1.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
2.
Cambridge Platonists
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The Cambridge Platonists were a group of theologians and philosophers at the University of Cambridge in the middle of the 17th century. The leading figures were Ralph Cudworth and Henry More, mark Goldie, writing in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, notes that the term Cambridge Platonists was given in the 19th century and can be misleading. There is no distinction between the group and latitudinarians in general. Further, the women philosophers Mary Astell, Anne Conway and Damaris Masham were all related to this circle. The Cambridge Platonists used the framework of the philosophia perennis of Agostino Steuco and they believed that reason is the proper judge of disagreements, and so they advocated dialogue between the Puritan and Laudian traditions. The orthodox English Calvinists of the found in their views an insidious attack, by-passing as it did the basic theological issues of atonement. Given the circles Cambridge background in Puritan colleges, the undermining was intellectually all the more effective, john Bunyan complained in those terms about Edward Fowler, a close latitudinarian follower. Their understanding of reason was as the candle of the Lord, an echo of the divine within the human soul and they believed that reason could judge the private revelations of Puritan narrative, and investigate contested rituals and liturgy of the Church of England. For this approach they were called latitudinarian, the dogmatism of the Puritan divines, with their anti-rationalist demands, was, they felt, incorrect. They also felt that the Calvinist insistence on individual revelation left God uninvolved with the majority of mankind, at the same time, they were reacting against the reductive materialist writings of Thomas Hobbes. They felt that the latter, while rationalist, were denying the idealistic part of the universe, universal, ideal forms inform matter, and the physical senses are unreliable guides to their reality. In response to the philosophy, More proposed a Hylarchic Principle. Benjamin Whichcote was one of the leaders of the movement, but he was also an active pastor and his sermons were notable and caused controversies, and Whichcote wrote a great deal without publishing. In 1685, Some Select Notions of B, Whichcote was published due to demand. After that was Select Sermons and Several Discourses, finally, a collection of his sayings appeared as Moral and Religious Aphorisms in 1703. Peter Sterry is remembered for his A Discourse of the Freedom of the Will among other works, as a Platonist, his important works were Manual of Ethics, the Divine Dialogues, and the Manual of Metaphysics. While all of Mores works enjoyed popularity, the Divine Dialogues were perhaps most influential, cudworths chief philosophical work was The True Intellectual System of the Universe and the Treatise concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality, which appeared posthumously in 1731. John Smith, a student of Benjamin Whichcote, is best remembered for the elegance of his style, culverwels chief work was Light of Nature
3.
Grantham
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Grantham is a market town within the South Kesteven district of Lincolnshire, England. It bestrides the London to Edinburgh East Coast Main Line railway and the River Witham, Grantham is about 26 miles south of the city and county town of Lincoln, and about 24 miles east of the city of Nottingham. The resident population in 2014 was estimated as 43,117, the town is best known as the birthplace of former prime minister Margaret Thatcher, and the place where Isaac Newton went to school, at The Kings School. It is close to an ancient Roman road, and was the scene of Oliver Cromwells first advantage over Royalists during the English Civil War at Gonerby Moor, the origin of Grantham is uncertain, although the name is said probably to be Old English Granta+ham, meaning Grantas homestead. It appeared as early as 1086 in the Domesday Book in its present form of Grantham, the place name element grand could possibly mean gravel. The name of the town is the origin of the Scottish surname, now used as a given name. Late neolithic vessels from a burial were found at Little Gonerby, in the north of the town, a number of flint blades have been found, including from near Welham Street to the south-east of the town centre and from near Barrowby where a macehead has also been found. At Little Gonerby a neolithic settlement site was discovered with finds of pottery, Bronze Age flint scatters have also been found in several places, particularly on the higher ground near Barrowby. At Saltersford a Bronze Age ingot and a rapier were found, there are also several ring ditches on the higher ground above Saltersford. According to the Chronicles of Raphael Holinshed, Gorbonianus, a legendary King of the Britons built Grantham between 292 and 282 BC, the Domesday account notes Queen Edith having 12 carucates to the geld, with no arable land outside the village. She had a hall, two carucates and land for three ploughs without geld, and 111 burgesses, ivo had one church and four mills rendering 12 shillings, and eight acres of meadow without geld. The lands of Bishop Osmond were described, In Londonthorpe. is land for two ploughs and this land belongs to the church of Grantham. In Spittlegate, St Wulfram of Grantham has half a carucate of land to the geld, in Great Gonerby, St Wulfram of Grantham has 1 carucate of land. There is land for twelve oxen, on 4 December 1290, the funeral cortège of Eleanor of Castile, accompanied by her husband King Edward I, stopped at Grantham on its way from Lincoln to Westminster Abbey. An Eleanor Cross was later erected in the town, although its location has not been identified. In 1363 The Castles, Manors and towns of Stamford and Grantham were granted to Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, the question has been raised as to whether Grantham House was the site of a castle, however, no such site has been reliably identified. The street name Castlegate cannot be traced further back than the 17th century, there are references to a Hospital in Grantham as early as the 1330s. Grantham received its Charter of Incorporation in 1463, the town developed when the railway came to the town
4.
Calvinism
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Calvinism is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians. The term Calvinism can be misleading, because the tradition which it denotes has always been diverse. The movement was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, early influential Reformed theologians include Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B, Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van Til, and Gordon Clark were influential. Contemporary Reformed theologians include J. I, sproul, Timothy J. Keller, John Piper, David Wells, and Michael Horton. Reformed churches may exercise several forms of polity, most are presbyterian or congregationalist. Calvinism is largely represented by Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist traditions, the biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world. There are more conservative Reformed federations such as the World Reformed Fellowship, Calvinism is named after John Calvin. It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552 and it was a common practice of the Catholic Church to name what they perceived to be heresy after its founder. Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles, Calvin denounced the designation himself, They could attach us no greater insult than this word, Calvinism. It is not hard to guess where such a deadly hatred comes from that they hold against me, despite its negative connotation, this designation became increasingly popular in order to distinguish Calvinists from Lutherans and from newer Protestant branches that emerged later. Moreover, these churches claim to be—in accordance with John Calvins own words—renewed accordingly with the order of gospel. Since the Arminian controversy, the Reformed tradition—as a branch of Protestantism distinguished from Lutheranism—divided into two groups, Arminians and Calvinists. However, it is now rare to call Arminians a part of the Reformed tradition, some have also argued that Calvinism as a whole stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things including salvation. First-generation Reformed theologians include Huldrych Zwingli, Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, John Oecolampadius, scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal theology of the sacraments of baptism and the Lords Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace. Another Reformed distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the presence of Christ in the Lords supper. Each of these also understood salvation to be by grace alone. Martin Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians, the doctrine of justification by faith alone was a direct inheritance from Luther
5.
The King's School, Grantham
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The Kings School is a British grammar school with academy status for boys, in the market town of Grantham, in Lincolnshire, England. The Kings School has a history on the same site since its re-endowment in 1528 by Richard Foxe. Nicholas Pevsner in his Buildings of England, dates the original School building to 1497, Foxe was born and raised locally. He entered into the service of Henry Tudor, while Henry was in exile in Brittany, when Henry took the throne of England as Henry VII, Foxe became his secretary, and later founded Corpus Christi College, Oxford and Taunton Grammar School. In the 16th century the School became known as the Free Grammar School of King Edward VI, scholars numbered perhaps a few dozen at foundation, and there were still fewer than one hundred until the 20th century. Isaac Newton was a Kings School scholar between 1655 and 1660, a replica of the signature is on display in Grantham Museum. The novelist and eccentric Frederick Rolfe was briefly a teacher at the school, in 1988, a comprehensive illustrated history of the School was published by former Kings School mathematics teacher, S J Branson, The Kings School Grantham –660 years of a Grammar School. The Kings School has just over 1000 boys as pupils, and has been a state grammar school since the implementation of the 1944 Education Act. Kings and another Grantham grammar school, Kesteven and Grantham Girls School, have shared teaching resources for sixth form study in certain subjects, since 2006–2007, timetables for this study have been co-ordinated between both schools to aid learning. William Cecil, Henry More, Isaac Newton, Colley Cibber
6.
Eton College
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Eton College /iːtən/ is an English independent boarding school for boys in Eton, Berkshire, near Windsor. It educates more than 1,300 pupils, aged 13 to 18 years and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as The Kings College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor, making it the 18th oldest Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference school. Eton is one of the seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Eton has educated 19 British prime ministers and generations of the aristocracy and has referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The school is headed by a Provost and Fellows, who appoint the Head Master and it contains 25 boys houses, each headed by a housemaster, selected from the more senior members of the teaching staff, which numbers some 155. Almost all of the pupils go on to universities, about a third of them to Oxford or Cambridge. The Head Master is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. David Cameron was the 19th British prime minister to have attended the school, about 20% of pupils at Eton receive financial support, through a range of bursaries and scholarships. In early 2014, this figure had risen to 263 pupils receiving the equivalent of around 60% of school fee assistance, Eton has been described as the most famous public school in the world, and been referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The Good Schools Guide called the school the number one public school, adding that The teaching. The school is a member of the G20 Schools Group, Eton today is a larger school than it has been for much of its history. In 1678, there were 207 boys, in the late 18th century, there were about 300, while today, the total has risen to over 1,300. Eton College was founded by King Henry VI as a charity school to free education to 70 poor boys who would then go on to Kings College, Cambridge. Henry took Winchester College as his model, visiting on many occasions, borrowing its Statutes and removing its Headmaster, when Henry VI founded the school, he granted it a large number of endowments, including much valuable land. He persuaded the then Pope, Eugene IV, to grant him a privilege unparalleled anywhere in England, the school also came into possession of one of Englands Apocalypse manuscripts. Legend has it that Edwards mistress, Jane Shore, intervened on the schools behalf and she was able to save a good part of the school, although the royal bequest and the number of staff were much reduced. Construction of the chapel, originally intended to be slightly over twice as long, only the Quire of the intended building was completed. Etons first Headmaster, William Waynflete, founder of Magdalen College, Oxford and previously Head Master of Winchester College, as the school suffered reduced income while still under construction, the completion and further development of the school has since depended to some extent on wealthy benefactors
7.
Christ's College, Cambridge
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Christs College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college includes the Master, the Fellows of the College, the college was founded by William Byngham in 1437 as Gods House. The college is renowned for educating some of Cambridges most famous alumni, including Charles Darwin, within Cambridge, Christs has a reputation for strong academic performance and tutorial support. It has averaged 1st place on the Tompkins Table from 1980–2006, as of 2013, it had an endowment of £138 million, making it one of the wealthier colleges in Cambridge. Christs College was founded by William Byngham in 1437 as Gods House, Byngham obtained the first royal licence for Gods House in July 1439. The college was founded to provide for the lack of grammar-school masters in England at the time, the original site of Godshouse was surrendered in 1443 to Kings College, and currently about three quarters of Kings College Chapel stands on the original site of Gods House. After the original royal licence of 1439, three more licenses, two in 1442 and one in 1446, were granted before in 1448 Gods House received the charter upon which the college was in fact founded. In this charter, King Henry VI was named as the founder, in 1505, the college was endowed by Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of King Henry VII, and was given the name Christs College, perhaps at the suggestion of her confessor, the Bishop John Fisher. The expansion in the population of the college in the century led to the building, in the 1640s. The original 15th/16th century college buildings now form part of First Court, including the chapel, Masters Lodge and Great Gate tower. The gate itself is disproportionate, the bottom has been cut off to accommodate a rise in street level, the college hall, originally built at the very start of the 16th century, was restored in 1875–1879 by George Gilbert Scott the younger. The lawn of First Court is famously round, and a wisteria sprawls up the front of the Masters lodge, Second Court is fully built up on only three sides, one of which is formed by the 1640s Fellows Building. The fourth side backs onto the Masters garden, the Stevenson Building in Third Court was designed by J. J. Stevenson in the 1880s and was extended in 1905 as part of the Colleges Quadcentenary. In 1947 Professor Albert Richardson designed a new cupola for the Stevenson building, and a second building, Third Courts Memorial Building, a twin of the Chancellors building, also by Richardson, was completed in 1953 at a cost of £80,000. Third Court is also noted for its display of irises in May and June, the controversial tiered concrete New Court was designed in the Modernist style by Sir Denys Lasdun in 1966–70, and was described as superb in Lasduns obituary in the Guardian. Design critic Hugh Pearman comments Lasdun had big trouble relating to the street at the overhanging rear and it appears very distinctively in aerial photographs, forming part of the northern boundary of the college. An assortment of neighbouring buildings have been absorbed into the college, of which the most notable is The Todd Building, through an arch in the Fellows Building is the Fellows Garden. It includes two mulberry trees, of which the older was planted in 1608, the year as Miltons birth
8.
John Milton
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John Milton was an English poet, polemicist, man of letters, and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of flux and political upheaval. Miltons poetry and prose reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, Samuel Johnson praised Paradise Lost as a poem which. The phases of Miltons life parallel the major historical and political divisions in Stuart Britain, the Restoration of 1660 deprived Milton, now completely blind, of his public platform, but this period saw him complete most of his major works of poetry. Miltons views developed from his extensive reading, as well as travel and experience. By the time of his death in 1674, Milton was impoverished and on the margins of English intellectual life, yet famous throughout Europe, John Milton was born in Bread Street, London on 9 December 1608, the son of composer John Milton and his wife Sarah Jeffrey. The senior John Milton moved to London around 1583 after being disinherited by his devout Catholic father Richard Milton for embracing Protestantism, in London, the senior John Milton married Sarah Jeffrey and found lasting financial success as a scrivener. He lived in and worked from a house on Bread Street, the elder Milton was noted for his skill as a musical composer, and this talent left his son with a lifelong appreciation for music and friendships with musicians such as Henry Lawes. Miltons fathers prosperity provided his eldest son with a tutor, Thomas Young. Research suggests that Youngs influence served as the introduction to religious radicalism. After Youngs tutorship, Milton attended St Pauls School in London, there he began the study of Latin and Greek, and the classical languages left an imprint on his poetry in English. Miltons first datable compositions are two psalms done at age 15 at Long Bennington, one contemporary source is the Brief Lives of John Aubrey, an uneven compilation including first-hand reports. In the work, Aubrey quotes Christopher, Miltons younger brother, When he was young, he studied hard and sat up very late. In 1625, Milton began attending Christs College, Cambridge and he graduated with a B. A. in 1629, and ranked fourth of 24 honours graduates that year in the University of Cambridge. Preparing to become an Anglican priest, Milton stayed on to obtain his Master of Arts degree on 3 July 1632, Milton was probably rusticated for quarrelling in his first year with his tutor, Bishop William Chappell. He was certainly at home in the Lent Term 1626, there he wrote his Elegia Prima, a first Latin elegy, to Charles Diodati, based on remarks of John Aubrey, Chappell whipt Milton. This story is now disputed, though certainly Milton disliked Chappell, historian Christopher Hill cautiously notes that Milton was apparently rusticated, and that the differences between Chappell and Milton may have been either religious or personal. It is also possible that, like Isaac Newton four decades later, Milton was sent home because of the plague, in 1626, Miltons tutor was Nathaniel Tovey
9.
Ralph Cudworth
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Ralph Cudworth was an English classicist, theologian and philosopher, a leading figure among the Cambridge Platonists. His great work, entitled The True Intellectual System of the Universe, was published in 1678 and he was a leading opponent of Thomas Hobbes. Ralph Cudworths father, Dr. Ralph Cudworth, derived from the Cudworths of Werneth Hall in Lancashire. The family originated in Cudworth near Barnsley, Yorkshire, and came to Werneth by the marriage of John Cudworth to Margaret, daughter and coheiress of Richard Oldham, during the early 15th century. Ralph Cudworth the elder matriculated from Emmanuel College in the University of Cambridge in 1588/89, in 1606 he was instituted to the Perpetual Vicarage of Coggeshall, Essex, at the presentation of Baron Rich, to replace Thomas Stoughton, who had been deprived by High Commission for nonconformism. He was presented to the rectory of Aller, Somerset by his college in c.1609 or 1610, on 18 June 1611 at Southwark he married Mary Machell and their children were christened at Aller over the following decade. One of at least five children, Ralph was born at Aller in 1617 and his elder brother James Cudworth married and emigrated permanently to Scituate, Plymouth Colony in New England in 1634. Their mother died in 1635 and Dr. Stoughton married a daughter of John Browne of Frampton, a diligent student, Ralph graduated B. A.1636 and M. A.1639, whereupon he was elected Fellow and became a successful tutor. In 1642 he published A Discourse concerning the true Notion of the Lords Supper and a tract entitled The Union of Christ, in 1645 he was appointed Master of Clare Hall and the same year was elected Regius professor of Hebrew. In 1650 he was presented to the living of North Cadbury. From the correspondence of his friend John Worthington we learn that Cudworth was nearly compelled, through poverty, to leave the University and this appointment coincided with Cudworths marriage, a very advantageous alliance which secured his position in the University. His wife was Damaris, daughter of Damaris and Matthew Cradock and her stepmother Rebeccah Cradock in 1643 married Benjamin Whichcote, eminent Platonist, of Emmanuel College, where Samuel Cradock was also undergraduate and Fellow, 1637–1656. Damaris married first the London citizen Thomas Andrewes of London and Feltham and she then became the wife of Ralph Cudworth in Cambridge, and outlived him, dying in 1695. He now became recognized as a leader among the group known as the Cambridge Platonists. At the Restoration Dr. Cudworths Mastership of his college was challenged, in 1662 he was presented to the rectory of Ashwell, Herts, by the Bishop of London, Dr Gilbert Sheldon. To avoid clashing, More brought out his book, the Enchiridion ethicum, in Latin, Cudworth was installed prebendary of Gloucester in 1678. He died on 26 June 1688, and was buried in the chapel of Christs College. Ralphs sons included John Cudworth, who became a Fellow of Christs College, Charles, who died in India, and probably Thomas and his daughter Damaris, a devout and talented woman, became the second wife of Sir Francis Masham of High Laver, Essex
10.
Gloucester Cathedral
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Gloucester Cathedral, formally the Cathedral Church of St Peter and the Holy and Indivisible Trinity, in Gloucester, England, stands in the north of the city near the River Severn. It originated in 678 or 679 with the foundation of a dedicated to Saint Peter. Wardle records that in 1058 Ealdred, Bishop of Worcester at the time, the foundations of the present church were laid by Abbot Serlo. Walter Frocester the abbeys historian, became its first mitred abbot in 1381, until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see of Worcester, but the separate see was then constituted, with John Wakeman, last abbot of Tewkesbury, as its first bishop. The diocese covers the part of Gloucestershire, with small parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The cathedral has a glass window containing the earliest images of golf. This dates from 1350, over 300 years earlier than the earliest image of golf from Scotland, there is also a carved image of people playing a ball game, believed by some to be one of the earliest images of medieval football. The cathedral, built as the church, consists of a Norman nucleus. It is 420 feet long, and 144 feet wide, with a central tower of the 15th century rising to the height of 225 ft and topped by four delicate pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with an Early English roof, the crypt, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is Norman, the crypt is one of the four apsidal cathedral crypts in England, the others being at Worcester, Winchester and Canterbury. The south porch is in the Perpendicular style, with a roof, as also is the north transept. The choir has Perpendicular tracery over Norman work, with a chapel on each side. The late Decorated east window is filled with surviving medieval stained glass. Between the apsidal chapels is a cross Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the cloisters, the cloisters at Gloucester are the earliest surviving fan vaults, having been designed between 1351 and 1377 by Thomas de Canterbury. The most notable monument is the shrine of King Edward II of England who was murdered at nearby Berkeley Castle. The building and sanctuary were enriched by the visits of pilgrims to this shrine, in a side-chapel is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose, eldest son of William the Conqueror and a great benefactor of the abbey, who was interred there. Monuments of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward Jenner are also worthy of note, between 1873 and 1890, and in 1897, the cathedral was extensively restored by George Gilbert Scott. The cathedral has forty-six 14th-century misericords and twelve 19th-century replacements by Gilbert Scott, both types have a wide range of subject matter, mythology, everyday occurrences, religious symbolism and folklore
11.
Edward Fowler
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For the American Civil War officer, see Edward Brush Fowler Edward Fowler was an English churchman, Bishop of Gloucester from 1691 until his death. He was born at Westerleigh, Gloucestershire, and was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, Fowler was suspected of Pelagian tendencies, and his earliest book was a Free Discourse in defence of The Practices of Certain Moderate Divines called Latitudinarians. This supported Samuel Parker and his Discourse of Ecclesiastical Polity of 1669 and it also took aim at Thomas Hobbes, by means of positions set out by Daniel Scargill, an apostate Hobbist. Bunyan described the Design as a mixture of Popery, Socinianism and Quakerism and he also published, in 1693, Twenty-Eight Propositions, by which the Doctrine of the Trinity is endeavoured to be explained, challenging with some success the Socinian position. In 1681 he became vicar of St Giles, Cripplegate, when the Declaration of Indulgence was published in 1687 he successfully influenced the London clergy against reading it. In 1691 he was consecrated Bishop of Gloucester and held the see until his death, works by or about Edward Fowler in libraries
12.
Bishop of Gloucester
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The Bishop of Gloucester is the ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Gloucester in the Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers the County of Gloucestershire and part of the County of Worcestershire, the sees centre of governance is the City of Gloucester where the bishops chair is located in the Cathedral Church of the Holy and Indivisible Trinity. The bishops residence is Bishopscourt, Gloucester, the office has been in existence since the foundation of the see in 1541 under King Henry VIII from part of the Diocese of Worcester. On 5 August 2014, Martyn Snow, the suffragan Bishop of Tewkesbury, on 26 March 2015, it was announced that Rachel Treweek was to become the next Bishop of Gloucester, she legally became the Bishop of Gloucester with the confirmation of her election on 15 June 2015. Chronological list of the bishops of the Diocese of Gloucester
13.
Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Nottingham
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In the register of Oxford University he is entered as born in Kent, and probably his native place was Eastwell in that county. He was educated at Westminster and at Christ Church, Oxford and he was called to the bar in 1645, and soon obtained a lucrative practice. He married Elizabeth Harvey, daughter of William Harveys younger brother Daniel, in April 1660, he was elected Member of Parliament for Canterbury and Mitchell in the Convention Parliament and chose to sit for Canterbury. Shortly afterwards was appointed Solicitor General, being created a baronet the day after he was knighted, in May 1661 he was elected MP for Oxford University in the Cavalier Parliament. In 1665 the university created him a D. C. L, in 1670 he became Attorney General, and in 1675 Lord Chancellor. He was created Baron Finch in January 1673 and Earl of Nottingham in May 1681, during the Popish Plot, he played an active part in the interrogation of witnesses and preparation of the Crowns evidence. He is said to have been sceptical about much of the evidence. In general he behaved with moderation and restraint during the Plot, as shown most notably in his conduct, as Lord High Steward, of the trial of William Howard. The original early 17th-century building was constructed in the village of Kensington as Nottingham House for the Earl of Nottingham, at that time Kensington was a suburban village location outside London, but more accessible than Hampton Court, a water journey on the Thames. A private road was out from the Palace to Hyde Park Corner, broad enough for several carriages to travel abreast. Nevertheless, as a private retreat, it was referred to as Kensington House. The walled kitchen gardens at Kensington House supplied fruits and vegetables for the Court of St. Jamess and he died in Great Queen Street, London one year later, and was buried in the church of Ravenstone in Buckinghamshire. His son Daniel inherited his earldom, and would also inherit the Earldom of Winchelsea. His younger son Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Aylesford, also had a career as a lawyer. His daughter Elizabeth married Sir Samuel Grimston, 3rd Baronet and his most important contribution to the statute book is The Statute of Frauds. While attorney-general he superintended the edition of Sir Henry Hobarts Reports and he also published Several Speeches and Discourses in the Tryal of the Judges of King Charles 1. Speeches to both Houses of Parliament, Speech at the Sentence of Viscount Stafford and he left Chancery Reports in MS. and notes on Cokes Institutes. Archives and papers This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
14.
Ragley Hall
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Ragley Hall is a stately home, located south of Alcester, Warwickshire, eight miles west of Stratford-upon-Avon. It is the seat of the Marquess of Hertford. The house, which was designed by Dr Robert Hooke, was built for the Edward Conway, 1st Earl of Conway, the Great Hall is thought to have been decorated by James Wyatt in 1780. Financial instability of the Seymour family left the house threatened with more than once. In 1912, following the death of Hugh Seymour, 6th Marquess of Hertford, however, during World War I and World War II, the house found use as a military hospital. Hugh Seymour, 8th Marquess of Hertford, who inherited Ragley Hall from his uncle in 1940 and it was refurbished between 1956 and 1958, when it became one of the first stately homes opened to the public. In 1983, the painter Graham Rust completed a huge mural including pets, friends, Ragley was the site of the Jerwood Sculpture Park, opened in July 2004. The Park included works that won the Jerwood Sculpture Prizes, however the site was closed in April 2012. Ragley Hall was used as a location in the 1982 television version of The Scarlet Pimpernel, official website Alcester & Ragley Park Cricket Club Jerwood Sculpture Park
15.
Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
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William Penn
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He was an early advocate of democracy and religious freedom, notable for his good relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Native Americans. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed, in 1681, King Charles II handed over a large piece of his American land holdings to William Penn to appease the debts the king owed to Penns father. This land included present-day Pennsylvania and Delaware, Penn immediately set sail and took his first step on American soil in New Castle in 1682 after his trans-Atlantic journey. On this occasion, the colonists pledged allegiance to Penn as their new proprietor, afterwards, Penn journeyed up the Delaware River and founded Philadelphia. However, Penns Quaker government was not viewed favourably by the Dutch, Swedish and they had no historical allegiance to Pennsylvania, so they almost immediately began petitioning for their own assembly. In 1704 they achieved their goal when the three southernmost counties of Pennsylvania were permitted to split off and become the new colony of Lower Delaware. As the most prominent, prosperous and influential city in the new colony, as one of the earlier supporters of colonial unification, Penn wrote and urged for a union of all the English colonies in what was to become the United States of America. The democratic principles that he set forth in the Pennsylvania Frame of Government served as an inspiration for the United States Constitution, as a pacifist Quaker, Penn considered the problems of war and peace deeply. He developed a project for a United States of Europe through the creation of a European Assembly made of deputies that could discuss. He is therefore considered the very first thinker to suggest the creation of a European Parliament, a man of extreme religious convictions, Penn wrote numerous works in which he exhorted believers to adhere to the spirit of Primitive Christianity. He was imprisoned several times in the Tower of London due to his faith, and his book No Cross, No Crown, William Penn, Sr. served in the Commonwealth Navy during the English Civil War and was rewarded by Oliver Cromwell with estates in Ireland. The lands were seized from Irish Catholics in retaliation for the failed Irish Rebellion of 1641, Admiral Penn took part in the restoration of Charles II and was eventually knighted and served in the Royal Navy. At the time of his sons birth, Captain Penn was twenty-three, William Penn grew up during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, who succeeded in leading a Puritan rebellion against King Charles I, the king was beheaded when Penn was age 5. Penns father was often at sea, little William caught smallpox at a young age, losing all his hair, prompting his parents to move from the suburbs to an estate in Essex. The country life made an impression on young Penn. Penn was educated first at Chigwell School, by private tutors whilst in Ireland, at that time, there were no state schools and nearly all educational institutions were affiliated with the Anglican Church. Children from poor families had to have a sponsor to get an education. Penns education heavily leaned on the authors and no novelties or conceited modern writers were allowed including William Shakespeare
17.
Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont
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Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont was a Flemish alchemist and writer, the son of Jan Baptist van Helmont. He is now best known for his publication in the 1640s of his fathers pioneer works on chemistry, from his early work as a physician, he became a kabbalist, and also with Henry More of the Cambridge Platonists. Together they annotated Christian Knorr von Rosenroths translations of kabbalist texts and he led an itinerant life in wanderings in Europe, an adjective already applied to him by Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury in his 1711 Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times. He self-identified as a wandering eremite and he was an influence on Franciscus van den Enden, and on the Spanish medical professor Juan de Cabriada. In Amsterdam around 1690 he worked out theory to support the work Johann Konrad Ammann was doing with deaf people and he also spent much time in Germany and England. From 1644, when his father died, to 1658, when Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor ennobled him, he was involved in diplomacy for German princes. In 1661 he was in Kitzingen when he was taken by soldiers of Philipp Wilhelm, Elector Palatine to Rome and a prison of the Inquisition. His first work was a 1667 Latin treatise Alphabeti veri naturalis hebraici brevissima delineatio on Adamic language and he argued that the Hebrew alphabet implicitly gave a pronunciation guide, analogous to a musical notation for the tongue and voice. He was a friend of Gottfried Leibniz, who wrote his epitaph, Leibniz writing in 1669 took the Helmontians seriously, as one of three contending groups in philosophy, the others being the traditionalist followers of Aristotle, and the Cartesians. The Helmontians comprised remaining Paracelsans and those who took the writings of Jan Baptist van Helmont to heart and he came to England in 1670, meeting the king, Charles II. He was on a mission on behalf of Elisabeth of Bohemia. At this time he met Robert Boyle, a leading Helmontian chemist, through his relationship as physician to Anne Conway, Viscountess Conway, he began to attend Quaker meetings, in 1675. In return he introduced her to kabbalist thought and he was resident at the old Ragley Hall from 1671 until 1679, when she died. Twenty years later, he was a figure in the Keithian Controversy, but he encountered serious resistance from George Fox. Keith collaborated on van Helmonts Paradoxal Discourses of 1685, but went to pains to deny he held the same opinions. In a A Cabbalistical Dialogue he launched a defence of kabbalist metaphysics and he had been closely associated with the Kabbala Denudata of Rosenroth. The Dialogue puts matter and spirit on a continuum, describing matter as a coalition of monads, there are various views on the evolution of the concept of monad, which Conway and Van Helmont shared with Leibniz. Physicist and philosopher Max Bernhard Weinstein found this to be a kind of Pandeism, in his last years he was in Germany, and continued to work closely with Leibniz
18.
Valentine Greatrakes
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Valentine Greatrakes, also known as Greatorex or The Stroker, was an Irish faith healer who toured England in 1666, claiming to cure people by the laying on of hands. Greatrakes was born on 14 February 1628, at Affane, County Waterford and he was the son of William Greatrakes and Mary, daughter of Sir Edward Harris, Chief Justice of Munster, who were English Protestants settlers. He went to the free-school at Lismore until he was 13 years of age and was designed for the college of Dublin. However, when the Irish Rebellion of 1641 broke out he and his mother fled into England, after Harris died his mother placed him with John Daniel Getsius, a German minister, of Stoke Gabriel, in Devonshire. After five or six years in England Greatrakes returned to his country, which he found in a distracted state. In 1649 he was a lieutenant in Lord Broghills regiment in the English Parliamentary army in Ireland, however he lost these positions after the Restoration. He seemed to have been religious, his outlook was grave. Three years after that, a fever was raging in the country. He made the experiment, and he affirmed to his satisfaction that he cured all who came to him. At length, in April,1665, another kind of suggested to him, that he had the gift of healing wounds and ulcers. He even found that he cured convulsions, the dropsy, on 6 April 1665 Robert Phayre, a former Commonwealth Governor of County Cork, was living at Cahermore, in that county, when he was visited by Greatrakes. Greatrakes cured Phayre in a few minutes of an acute ague, John Flamsteed, the famous Astronomer, went over to Ireland, in August 1665, to be touched by Greatrakes for a natural weakness of constitution, but received no benefit. In 1665 Greatrakes was invited to England by his old commander, Lord Broghill, to cure Anne and he arrived in England in early 1666 but failed to cure the Viscountess. Undaunted, he traveled through the country, healing the sick, king Charles II, being informed of it, summoned Greatrakes to Whitehall. While unpersuaded that Greatrakes had miraculous power, the king did not forbid him to continue his ministrations, Greatrakes went every day to a place in London where many sick persons, of all ranks in society, assembled. Pains, gout, rheumatism, convulsions and so forth were allegedly driven by his touch from one part to another. Upon reaching the extremities, all symptoms of these ailments ceased, as the treatment consisted entirely of stroking, Greatrakes was called The Stroker. Greatrakes ascribed certain disorders to the work of evil spirits, when persons possessed by such spirits saw Greatrakes or heard his voice, the afflicted fell to the ground or into violent agitation
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Thaumaturgist
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Thaumaturgy is the capability of a magician or a saint to work magic or miracles. Isaac Bonewits defined thaumaturgy as The use of magic for nonreligious purposes and it is sometimes translated into English as wonderworking. A practitioner of thaumaturgy is a thaumaturge, thaumaturgist or miracle-worker, in original Greek writings, the term thaumaturge referred to several Christian saints. This is usually translated into English as wonderworker, a saint through whom God works miracles, not just occasionally and it was even said that God raises up not more than one every century. The Carmelite Bishop of Fiesole, Saint Andrew Corsini, was called a thaumaturge during his lifetime. Kings of France and England were also called thaumaturges, as they were considered able to heal scrofula. Miracle in the Quran can be defined as an intervention in the life of human beings. According to this definition, miracles are present in a sense, in sacred history, in connection with the Islamic prophet Muhammad himself. The Quran does not use the technical Arabic word for miracle literally meaning that by means of which confounds, overwhelms and it rather uses the term Ayah. The term Ayah is used in the Quran in the above mentioned threefold sense, it refers to the verses of the Quran, as well as to miracles of it, in the 16th century, the word thaumaturgy entered the English language meaning miraculous or magical powers. The word was first anglicized and used in the sense in John Dees book Mathematicall Praeface to Euclids Elements. He mentions an art mathematical called thaumaturgy, which giveth certain order to make strange works, of the sense to be perceived and of men greatly to be wondered at. By building such mechanical devices, Dee earned a reputation as a conjurer dreaded by neighborhood children, shall the folly of Idiotes, and the Malice of the Scornfull, so much prevaille. Shall that man, be condemned, as a Companion of the hellhoundes, and a Caller, in the Hermetic Qabalah mystical tradition, a person titled a magician has the power to make subtle changes in higher realms, which in turn produce physical results. In his book, The Gift of Death, deconstructionist philosopher Jacques Derrida refers to philosophy as thaumaturgy and it figures most prominently in the first book, Master of the Five Magics. In the roleplaying game Dungeons & Dragons the thaumaturgist is a class which specifically summons outsiders. In the Elder Scrolls games Daggerfall and Battlespire, thaumaturgy is a character skill, in Final Fantasy XIV, thaumaturge is the title of a playable character class. In Dominions 3, The Awakening, thaumaturgy is one of the paths of magic that can be researched, in Jim Butchers The Dresden Files, thaumaturgy is the creation of a magical link between an object and a person
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Spiritualism
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Spiritualism is the belief that the spirits of the dead have both the ability and the inclination to communicate with the living. The afterlife, or the world, is seen by spiritualists, not as a static place. Some spiritualists will speak of a concept which they refer to as spirit guides—specific spirits, often contacted, Spiritism, a branch of spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec and today practiced mostly in Continental Europe and Latin America, especially in Brazil, emphasizes reincarnation. Spiritualism developed and reached its peak growth in membership from the 1840s to the 1920s, by 1897, spiritualism was said to have more than eight million followers in the United States and Europe, mostly drawn from the middle and upper classes. Many prominent spiritualists were women, and like most spiritualists, supported such as the abolition of slavery. By the late 1880s the credibility of the movement had weakened due to accusations of fraud perpetrated by mediums. Spiritualism is currently practiced primarily through various denominational spiritualist churches in the United States, Canada and they believe that spirit mediums are gifted to carry on such communication, but that anyone may become a medium through study and practice. They believe that spirits are capable of growth and perfection, progressing through higher spheres or planes, and that the afterlife is not a static state, many believers therefore speak of spirit guides—specific spirits, often contacted, and relied upon for worldly and spiritual guidance. According to spiritualists, anyone may receive messages, but formal communication sessions are held by mediums. Nevertheless, on significant points Christian Protestantism and spiritualism are different and this view is self-evidently incompatible with spiritualism, where the merely spiritual existence is superior to the embodied one. There are quite a number of spiritualist churches which are explicitly Christian in theology, forms of worship and praise, judaism It is held by some adherents of the Jewish religion that spiritualism is strictly forbidden by the Bible. Islam Within Islam, only rarely do some traditions - notably Sufism, despite this, the majority of the followers of Islam believe in the existence of spirits as a fundamental aspect of their religion. However, these spirits are not those of humans but of a third sapient creation said to be made by God called the jinn. Jinn are spirits made from fire, in a realm not visible to the eyes of people. A famous jinn in the Muslim tradition is Satan, as opposed to the Christian belief that he is a fallen angel, communication with these spirits, whether the spirit is good or evil in nature, is generally not encouraged in Islam. Additionally, the concept of Tawassul recognises the existence of spirits on a higher plane of existence closer to God. Spiritism Spiritism, the branch of spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec, Occultism Spiritualism also differs from occult movements, such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn or the contemporary wiccan covens, in that spirits are not contacted to obtain magical powers. Eliphas Lévi, who is regarded as the founder of occultism, strongly rejected Spiritism, later on, Madame Blavatsky, the founder of the Theosophical Society, only practiced mediumship to contact powerful spirits capable of conferring esoteric knowledge
21.
Scholasticism
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It originated as an outgrowth of and a departure from Christian monastic schools at the earliest European universities. The Scholastic thought is known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to other fields of study. Some of the figures of scholasticism include Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure. Important work in the tradition has been carried on well past Aquinass time, for instance by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina. The terms scholastic and scholasticism derive from the Latin word scholasticus and the latter from the Greek σχολαστικός, forerunners of Christian scholasticism were Islamic Ilm al-Kalām, literally science of discourse, and Jewish philosophy, especially Jewish Kalam. The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early Middle Ages, charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland. By decree in AD787, he established schools in every abbey in his empire and these schools, from which the name scholasticism is derived, became centers of medieval learning. During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the west except in Ireland, Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning. Among them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena, one of the founders of scholasticism, Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality. He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers. The other three founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century scholars Peter Abelard, Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury and this period saw the beginning of the rediscovery of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the 10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to gather translated texts and, in the half of that century. After a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, as these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, they opened a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, at the same time, Anselm of Laon systematized the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic in the work of Abelard. Peter Lombard produced a collection of Sentences, or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities The 13th, the early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe, powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige. His work formed the basis of the commentaries that followed
22.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, following this work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. considered to be Americas intellectual Declaration of Independence. Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first and then revised them for print and his first two collections of essays, Essays, First Series and Essays, Second Series, represent the core of his thinking. They include the well-known essays Self-Reliance, The Over-Soul, Circles, The Poet, together with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-1840s Emersons most fertile period. Emersons nature was more philosophical than naturalistic, Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature, Emerson is one of several figures who took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world. He remains among the linchpins of the American romantic movement, and his work has influenced the thinkers, writers. When asked to sum up his work, he said his doctrine was the infinitude of the private man. Emerson is also known as a mentor and friend of Henry David Thoreau. Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on May 25,1803, a son of Ruth Haskins and the Rev. William Emerson and he was named after his mothers brother Ralph and his fathers great-grandmother Rebecca Waldo. Ralph Waldo was the second of five sons who survived adulthood, the others were William, Edward, Robert Bulkeley. Three other children—Phebe, John Clarke, and Mary Caroline—died in childhood, Emerson was entirely of English ancestry, and his family had been in New England since the early colonial period. Emersons father died from cancer on May 12,1811. Emerson was raised by his mother, with the help of the women in the family. She lived with the family off and on and maintained a constant correspondence with Emerson until her death in 1863, Emersons formal schooling began at the Boston Latin School in 1812, when he was nine. In October 1817, at 14, Emerson went to Harvard College and was appointed freshman messenger for the president, requiring Emerson to fetch delinquent students and send messages to faculty. Midway through his year, Emerson began keeping a list of books he had read. He took outside jobs to cover his expenses, including as a waiter for the Junior Commons and as an occasional teacher working with his uncle Samuel in Waltham. By his senior year, Emerson decided to go by his middle name, Emerson served as Class Poet, as was custom, he presented an original poem on Harvards Class Day, a month before his official graduation on August 29,1821, when he was 18
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Helena Blavatsky
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Helena Petrovna Blavatsky was a Russian occultist, spirit medium, and author who co-founded the Theosophical Society in 1875. She gained a following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy. Born into an aristocratic Russian-German family in Yekaterinoslav, Ukraine, Blavatsky traveled widely around the Russian Empire as a child, largely self-educated, she developed an interest in Western esotericism during her teenage years. According to her claims, in 1849 she embarked on a series of world travels, visiting Europe, the Americas. Both contemporary critics and later biographers have argued that some or all of foreign visits were fictitious. Relocating to the United States in 1873, she befriended Henry Steel Olcott and rose to attention as a spirit medium. In New York City, Blavatsky co-founded the Theosophical Society with Olcott, in 1877 she published Isis Unveiled, a book outlining her Theosophical world-view. In 1880 she and Olcott moved to India, where the Society was allied to the Arya Samaj and that same year, while in Ceylon she and Olcott became the first Westerners to officially convert to Buddhism. Although opposed by the British administration, Theosophy spread rapidly in India, amid ailing health, in 1885 she returned to Europe, there establishing the Blavatsky Lodge in London. Here she published The Secret Doctrine, a commentary on what she claimed were ancient Tibetan manuscripts and she died of influenza in the home of her disciple and successor, Annie Besant. Blavatsky was a controversial figure during her lifetime, championed by supporters as a guru and derided as a fraudulent charlatan. Developing a reliable account of Blavatskys life has proved difficult for biographers because in life she deliberately provided contradictory accounts. Further, very few of her own writings authored prior to 1873 survive, the accounts of her early life provided by her family members have also been considered dubious by biographers. Blavatsky was born as Helena Petrovna von Hahn in the Ukrainian town of Yekaterinoslav and her birth date was 12 August 1831, although according to the Julian calendar used in 19th-century Russia it was 31 July. Immediately after her birth, she was baptized into the Russian Orthodox Church and her mother was Helena Andreyevna von Hahn, a self-educated 17-year-old who herself was the daughter of Princess Yelena Pavlovna Dolgorukova, a similarly self-educated aristocrat. Pyotr had not been present at his daughters birth, having been in Poland fighting to suppress the November Uprising against Russian rule, a year after Pyotrs arrival in Yekaterinoslav, the family relocated to the nearby army town of Romankovo. When Blavatsky was two old, her younger brother, Sasha, died in another army town when no medical help could be found. In 1835, mother and daughter moved to Odessa, where Blavatskys maternal grandfather Andrei Fadeyev and it was in this city that Blavatskys sister Vera Petrovna was born
24.
Matthew Hale (jurist)
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Sir Matthew Hale SL was an influential English barrister, judge and lawyer most noted for his treatise Historia Placitorum Coronæ, or The History of the Pleas of the Crown. Born to a barrister and his wife, who had died by the time he was 5, Hale was raised by his fathers relative, a strict Puritan. On 8 November 1628 he joined Lincolns Inn, where he was called to the Bar on 17 May 1636, following the Commissions dissolution, Oliver Cromwell made him a Justice of the Common Pleas. As a judge, Hale was noted for his resistance to bribery, under Charles, Hale was made first Chief Baron of the Exchequer and then Chief Justice of the Kings Bench. In both positions, he was noted for his integrity, although not as a particularly innovative judge. Following a bout of illness he retired on 20 February 1676, Hale is almost universally appreciated as an excellent judge and jurist, with his central legacy coming through his written work, published after his death. Hales jurisprudence struck a middle-ground between Edward Cokes appeal to reason and John Seldens appeal to contract, while refuting elements of Thomas Hobbess theory of natural law. His thoughts on marital rape, expressed in the Historia, continued in English law until 1991, Hale was born on 1 November 1609 in West End House in Alderley, Gloucestershire to Robert Hale, a barrister of Lincolns Inn, and Joanna Poyntz. His father gave up his practise as a several years before Hales birth because he could not understand the reason of giving colour in pleadings. This refers to a process through which the defendant would refer a case over the validity of his title to land to a judge instead of a jury, through claiming a allegation about this right. Such an allegation would be a question of law rather than a question of fact, both of Hales parents died before he was five, Joanna in 1612, and Robert in 1614. It was then revealed that Robert had been so generous in giving money to the poor that at his death his estate provided only £100 of income a year, Hale thus passed into the care of Anthony Kingscot, one of his fathers relatives. A strong Puritan, Kingscot had Hale taught by a Mr. Stanton, on 20 October 1626, at the age of 16, Hale matriculated at the University of Oxford as a member of Magdalen Hall, with the goal of becoming a priest. Both Kingscot and Stanton had intended this to be his career and he was taught by Obadiah Sedgwick, another Puritan, and excelled in both his studies and fencing. Hale also regularly attended church, private prayer-meetings, and was described as simple in his attire, after a company of actors came to Oxford, Hale attended so many plays and other social activities that his studies began to suffer, and he began to turn away from Puritanism. In light of this, he abandoned his desire to become a priest and his relatives were unable to persuade him to become a priest, or even a lawyer, with Hale describing lawyers as a barbarous set of people unfit for anything but their own trade. His plans to become a soldier died after a legal battle concerning his estate, Glanville successfully persuaded Hale to become a lawyer, and, after leaving Oxford at the age of 20 before obtaining a degree, he joined Lincolns Inn on 8 November 1628. Fearing that the theatre might dissuade him from his studies as it had at Oxford
25.
Joseph Glanvill
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Joseph Glanvill was an English writer, philosopher, and clergyman. In 1661 he predicted The time will come, when making use of waves that permeate the ether. we shall communicate with. He was raised in a strict Puritan household, and educated at Oxford University, Glanvill was made vicar of Frome in 1662, and was a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1664. He was rector of the Abbey Church at Bath from 1666 to 1680, latitudinarians generally respected the Cambridge Platonists, and Glanvill was friendly with and much influenced by Henry More, a leader in that group where Glanvill was a follower. It was Glanvills style to seek out a way on contemporary philosophical issues. His writings display a variety of beliefs that may appear contradictory, there is discussion of Glanvills thought and method in Basil Willeys Seventeenth Century Background. He was the author of The Vanity of Dogmatizing, which attacked scholasticism and it was a plea for religious toleration, the scientific method, and freedom of thought. It also contained a tale that became the material for Matthew Arnolds Victorian poem The Scholar Gipsy and it started with an explicit Address to the Royal Society, the Society responded by electing him as Fellow. He continued in a role of spokesman for his type of limited sceptical approach, as part of his programme, he argued for a plain use of language, undistorted as to definitions and reliance on metaphor. In Essays on Several Important Subjects in Philosophy and Religion he wrote a significant essay The Agreement of Reason and Religion, Reason, in Glanvills view, was incompatible with being a dissenter. This essay has the subtitle Continuation of the New Atlantis, in an allegory, Glanvill placed the Young Academicians, standing for the Cambridge Platonists, in the midst of intellectual troubles matching the religious upheavals seen in Britain. They coped by combining modern with ancient thought, Glanvill thought, however, that the world cannot be deduced from reason alone. Even the supernatural cannot be solved from first principles and must be investigated empirically, as a result, Glanvill attempted to investigate supposed supernatural incidents through interviews and examination of the scene of the events. In the matter of the Drummer of Tedworth, a report of activity from 1662-3, More. Sadducismus Triumphatus deeply influenced Cotton Mathers Wonders of the Invisible World, jonathan Israel writes, These and others believed that the tide of scepticism on witchcraft, setting in strongly by about 1670, could be turned back by research and sifting of the evidence. Like More, Glanvill believed that the existence of spirits was well documented in the Bible, atheism led to rebellion and social chaos and therefore had to be overcome by science and the activities of the learned. His views did not prevent Glanvill himself being charged with atheism and this happened after he engaged in a controversy with Robert Crosse, over the continuing value of the work of Aristotle, the classical exponent of the middle way. In defending himself and the Royal Society, in Plus ultra, he attacked current teaching of medicine and his views on Aristotle also led to an attack by Thomas White, the Catholic priest known as Blacklo
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Saducismus Triumphatus
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Saducismus triumphatus is a book on witchcraft by Joseph Glanvill, published posthumously in England in 1681. The editor is presumed to have been Henry More, who contributed to the volume. By 1683 this appeared as a lengthy appendix, hornecks contribution came from a Dutch pamphlet of 1670. The book affirmed the existence of witches with malign supernatural powers of magic, Glanvill likened these skeptics to the Sadducees, members of a Jewish sect from around the time of Jesus who were said to have denied the immortality of the soul. The book strongly influenced Cotton Mather in his Discourse on Witchcraft, mathers Wonders of the Invisible World is largely modeled after this book and its reports, particularly the material relating to the Mora witch trial of 1669. Sadducismus Triumphatus at the Internet Archive
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Witchcraft
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Witchcraft broadly means the practice of, and belief in, magical skills and abilities that are able to be exercised by individuals and certain social groups. Witchcraft often occupies a religious, divinatory or medicinal role, and is present within societies. The concept of witchcraft and the belief in its existence have existed throughout recorded history and it posits a theosophical conflict between good and evil, where witchcraft was generally evil and often associated with the Devil and Devil worship. Christian views in the day are diverse and cover the gamut of views from intense belief and opposition to non-belief. From the mid-20th century, witchcraft – sometimes called contemporary witchcraft to clearly distinguish it from older beliefs – became the name of a branch of modern paganism and it is most notably practiced in the Wiccan and modern witchcraft traditions, and no longer practices in secrecy. The Western mainstream Christian view is far from the only societal perspective about witchcraft, Beliefs related to witchcraft and magic in these cultures were at times influenced by the prevailing Western concepts. Suspicion of modern medicine due to beliefs about illness being due to witchcraft also continues in countries to this day. HIV/AIDS and Ebola virus disease are two examples of infectious disease epidemics whose medical care and containment has been severely hampered by regional beliefs in witchcraft. Other severe medical conditions whose treatment is hampered in this way include tuberculosis, leprosy, epilepsy, the word witchcraft derives from the Old English wiccecræft, a compound of wicce and cræft. This definition was pioneered in a study of central African magical beliefs by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, European witchcraft is seen by historians and anthropologists as an ideology for explaining misfortune, however, this ideology has manifested in diverse ways, as described below. Some modern commentators believe the malefic nature of witchcraft is a Christian projection, many examples appear in early texts, such as those from ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Malicious magic users can become a cause for disease, sickness in animals, bad luck, sudden death, impotence. Witchcraft of a benign and socially acceptable sort may then be employed to turn the malevolence aside. The folk magic used to identify or protect against malicious magic users is often indistinguishable from that used by the witches themselves, there has also existed in popular belief the concept of white witches and white witchcraft, which is strictly benevolent. Many neopagan witches strongly identify with this concept, and profess ethical codes that prevent them from performing magic on a person without their request. Probably the most obvious characteristic of a witch was the ability to cast a spell, spell being the word used to signify the means employed to carry out a magical action. A spell could consist of a set of words, a formula or verse, or a ritual action, or any combination of these. Strictly speaking, necromancy is the practice of conjuring the spirits of the dead for divination or prophecy – although the term has also applied to raising the dead for other purposes
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Inner Temple
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The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, commonly known as Inner Temple, is one of the four Inns of Court in London. To be called to the Bar and practise as a barrister in England and Wales and it is located in the wider Temple area of the capital, near the Royal Courts of Justice, and within the City of London. The Inn is a body that provides legal training, selection. It is ruled by a council called Parliament, made up of the Masters of the Bench, and led by the Treasurer. The Temple takes its name from the Knights Templar, who leased the land to the Temples inhabitants until their abolition in 1312. The Inner Temple was a society from at least 1388. After a disruptive early period it flourished, becoming the second largest Inn during the Elizabethan period, the Inner Temple expanded during the reigns of James I and Charles I, with 1,700 students admitted between 1600 and 1640. The First English Civil Wars outbreak led to a suspension of legal education. Following the English Restoration the Inner Templars welcomed Charles II back to London personally with a lavish banquet. After a period of decline in the 18th century, the following 100 years saw a restoration of the Temples fortunes, with buildings constructed or restored, such as the Hall. Much of this work was destroyed during The Blitz, when the Hall, Temple, Temple Church, rebuilding was completed in 1959, and today the Temple is a flourishing and active Inn of Court, with over 8,000 members. The Inner Temple is one of the four Inns of Court, along with Grays Inn, Lincolns Inn, and the Middle Temple. The Inns are responsible for training, regulating, and selecting barristers within England and Wales, the Temple is an independent, unincorporated organisation, and works as a trust. It has approximately 8,000 members and around 450 apply to join per year, the original Temple covered much of what is now the northern part of Chancery Lane, which the Knights created to provide access to their new buildings. The old Temple eventually became the London palace of the Bishop of Lincoln, after the Reformation it became the home of the Earl of Southampton, and the location is now named Southampton Buildings. The first group of lawyers came to live here during the 13th century, the Knights fell out of favour, and the order was dissolved in 1312, with the land seized by the king and granted to the Knights Hospitaller. The Hospitallers probably did not live on the property, but rather used it as a source of revenue through rent, during the 12th and 13th centuries, the law was taught in the City of London, primarily by the clergy. As a result, the system of education fell apart
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John Tulloch
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John Tulloch was a Scottish theologian. He was born at Bridge of Earn, Perthshire, and educated at the University of St Andrews, in 1845 he became minister of St Pauls, Dundee, and in 1849 of Kettins, in Strathmore, where he remained for six years. In 1854 he was appointed Principal of St Marys College, St Andrews, the appointment was immediately followed by the appearance of his Burnet prize essay on Theism. At St Andrews, where he was professor of systematic theology and apologetics. He lectured on religion and treated doctrine historically, as being not a fixed product. Furthermore, Tulloch was appointed as one of Her Majestys Chaplains for Scotland and he quickly won the attachment and admiration of his students. In 1862 he was appointed a clerk of the General Assembly, in 1878 he was chosen to be Moderator of the General Assembly, and did much to widen the national church. For three years before his death he was convener of the church committee of the Church of Scotland. In 1884, he was a guest at Haddo House for a dinner hosted by John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and he died at Torquay, in 1886. His body was returned to Scotland for burial and he is buried beneath a large memorial at the centre of the Eastern Cemetery in St Andrews. His wife, Jane Anne Sophia is buried with him, tullochs best-known works are collections of biographical sketches of the leaders of great movements in church history, such as the Reformation and Puritanism. His most important book, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy, is one in which the Cambridge Platonists and he delivered the second series of the Croall lectures, on the Doctrine of Sin, which were afterwards published. A biography of Tulloch was written by Mrs Oliphant, beginning Life a Book for Young Men. London, Alexander Strahan & Co.1863, modern Theories in Philosophy and Religion. Edinburgh and London, William Blackwood and Sons,1884, ISBN Unavailable This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Tulloch
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Johann Georg Ritter von Zimmermann
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Johann Georg Ritter von Zimmermann was a Swiss philosophical writer, naturalist, and physician. He studied at Göttingen, where he took the degree of a doctor of medicine, after traveling in the Netherlands and France, he practised as a physician in Brugg, and wrote Über die Einsamkeit and Vom Nationalstolz. These books made an impression in Germany, and were translated into almost every European language. Another book by him, written at Brugg, Von der Erfahrung in der Arzneiwissenschaft, in 1768 he settled at Hanover as private physician of George III with the title of a Hofrat. Catherine II invited him to the court of St Petersburg, and these writings display extraordinary personal vanity, and convey a wholly false impression of Fredericks character. Regarding personal names, Ritter is a title, translated approximately as Sir, there is no equivalent female form. Media related to Johann Georg Zimmermann at Wikimedia Commons
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Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
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Dictionary of National Biography
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The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and he approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus on subjects from the UK and its present, an early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885, in May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephens assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, by 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63, the year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. The supplements brought the work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. to Oxford University Press in 1917, until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. The supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the century to the 29,120 in the 63 volumes of the original DNB. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published and this had an additional 1,000 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. Consequently, the dictionary was becoming less and less useful as a reference work, in 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, the last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB, the new dictionary would cover British history, broadly defined, up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. Following Matthews death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, a small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "More, Henry". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 822.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
Works related to Henry More at Wikisource
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