the one was completed, with ten pieces. The statue was restored, and spurs added. Vol. 71/72, pp. 289–313 Waymarking Wikimapia
14.
Clark Mills (sculptor)
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Clark Mills was an American sculptor, best known for four versions of an equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, located in Washington, D. C. Nashville, Tennessee, Jacksonville, Florida and New Orleans, Louisiana and he had a studio, in Charleston, South Carolina, and Washington, D. C. at 15th Street, and Pennsylvania Avenue. He had three sons, he remarried and had a step-daughter, there was some dispute over his will. He was interred at Glenwood Cemetery in Washington, D. C, in 1865 Mills made a life-cast of Abraham Lincolns head. It is generally felt to be inferior in quality to the 1860 cast made by Leonard Volk. One of Mills works is located in Presidents Park, also known as Lafayette Square, the statue of Andrew Jackson was unveiled January 8,1853. It was a Saturday on the 38th anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans, senator Stephen A. Douglas was the keynote speaker at the unveiling. There are three other castings in New Orleans, Jacksonville, Florida, and Nashville, Tennessee. Beginning in 1860, the Statue of Freedom, which sits atop the United States Capitol, was cast in five sections by Mills. Mills also captured a tense and crucial moment in the Revolutionary War with the creation of a statue of Lieutenant General George Washington in 1860. Congress commissioned this statue in 1853 because of the popularity of Millss equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson. In World War II, the United States liberty ship SS Clark Mills was named in his honor, American Lion, Andrew Jackson in the White House. Charles Colbert, Clark Mills and the Phrenologist, The Art Bulletin, Vol.70, No
15.
Brevet Lt. General Winfield Scott
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Brevet Lt. General Winfield Scott is an equestrian statue in Washington, D. C. that honors career military officer Winfield Scott. The monument stands in the center of Scott Circle, a circle and small park at the convergence of 16th Street, Massachusetts Avenue. The statue was sculpted by Henry Kirke Brown, whose works include statues of George Washington in New York and Nathanael Greene in Washington. It was the first of many sculptures honoring Civil War generals that were installed in Washington, the sculpture is one of the citys 18 Civil War monuments that were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. The monument and park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service, the bronze statue rests on a granite base that at the time was the largest stone ever quarried in the United States. Much criticized for its depiction of Scott and the proportions of the horse, it is considered one of the worst equestrian sculptures in the city by authors and historians. Winfield Scott, nicknamed Old Fuss and Feathers and the Grand Old Man of the Army, during his 53-year career, he led forces during several wars, including the War of 1812, Black Hawk War, Mexican–American War, Seminole Wars, and Civil War. He served under every president from Thomas Jefferson to Abraham Lincoln and his twenty-year service as Commanding General of the United States Army was the longest in that posts history. His popularity following the Mexican–American War resulted in Scott being nominated the Whig Party candidate in the 1852 presidential election, following Scotts death in 1866, veterans and other citizens began lobbying for a monument to honor the general. On March 3,1867, Congress authorized $35,000 for the erection of an equestrian statue, the monument was reauthorized by Congress on July 15,1870, and on June 10,1872. The artist selected was Henry Kirke Brown, a sculptor from New York whose 1856 equestrian statue of George Washington in Union Square, Manhattan, had been well received by critics. His other works in Washington, D. C. include Major General Nathanael Greene in Stanton Park and busts of Vice Presidents George Clinton, breckinridge, poet William Cullen Bryant, Major General Philip Kearny, and Senators Henry Clay and Richard Stockton. The model of the statue was completed around 1872, the federal government contributed bronze cannons captured by Scott during the Mexican–American War to use for casting the statue. Before the casting began, descendants of Scott saw the model, Brown had designed the horse to be a small mare, which Scott preferred to ride, instead of a stallion. The descendants argued that no other general had been portrayed riding a mare, the statue was founded by Robert Wood & Company, whose other works in Washington, D. C. include Major General Nathanael Greene, Major General James B. McPherson and General John A. Rawlins, the architect selected to design the base is disputed. The stonework was completed by Jonas French of the Cape Ann Granite Company, the base was carved from a single block of granite weighing more than 150 tons. It was the largest single stone ever quarried in the United States at the time, the original planned site for the statue was present-day McPherson Square
16.
Bronze sculpture
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Bronze is the most popular metal for cast metal sculptures, a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply a bronze. It can be used for statues, singly or in groups, reliefs and it is often gilded to give gilt-bronze or ormolu. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould. Their strength and ductility is an advantage when figures in action are to be created and these qualities allow the creation of extended figures, as in Jeté, or figures that have small cross sections in their support, such as the equestrian statue of Richard the Lionheart. As recently as 2007 several life sized bronze sculptures by John Waddell were stolen, there are many different bronze alloys, and the term is now tending to be regarded by museums as too imprecise, and replaced in descriptions by copper alloy, especially for older objects. Typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin, alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, the proportions of this mixture may suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins. The Benin Bronzes are really brass, and the Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomews Church, Liège is described as both bronze and brass. In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were used, classic bronze, about 10% tin, was used in casting. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from bronze, while helmets. On one definition, modern statuary bronze is 90% copper and 10% tin, the great civilizations of the old world worked in bronze for art, from the time of the introduction of the alloy for edged weapons. Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro belonging to Harappan Civilization dating back to 2500 BCE is perhaps the first bronze statue of the world, the Greeks were the first to scale the figures up to life size. Few examples exist in good condition, one is the seawater-preserved bronze Victorious Youth that required painstaking efforts to bring it to its present state for museum display, far more Roman bronze statues have survived. Over the long period of Egyptian dynastic art, small lost-wax bronze figurines were made in large numbers. Sri Lankan Sinhalese Bronze statue of Buddhist Alakothiveshwara Tara Devi statue now in England is an example of Bronze statues. From the ninth through the century the Chola dynasty in South India represented the pinnacle of bronze casting in India. Making bronzes is highly skilled work, and a number of casting processes may be employed, including lost-wax casting, sand casting. The term bronze is also applied to metal sculptures made by electrotyping, although these sculptures are typically pure copper and their fabrication does not involve metal casting
17.
National Academy Museum and School
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Durand, Thomas Cole, Martin E. Thompson, and others to promote the fine arts in America through instruction and exhibition. The Academy is an honorary organization, a school. The school offers instruction, master classes, intensive critiques, various workshops. The museum houses a collection of over 7,000 works of American art from the 19th, 20th. The Academy has been located at several locations over the years, notable among them was a building built during 1863-1865, designed by architect P. B. Wight in Venetian Gothic style, which was modeled on the Doges Palace in Venice, another locale was at West 109th Street and Amsterdam Avenue in Manhattan. Since 1942 the academy has occupied a mansion that was the home of sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington and Archer Milton Huntington at Fifth Avenue. The original founders of the National Academy of Design were students of the American Academy of the Fine Arts, samuel F. B. Morse and other students set about forming the drawing association to meet several times each week for the study the art of design. Still, the association was viewed as a dependent organization of the American Academy, an attempt was made to reconcile the difference and maintain a single academy by appointing six of the artists from the association as directors of the American Academy. When four of the nominees were not elected, however, the frustrated artists resolved to form a new academy, among the teaching staff were numerous artists, including Will Hicok Low, who taught from 1889 to 1892. The famous American poet William Cullen Bryant also gave lectures, architect Alexander Jackson Davis taught at the Academy. Painter Lemuel Wilmarth was the first full-time instructor Gulian C, verplanck, a Congressman and a man of letters, gave an address at the school in 1824. and Silas Dustin was a curator
18.
Abraham Lincoln (Brown)
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Abraham Lincoln is an outdoor bronze sculpture of Abraham Lincoln by Henry Kirke Brown, located at Union Square in Manhattan, New York. Cast in 1870 and dedicated on September 16 of that year, the statue was installed at the southwest corner of Union Square, where the sculpture of Mahatma Gandhi stands today. ”During the 1930 redesign of Union Square Park, the statue was moved to its current location. The statue is in alignment with the Independence Flagstaff and George Washington. 1870 in art Media related to Lincoln statue in Union Square at Wikimedia Commons
19.
Richard Stockton (Continental Congressman)
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Richard Stockton was an American lawyer, jurist, legislator, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Richard was a son of John Stockton the wealthy Princeton landowner who donated land and helped bring what is now Princeton University to Princeton and he studied law with David Ogden, of Newark, who was at that time the head of the legal profession in the province. Stockton was admitted to the bar in 1754 and soon rose to great distinction, in 1763 he received the degree of sergeant at law, the highest degree of law at that time. He was a friend of George Washington. His wife was poet Annis Boudinot Stockton, sister of New Jersey statesman Elias Boudinot and their son Richard Stockton became an eminent lawyer and prominent Federalist leader. Elias Boudinot was married to Stocktons sister Hannah Stockton, Stockton initially showed little interest in politics. He once wrote, The public is generally unthankful, and I never will become a Servant of it, till I am convinced that by neglecting my own affairs I am doing more acceptable Service to God and Man. Stockton did, however, take a role as a trustee of the College of New Jersey. Stockton served the College, afterwards known as Princeton University, as a trustee 26 years, in 1766 and 1767, he gave up his law practice for the purpose of visiting England, Scotland, and Ireland. His fame preceded him and he was received by the most eminent men of the kingdom and he was consulted on the state of American affairs by such notable men as the Marquis of Rockingham with whom he spent a week at his country estate. He met with Edmund Burke, the Earl of Chatham, in Scotland, his personal efforts resulted in the acceptance of the presidency of the College by the Reverend John Witherspoon. Witherspoons wife had opposed her husbands taking the position but her objections were overcome with the aid of his future son-in-law Benjamin Rush and this was an exceedingly important event in the history of higher education in America. One night in Edinburgh, Stockton was attacked by a robber and he defended himself skillfully with a small sword, Stockton returned to America in August 1767. In 1768, Stockton had his first taste of government service when he was elevated to a seat in the New Jersey Provincial Council and he first took a moderate stance in the troubles between the colonies and Great Britain. In 1774 he drafted and sent to Lord Dartmouth a plan of self-government for America, independent of Parliament, without renouncing the Crown. This Commonwealth approach was not acceptable to the King, had it been, in 1776, Stockton was elected to the Second Continental Congress, where he took a very active role. Stockton was the first person from New Jersey to sign the Declaration of Independence. On his return to Princeton, he traveled 30 miles east to the home of a friend, John Covenhoven, to evacuate his family to safety, and away from the path of the British army
20.
National Statuary Hall
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National Statuary Hall is a chamber in the United States Capitol devoted to sculptures of prominent Americans. The hall, also known as the Old Hall of the House, is a large, two-story and it is located immediately south of the Rotunda. The meeting place of the U. S. House of Representatives for nearly 50 years, the Hall is built in the shape of an ancient amphitheater and is one of the earliest examples of Neoclassical architecture in America. While most wall surfaces are painted plaster, the low gallery walls, around the rooms perimeter stand colossal columns of variegated breccia marble quarried along the Potomac River. The Corinthian capitals of white marble were carved in Carrara, Italy, a lantern in the fireproof cast-steel ceiling admits natural light into the Hall. The chamber floor is laid with black and white marble tiles, only two of the many statues presently in the room were commissioned for display in the original Hall of the House. Enrico Causicis neoclassical plaster Liberty and the Eagle looks out over the Hall from a niche above the colonnade behind what was once the Speakers rostrum, the sandstone relief eagle in the frieze of the entablature below was carved by Giuseppe Valaperta. Above the door leading into the Rotunda is the Car of History by Carlo Franzoni and this neoclassical marble sculpture depicts Clio, the Muse of History, riding in the chariot of Time and recording events in the chamber below. The wheel of the chariot contains the clock, the works are by Simon Willard. It has been said that John Quincy Adams took advantage of the Halls acoustics to eavesdrop on other members conversing on the side of the room. To test the acoustics today, one party should stand near the floor plaque marking Adams desk on the West side of the Hall while the party stands at the corresponding spot on the East side. However, this is only a myth, as the current half dome, the Adams story began long after Adams death as a tourist gimmick, according to Capitol historian William C. Though echoes were a significant problem, there is no documentation of a whisper spot prior to the twentieth century. This chamber is the hall and third meeting place built for the House of Representatives in this location. Prior to this, the House members met in a squat, oval, temporary building known as the Oven, which had been hastily erected in 1801. The first permanent Hall, designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, was completed in 1807, however, the Hall was rebuilt in its present form by Latrobe and his successor, Charles Bulfinch, between 1815 and 1819. Unfortunately, the smooth, curved ceiling promoted annoying echoes, making it difficult to conduct business, various attempts to improve the acoustics, including hanging draperies and reversing the seating arrangement, proved unsuccessful. The only solution to this problem was to build an entirely new Hall, in 1850, a new Hall was authorized, and the House moved into its present chamber in the new House wing in 1857
21.
United States Capitol
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The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U. S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill at the end of the National Mall in Washington. Though not at the center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the Districts street-numbering system. The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors. In 2014, scaffolding was erected around the dome for a project scheduled to be completed by early 2017. All exterior scaffolding was removed by the end of summer 2016, prior to establishing the nations capital in Washington, D. C. the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia, New York City, and a number of other locations. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, the United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4,1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a capital for ten years, until the nations capital in Washington. Pierre Charles LEnfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city, in reviewing LEnfants plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the Capitol rather than Congress House. The word Capitol comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, the connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the Presidents House. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City, the most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallets designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, a late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31,1793, to much praise for its Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the portion of the design
22.
DeWitt Clinton
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DeWitt Clinton was an American politician and naturalist who served as a United States Senator and was the sixth Governor of New York. In this last capacity, he was responsible for the construction of the Erie Canal. Clinton was the leader of New Yorks Peoples Party and was a rival of Martin Van Buren. Clinton believed that improvements could transform American life, drive economic growth. He heavily influenced the development of New York State and the United States, DeWitt Clinton was born on March 2,1769, the second son born to James Clinton and his wife Mary DeWitt. He began his education at Princeton University, and then transferred to Kings College, Kings was renamed Columbia University, and Clinton was the first to graduate under the schools new name. He was the brother of George Clinton, Jr. who served in Congress, the half-brother of James G. Clinton, who served in Congress. He became the secretary to his uncle George Clinton, who was governor of New York. Soon after, he became a member of the Democratic-Republican Party and he was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1798, and of the New York State Senate from the Southern District in 1798–1802 and 1806–1811. He was a delegate to the New York State Constitutional Convention in 1801 and he was a member of the Council of Appointments in 1801–1802 and 1806–1807. He won election by the New York State Legislature to the U. S. Senate seat left vacant by the resignation of John Armstrong, Jr. and served from February 9,1802 to November 4,1803. He resigned, unhappy with living conditions in newly built Washington and he served as Mayor from 1803 to 1807,1808 to 1810, and 1811 to 1815. While serving as Mayor, he organized the New-York Historical Society in 1804 and was its president and he also helped re-organize the American Academy of the Fine Arts in 1808, and served as its president between 1813 and 1817. He was a Regent of the University of the State of New York from 1808 to 1825, Clinton was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814, and served as its vice president from 1821 to 1828. In 1816 he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, from 1810 to 1824, he was a member of the Erie Canal Commission. He was among the first members, appointed in 1810, who projected and surveyed the route to be taken, after 1816, he became the driving force during the construction of the canal. In 1811, the death of John Broome left a vacancy in the office of Lieutenant Governor of New York. In a special election, Clinton defeated the Federalist Nicholas Fish, Clintons uncle, George Clinton, had attempted to challenge James Madison for the presidency in 1808, but was chosen as the partys vice presidential nominee instead
23.
Green-Wood Cemetery
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Green-Wood Cemetery was founded in 1838 as a rural cemetery in Kings County, New York. Like other early rural cemeteries, Green-Wood was founded in a time of rapid urbanization when churchyards in New York City were becoming overcrowded. Located in Greenwood Heights, Brooklyn, the cemetery lies several blocks southwest of Prospect Park, the gates of the cemetery were designated a New York City landmark in 1966, and the Weir Greenhouse, used as a visitors center, in 1982. The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997 and was granted National Historic Landmark status in 2006 by the U. S. Department of the Interior. The Fort Hamilton Parkway Gate and the chapel were designated as landmarks by New York City in 2016. The popularity of Green-Wood Cemetery inspired a competition to design a Central Park for NYC, the winners were Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted. It essentially inspired the creation of Central Park and Prospect Park, Battle Hill, the highest point in Brooklyn, is on cemetery grounds, rising approximately 200 feet above sea level. It was the site of an important action during the Battle of Long Island on August 27,1776, a Revolutionary War monument by Frederick Ruckstull, Altar to Liberty, Minerva, was erected there in 1920. From this height, the bronze Minerva statue gazes towards the Statue of Liberty across New York Harbor, the cemetery was the idea of Henry Evelyn Pierrepont, a Brooklyn social leader. The Pierrepont papers deposited at the Brooklyn Historical Society contain material about the organizing of Green-Wood Cemetery and it was a popular tourist attraction in the 1850s and by early 1860s, it became the popular tourist place 2nd to Niagara Falls. It was the place most famous New Yorkers who died during the half of the nineteenth century were buried. Green-Wood Cemetery is still operating with approximately 600,000 graves and 7000 trees spread out over 478 acres, the rolling hills and dales, several ponds and an on-site chapel provide an environment that still draws visitors. This incorporates a sculpture of the ship, half-submerged by the waves, as well as a Civil War Memorial, during the Civil War, Green-Wood Cemetery created the Soldiers Lot for free veterans burials. The gates were designed by Richard Upjohn in Gothic Revival style, the main entrance to the cemetery was built in 1861-65 of Belleville, New Jersey brownstone. A Designated Landmarks of New York plaque was erected on it in 1958 by the New York Community Trust, several wooden shelters were also built, including one in a Gothic Revival style, one resembling an Italian villa, and another resembling a Swiss chalet. A descendent colony of parakeets that are believed to have escaped their containers while in transit now nests in the spires of the gate. On December 5,1876, the Brooklyn Theater Fire claimed the lives of at least 278 individuals, out of that total,103 unidentified victims were interred in a common grave at Green-Wood Cemetery. An obelisk near the entrance at Fifth Avenue and 25th Street marks the burial site
24.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
25.
Scott Circle
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Scott Circle is a traffic circle in the northwest quadrant of Washington, D. C. at the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Rhode Island Avenue, and 16th Street, N. W. N Street stops short of meeting the circle from either direction, the through-lanes of 16th Street NW pass under Scott Circle in a $317,000 tunnel that began construction in February 1941 and opened on December 29,1941. The service lanes of 16th Street intersect the circle, the embassies of Australia and the Philippines are located on Scott Circle, as is the University of California, Washington Center and the General Scott Condominiums. A sculpture of Brevet Lt. General Winfield Scott was erected in Scott Circle in 1874, the Daniel Webster Memorial and Samuel Hahnemann Monument can be found on the periphery of the circle. List of Circles in Washington, D. C
26.
Grand Army Plaza
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Grand Army Plaza, originally known as Prospect Park Plaza, is a public plaza that comprises the northern corner and the main entrance of Prospect Park in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. It consists of concentric oval rings arranged as streets, with the namesake Plaza Street comprising the outer ring, the only streets that penetrate to the inner ring are Flatbush Avenue, Vanderbilt Avenue, Prospect Park West, Eastern Parkway, and Union Street. Originally, the grounds of the Grand Army Plaza was a battleground of the Battle of Long Island, the 1861 plan for Prospect Park included an elliptical plaza at the intersection of Flatbush and Ninth avenues. In 1867, the plaza was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, Olmsted and Vauxs design included only the Fountain of the Golden Spray and the surrounding earth embankments covered in heavy plantings. The berms still shield the local apartment buildings and the branch of the Brooklyn Public Library from the noisy traffic circle that has developed. By 1869 the Abraham Lincoln statue by Henry Kirke Brown was north of the plaza fountains stairs, the original 1867 fountain was successively replaced by an 1873 lighted fountain, an 1897-1915 fountain for exhibitions, and the 1932 Bailey Fountain renovated in 2006. In 1895, three bronze sculpture groups were added to the 1892 Soldiers and Sailors Arch, in 1975, Grand Army Plaza became a National Historic Landmark. In 2008, a competition was held for designs to reorganize Grand Army Plaza to make it an integral part of Prospect Park. At the same time, the New York City Department of Transportation made improvements in accessibility, putting sidewalks and these improvements made it somewhat easier and safer for pedestrians and cyclists to cross from the park to the library and to the plaza. The changes made by the NYCDOT were modest in comparison to those in the designs in the competition, most of which called for the rerouting of some of the vast traffic flow. The area around the Arch forms the largest and busiest traffic circle in Brooklyn, being the convergence of Flatbush Avenue, Vanderbilt Avenue, Eastern Parkway, Prospect Park West, and Union Street. In 1927, Brooklyns Death-O-Meter, a sign admonishing drivers to Slow Up, for the past several years a popular green market/farmers market is held on the plaza in front of Prospect Park every Saturday from 8 a. m. to 4 p. m. The Grand Army Plaza station, built in 1920 on the IRT Eastern Parkway Line, is on the end of the Plaza and furnishes transportation to the site. The Seventh Avenue station on the BMT Brighton Line is several blocks northwest, the B67 and B69 buses stop at Union Street and 7th Avenue, just two blocks north. New York City portal Notes Media related to Grand Army Plaza at Wikimedia Commons
27.
Prospect Park (Brooklyn)
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Prospect Park is a 585-acre public park in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, and the largest public park in Brooklyn. The park is situated between the neighborhoods of Park Slope, Prospect Lefferts Gardens, Ditmas Park and Windsor Terrace, as well as Flatbush Avenue, Grand Army Plaza, Prospect Park is run and operated by the Prospect Park Alliance and New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. It is part of the Brooklyn-Queens Greenway, Prospect Park was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux after their completion of Manhattans Central Park. There is also a private Society of Friends cemetery on Quaker Hill near the ball fields, the area was originally forested, but became open pasture after two centuries of European colonization. Significant stands of trees remained only in the peat bogs centered south of Ninth Street and Flatbush Avenues, and in a large bog north of Ninth Avenue and contained chestnut, white poplar, and oak. Some of these stands were preserved in the Parks Ravine and have been popularized as The Last Forest of Brooklyn, during the American Revolution the Park was a site of the Battle of Long Island. American forces attempted to hold Battle Pass, an opening in the terminal moraine where the old Flatbush Road passed from Brooklyn to Flatbush and it fell after some of the heaviest fighting in the engagement, and its loss contributed to George Washingtons decision to retreat. Even though the Continental Army lost the battle, they were able to hold the British back long enough for Washingtons army to escape to Manhattan, there are plaques north of the zoo that honor this event. The City of Brooklyn built a reservoir on Prospect Hill in 1856, preserving the Battle Pass area and keeping the lots around the reservoir free of buildings were two reasons for establishing a large park in the area. This was due to Brooklyn becoming the worlds first commuter suburb, during this time, concepts concerning public parks gained popularity. In 1858 Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux created Central Park in Manhattan and it became the first landscaped park in the United States. He also believed that a park would attract wealthy residents. Of the seven sites mentioned in their February,1860 proposal, by the end of 1860, land had been purchased for Vieles plan, but the Civil War stopped further activity. Vaux included a plaza at the northern end of the park. It would be incorporated as Mount Prospect Park in 1940, the change in plans was not without consequences. The lots, however, constitute just over five percent of the parks acreage, much of this very expensive acreage houses the maintenance yards and is rarely seen by the public. Despite the repercussions of Vauxs revisions, Stranahan championed the plan, Vaux recruited Olmsted and formally presented their proposal in January 1866 and it was accepted in May, with work commencing in June. The park commissioners opened the park to the public on October 19,1867, work continued for another six years until it was substantially complete in 1873, though certain facets of the original design were never undertaken
28.
George Washington (Brown)
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George Washington is an outdoor sculpture by Henry Kirke Brown, located in Union Square, Manhattan, in the United States. The bronze equestrian statue was dedicated in 1865 and is the oldest sculpture in the New York City Parks collection, the sculpture measures 264 by 136 and sits on a Barre granite pedestal that measures 122 by 79 by 15. It was dedicated on July 4,1856, the monument is in axial alignment with Abraham Lincoln and the Independence Flagstaff
29.
Union Square, Manhattan
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The park is under the aegis of the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. Adjacent neighborhoods are the Flatiron District to the north, Chelsea to the west, Greenwich Village to the southwest, East Village to the southeast, many buildings of The New School are near the square, as are several dormitories of New York University. It features a wall sculpture and digital clock expelling bursts of steam. Among the heterogeneous assortment of buildings along the west side is the Decker Building, Union Square is noted for its impressive equestrian statue of U. S. A statue of Mahatma Gandhi in the southwest corner of the park was added in 1986, the 14th Street – Union Square New York City Subway station, served by the 456 <6> L N Q R W trains, is located under Union Square. In 1815, by act of the legislature, this former potters field became a public commons for the city. Ruggles obtained a lease on most of the surrounding lots from 15th to 19th Streets. In 1834 he convinced the Board of Aldermen to enclose and grade the square, then sold most of his leases, a fountain was built in the center of Union Square to receive water from the Croton Aqueduct, completed in 1842. The Everett House on the corner of 17th Street and Fourth Avenue was for one of the citys most fashionable hotels. In the early years of the park a fence surrounded the central oval planted with radiating walks lined with trees. In 1872, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were called in to replant the park, the last of the neighborhoods free-standing private mansions, Peter Goelets at the northeast corner of 19th Street, made way for a commercial building in 1897. The Rialto, New York Citys first commercial district, was located in. It was called the Rialto after the district in Venice. The theater district gradually re-located northward, into less expensive and undeveloped uptown neighborhoods, thus, suppliers of props, costumes, wigs, scenery, and other theatrical necessities grew up around the new theatres. The park has historically been the start or the end point for political demonstrations. In the summer of 1864 the north side of the square was the site of a Sanitary Fair, Union Square has been a frequent gathering point for radicals of all stripes to make speeches or demonstrate. On September 5,1882, in the first Labor Day celebration, on March 28,1908, an anarchist set off a bomb in Union Square which only killed himself and another man. On August 21,1893, Emma Goldman took the stage at Union Square to make her Free Bread speech to a crowd of overworked garment workers
30.
United States Military Academy
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It sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River,50 miles north of New York City. It is one of the four U. S. military service academies, the entire central campus is a national landmark and home to scores of historic sites, buildings, and monuments. The majority of the campuss Norman-style buildings are constructed from gray, the campus is a popular tourist destination complete with a large visitor center and the oldest museum in the United States Army. Candidates for admission must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a member of Congress or Delegate/Resident Commissioner in the case of Washington, puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands. Other nomination sources include the President and Vice President of the United States, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as cadets or collectively as the United States Corps of Cadets. Tuition for cadets is fully funded by the Army in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,300 cadets enter the Academy each July, with about 1,000 cadets graduating. Cadets are required to adhere to the Cadet Honor Code, which states that a cadet will not lie, cheat, steal, the academy bases a cadets leadership experience as a development of all three pillars of performance, academics, physical, and military. Most graduates are commissioned as lieutenants in the Army. Foreign cadets are commissioned into the armies of their home countries, since 1959, cadets have also been eligible to cross-commission, or request a commission in one of the other armed services, provided that they meet that services eligibility standards. Every year, a small number of cadets do this. The academys traditions have influenced other institutions because of its age and it was the first American college to have an accredited civil-engineering program and the first to have class rings, and its technical curriculum was a model for later engineering schools. West Points student body has a rank structure and lexicon. All cadets reside on campus and dine together en masse on weekdays for breakfast, the academy fields fifteen mens and nine womens National Collegiate Athletic Association sports teams. Cadets compete in one sport every fall, winter, and spring season at the intramural, club and its football team was a national power in the early and mid-20th century, winning three national championships. The Continental Army first occupied West Point, New York, on 27 January 1778, between 1778 and 1780, the Polish engineer and military hero Tadeusz Kościuszko oversaw the construction of the garrison defenses. While the fortifications at West Point were known as Fort Arnold during the war, as commander, Benedict Arnold committed his act of treason, after Arnold betrayed the patriot cause, the Army changed the name of the fortifications at West Point, New York, to Fort Clinton. With the peace after the American Revolutionary War, various ordnance, Cadets underwent training in artillery and engineering studies at the garrison since 1794. In 1801, shortly after his inauguration as president, Thomas Jefferson directed that plans be set in motion to establish at West Point the United States Military Academy and he selected Jonathan Williams to serve as its first superintendent
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Major General Nathanael Greene (Brown)
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Major General Nathanael Greene is a bronze equestrian statue, by Henry Kirke Brown. It is located in Stanton Park, Northeast, Washington, D. C. in the Capitol Hill neighborhood. BROWN R. WOOD AND CO. SACRED TO THE MEMORY OF NATHANAEL GREENE, as part of American Revolution Statuary in Washington, D. C. the statue is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. List of public art in Washington, D. C. Ward 6 Media related to Nathanael Greene sculpture at Wikimedia Commons
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Stanton Park
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Stanton Park is a national park in Washington D. C. It is located at the intersection of Maryland Avenue and Massachusetts Avenue in the Capitol Hill neighborhood of Northeast, Washington and it is bounded by 4th Street to the west and 6th Street to the east. North and south of the park are the westbound and eastbound lanes of C Street. The park is named after Edwin M. Stanton, the United States Secretary of War during the American Civil War, located in the center of Stanton Park is a statue of American Revolutionary War Major General Nathanael Greene. The park was included in Pierre LEnfants original plan for the city, a playground is located in the western section of the park, a section in the eastern half is often used by dog walkers. The park is maintained by the National Park Service and as such, Stanton Park is also commonly used to describe the surrounding neighborhood. There are no boundaries, but the Stanton Park Neighborhood Association represents the area from 2nd Street, NE to 10th Street, NE. List of circles in Washington, D. C, pershing Park Sonny Bono Park Stead Park
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Philip Kearny
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Philip Kearny, Jr. was a United States Army officer, notable for his leadership in the Mexican-American War and American Civil War. He was killed in action in the 1862 Battle of Chantilly, Kearny was born in New York City to a wealthy Irish American family. His father and mother were Philip Kearny, Sr. and Susan Watts, Kearnys father was a Harvard-educated, New York City financier who owned his own brokerage firm and was also a founder of the New York Stock Exchange. Early in life, Kearny desired a career in the military and his parents died when he was young, and he was consequently raised by his grandfather. Against the younger Kearnys wishes, his guardian insisted that Kearny pursue a law career, Kearny attended Columbia College, attaining a law degree in 1833. His cousin John Watts de Peyster, who had also attended Columbia, in 1836, his grandfather died, leaving Kearny a fortune of over $1 million. He chose to make the army his profession, the regiment was assigned to the western frontier. Kearny was sent to France in 1839 to study cavalry tactics and he participated in several combat engagements with the Chasseurs dAfrique in Algiers. Kearny rode into battle with a sword in his hand, pistol in his left. His fearless character in battle earned him the nickname by his French comrades Kearny le Magnifique and he returned to the United States in the fall of 1840 and prepared a cavalry manual for the Army based on his experiences overseas. Shortly afterward, Kearny was designated aide-de-camp to General Alexander Macomb, after a few months at the cavalry barracks in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Kearny was assigned to the staff of General Winfield Scott, soon becoming his aide-de-camp. He did additional duty on the frontier, accompanying his uncles unit on an expedition to the South Pass of the Oregon Trail in 1845. Kearny, disappointed with the lack of fighting he was seeing in the Army, resigned his commission in 1846, Kearny was assigned to raise a troop of cavalry for the 1st U. S. Dragoons, Company F, in Terre Haute, Indiana. He spared no expense in recruiting his men and acquired 120 matched dapple gray horses with his own money, the unit was originally stationed at the Rio Grande but soon became the personal bodyguard for General Scott, the commander-in-chief of the Army in Mexico. Kearny was promoted to captain in December 1846, Kearny and his men participated in the battles of Contreras and Churubusco, in the latter engagement, Kearny led a daring cavalry charge and suffered a grapeshot wound to his left arm. It later had to be amputated, Kearnys courage earned him the respect of his soldiers and fellow officers alike, General-in-Chief Winfield Scott called him a perfect soldier and the bravest man I ever knew. When the U. S. Army entered Mexico City the following month, Kearny was an original member of the Aztec Club of 1847, a military society for Army officers who served in Mexico in 1847. Its membership qualifications were later modified to include all American officers who served during the Mexican War, after the war, Kearny did a stint with the Army recruiting service in New York City
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Newark, New Jersey
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Newark is the most populous city in the U. S. state of New Jersey and the seat of Essex County. For 2015, the Census Bureaus Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 281,944, Newark is the second largest city in the New York metropolitan area, located approximately 8 miles west of lower Manhattan. Settled in 1666 by Puritans from New Haven Colony, Newark is one of the oldest European cities in the United States and its location at the mouth of the Passaic River, has made the citys waterfront an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey. Today, Port Newark-Elizabeth is the container shipping terminal of the busiest seaport on the American East Coast. In addition, Newark Liberty International Airport was the first municipal airport in the United States. Several leading companies have their headquarters in Newark, including Prudential, PSEG, Panasonic Corporation of North America, Audible. com, IDT Corporation, the U. S. District Court for the District of New Jersey sits in the city as well. Local cultural venues include the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, Newark Symphony Hall, The Prudential Center and the Newark Museum. Newark is divided into five wards, the East, West, South, North and Central wards. Newarks Branch Brook Park is the oldest county park in the United States and is home to the nations largest collection of cherry blossom trees, Newark was settled in 1666 by Connecticut Puritans led by Robert Treat from the New Haven Colony. It was conceived as an assembly of the faithful, though this did not last for long as new settlers came with different ideas. On October 31,1693 it was organized as a New Jersey township based on the Newark Tract, Newark was granted a Royal charter on April 27,1713. It was incorporated on February 21,1798 by the New Jersey Legislatures Township Act of 1798, during its time as a township, portions were taken to form Springfield Township, Caldwell Township, Orange Township, Bloomfield Township and Clinton Township. Newark was reincorporated as a city on April 11,1836, replacing Newark Township, the previously independent Vailsburg borough was annexed by Newark on January 1,1905. In 1926, South Orange Township changed its name to Maplewood, as a result of this, a portion of Maplewood known as Ivy Hill was re-annexed to Newarks Vailsburg. During the American Revolutionary War British troops made several raids into the town, the city has experienced revitalization since the 1990s. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 26.107 square miles. It has the third-smallest land area among the 100 most populous cities in the U. S. behind neighboring Jersey City and Hialeah, the citys altitude ranges from 0 in the east to approximately 230 feet above sea level in the western section of the city. Newark is essentially a large basin sloping towards the Passaic River, historically, Newarks high places have been its wealthier neighborhoods
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Amon Carter Museum of American Art
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The Amon Carter Museum of American Art is located in Fort Worth, Texas, in the citys cultural district. The greatest concentration of works falls into the period from the 1820s through the 1940s, photographs, prints, and other works on paper produced up to the present day are also an area of strength in the museums holdings. The full spectrum of American photography is documented by 45,000 exhibition-quality prints, Museum admission for all exhibits, including special exhibits, is free. The Amon Carter Museum of American Art opened in 1961 as the Amon Carter Museum of Western Art, over 400 works of art by Frederic Remington and Charles M. Russell form the ACMAAs core collection of art of the Old West. These holdings include drawings, illustrated letters, prints, oil paintings, sculptures, and watercolors produced by Remington and Russell during their lifetimes. More than sixty of the works by Remington and more than 250 of the works by Russell were purchased by the namesake, Amon G. Carter. Frederic Remington and Charles M. Russell were Americas best known, Russell moved to Montana Territory in 1880, nine years before statehood, and had worked as a cowboy for more than a decade before beginning his career as a professional artist. Remington toured Montana in 1881, later owned a ranch in Kansas. 2) Frederic Remington, The Broncho Buster -- Remingtons first attempt to model in bronze, 3) Frederic Remington, The Fall of the Cowboy -- an evocation of the fading of the mythic cowboy of legend, anticipating Owen Wisters celebrated novel, The Virginian. 4) Charles M. Russell, Medicine Man -- a detailed portrait of a Blackfeet shaman, 5) Charles M. Russell, Meat for Wild Men -- a bronze sculpture that evokes the grand turmoil resulting as a band of mounted hunters descends upon a herd of grazing buffalo. Some of these artists worked independently, focusing on subjects or areas of the country of their own choosing, others served as documentarians on expeditions of continental discovery sent out by the U. S. government or by European sponsors. In these roles, artists were uniquely positioned to record the topography, animal and plant life, finding and collecting drawings, oil paintings, watercolors, and published lithographs by these European and American documentary artists was one of the museums earliest goals. See Works on paper for more information on American expeditionary art, the Hudson River School, one of the critical movements in nineteenth-century American landscape painting, is an important focus of the ACMAA collection. Two major oils by Thomas Cole and one by Cole’s protégé Frederic Edwin Church anchor the museum’s holdings of signature Hudson River School paintings. The Moore painting depicts a portion of the Hudson River adjacent to the home of Thomas Cole. Hudson River School paintings that reflect the influence of Luminism are also found in the ACMAA collection and these include works by Sanford Robinson Gifford, Martin Johnson Heade, John Frederick Kensett, and Fitz Henry Lane. Given its “dark, brooding mystery, ” the painting by Heade, other Hudson River School artists represented in the collection by major oil paintings are Robert Seldon Duncanson, David Johnson, and Worthington Whittredge. William Stanley Haseltine is represented by a study of rocky coastline along Narragansett Bay
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Allegheny Cemetery
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Allegheny Cemetery is one of the largest and oldest burial grounds in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. It is a nonsectarian, wooded park located at 4734 Butler Street in the Lawrenceville neighborhood and bounded by the Bloomfield, Garfield. It is sited on the slope of hills above the Allegheny River. In 1973 the cemeterys Butler Street Gatehouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, incorporated in 1844, the Allegheny Cemetery is the sixth oldest rural cemetery in America and has expanded over the years to now encompass 300 acres. Allegheny Cemetery memorializes more than 124,000 people, some of the oldest graves are of soldiers who fought in the French and Indian War, which were moved here from their original burial site at Pittsburghs Trinity Cathedral downtown. Many notables from the city of Pittsburgh are buried here, the cemetery was amongst those profiled in the PBS documentary A Cemetery Special. In 1834 three members of the Third Presbyterian Church of Pittsburgh, Dr. J. Ramsey Speer, Stephen Colwell and John Chislett, Sr. tried to establish a rural cemetery near Pittsburgh. Dr. Speer later visited several famous rural cemeteries, Mount Auburn Cemetery on Boston, Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, in 1842 the 100 acre farm of Colonel Bayard was selected for the site. An Act of Incorporation passed the Pennsylvania Legislature and was signed by Gov. David R. Porter on April 24,1844. Mt. Barney was selected as the site of a memorial to heroes in 1848 and Commodore Joshua Barney. Another memorial was erected on Memorial Day,1937 to the memory of over 7,000 servicemen buried in the cemetery, Marcus E. Kennedy Marcus Peter Blakemore, founder Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc. Francis B. Congressman General John Neville, American Revolutionary War veteran George Tener Oliver, publisher of the Pittsburgh Gazette Times and Chronicle Telegraph, US Senator Alfred L. Rowand, the unidentified remains of 54 victims of the 1862 Allegheny Arsenal explosion. Homewood Cemetery Greenwood Cemetery Official website Allegheny Cemetery at Find A Grave Historic American Landscapes Survey No, pA-3-A, Allegheny Cemetery, Soldiers Lot HALS No. PA-3-B, Allegheny Cemetery, Butler Street Gate House Historic Landscape Survey of Allegheny County Records, 1970-2002, AIS.2005.01, Archives Service Center, University of Pittsburgh
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Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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Netherlands Institute for Art History
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The Netherlands Institute for Art History or RKD is located in The Hague and is home to the largest art history center in the world. The center specializes in documentation, archives, and books on Western art from the late Middle Ages until modern times, all of this is open to the public, and much of it has been digitized and is available on their website. The main goal of the bureau is to collect, categorize, via the available databases, the visitor can gain insight into archival evidence on the lives of many artists of past centuries. The library owns approximately 450,000 titles, of which ca.150,000 are auction catalogs, there are ca.3,000 magazines, of which 600 are currently running subscriptions. Though most of the text is in Dutch, the record format includes a link to library entries and images of known works. The RKD also manages the Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus, the original version is an initiative of the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles, California. Their bequest formed the basis for both the art collection and the library, which is now housed in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Though not all of the holdings have been digitised, much of its metadata is accessible online. The website itself is available in both a Dutch and an English user interface, in the artist database RKDartists, each artist is assigned a record number. To reference an artist page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, for example, the artist record number for Salvador Dalí is 19752, so his RKD artist page can be referenced. In the images database RKDimages, each artwork is assigned a record number, to reference an artwork page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, //rkd. nl/en/explore/images/ followed by the artworks record number. For example, the record number for The Night Watch is 3063. The Art and Architecture Thesaurus also assigns a record for each term, rather, they are used in the databases and the databases can be searched for terms. For example, the painting called The Night Watch is a militia painting, the thesaurus is a set of general terms, but the RKD also contains a database for an alternate form of describing artworks, that today is mostly filled with biblical references. To see all images that depict Miriams dance, the associated iconclass code 71E1232 can be used as a search term. Official website Direct link to the databases The Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Brown, Henry Kirke". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.