1.
Albert Toft
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Albert Toft was an English sculptor. His brother was the landscape artist Joseph Alfonso Toft, Toft was born in Handsworth, then in Staffordshire, and now a suburb of Birmingham. His parents were Charles Toft and Rosanna Reeves and his father was a modeller at the Wedgwood pottery. Toft trained at Wedgwoods pottery, and attended art schools in Hanley, in 1881 he won a scholarship to study sculpture at the South Kensington Schools under Professor Édouard Lantéri. He received silver medals in his second and third years, the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography describes Toft as one of the major figures of New Sculpture following on from William Hamo Thornycroft and George Frampton. Toft described his work as Idealist but he said of himself that to become an idealist you must necessarily first be a realist. In 1915 his sculpture The Bather was purchased using the Royal Academys Chantrey Fund and his 1888 bust of Gladstone for the National Liberal Club was modelled from life and acclaimed as one of the best. In 1900 Toft received a medal at the Universal Exhibition in Paris. He created monuments to Queen Victoria for Leamington Spa, Nottingham, and South Shields and he designed the coronation medal of George V and Queen Mary and a statuette of W. S. Penley playing Charleys Aunt for Royal Doulton. He also published a book, Modelling and Sculpture in 1911, in 1891 Toft was elected to the Art Workers Guild and in 1938 he was elected a fellow to the Royal Society of British Sculptors. Modelling And Sculpture by Albert Toft, Seeley, Service & Co, limited London, 1949—A Full Account of the Various Methods and Processes Employed in These Arts Toft on The Victorian Web National Archives file
2.
Leslie Ward
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Sir Leslie Matthew Ward was a British portrait artist and caricaturist who over four decades painted 1,325 portraits which were regularly published by Vanity Fair, under the pseudonyms Spy and Drawl. The portraits were produced as watercolours and turned into chromolithographs for publication in the magazine and these were then usually reproduced on better paper and sold as prints. Such was his influence in the genre that all Vanity Fair caricatures are sometimes referred to as Spy Cartoons regardless of who the artist actually was, Ward was one of eight children of artists Edward Matthew Ward and Henrietta Ward, and the great-grandson of the artist James Ward. Although they had the surname before marriage, Wards parents were not related. She was niece and great-niece respectively of the portrait painter John Jackson, both parents had studios in their homes in Slough and Kensington in London, where they regularly entertained the London artistic and literary elite. Wards father was a gifted mimic who entertained Charles Dickens and other eminent guests, although they never gave their son formal training, they and their artistic friends encouraged the young Ward to draw, paint, and sculpt. Ward had started caricaturing while still at school at Eton College, using his classmates, in 1867 his bust of his brother was exhibited at the Royal Academy in London. At school Ward had been a student, and after he left Eton in 1869 his father encouraged him to train as an architect. Ward was too afraid to tell his father that he wanted to be an artist and he spent a year in the office of the architect Sydney Smirke. In 1873 he sent some of his work to Thomas Gibson Bowles and this led to his being hired to replace Ape, who had temporarily left the magazine after falling out with Bowles. As his nom de crayon, Ward suggested to Bowles that he use the name Spy, meaning to observe secretly, Ward drew 1,325 cartoons for Vanity Fair between 1873 and 1911, many of which captured the personality of his subjects. His portraits of royalty, nobility, and women, however, were over-sympathetic, sometimes they came to his studio to pose in their robes or uniforms. A caricaturist, Ward believed, was born, not made and he observed, A good memory, an eye for detail, and a mind to appreciate and grasp the whole atmosphere and peculiarity of the subject are of course essentials. A caricature, he noted, should never depend on a physical defect, if I could sum up the art in a sentence it would be that caricature should be a comic impression with a kindly touch, and always devoid of vulgarity. In an 1897 interview given by Oliver Armstrong Fry to Frank Banfield of Cassells Magazine, Ward was the most famous Vanity Fair artist, indeed, the whole genre tends to be named after him, the caricatures often being referred to as Spy Cartoons. He worked for Vanity Fair for over forty years, producing more than half of the 2,387 caricatures published. Wards clubs included the Arts, the Orleans, the Fielding, the Lotus, the Punch Bowl, and the Beefsteak, there he sketched many of his victims. Wards last cartoon for Vanity Fair appeared in June 1911 as he had begun to contribute his characteristic portraits to The World
3.
Vanity Fair (UK magazine)
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The second Vanity Fair was a British weekly magazine published from 1868 to 1914. Subtitled A Weekly Show of Political, Social and Literary Wares, it was founded by Thomas Gibson Bowles, the first issue appeared in London on 7 November 1868. It offered its readership articles on fashion, current events, the theatre, books, social events, Thomas Allinson bought the magazine in 1911 from Frank Harris, by which time it was failing financially. He failed to revive it and the issue of Vanity Fair appeared on 5 February 1914, after which it was merged into Hearth. A full-page, colour lithograph of a celebrity or dignitary appeared in most issues. Subjects included artists, athletes, royalty, statesmen, scientists, authors, actors, soldiers, religious personalities, business people and scholars. More than two thousand of these images appeared, and they are considered the cultural legacy of the magazine
4.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
5.
Abolitionism in the United Kingdom
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It was part of a wider abolitionism movement in Western Europe and the Americas. Soon after his death in 1785, they joined with William Wilberforce, though anti-slavery sentiment was widespread by the late 18th century, the colonies and emerging nation-states that used slave labour continued to do so. The slave trade had been banned in England in 1102, in a 1569 court case involving Cartwright, who had bought a slave from Russia, the court ruled that English law could not recognise slavery, as it was never established officially. This ruling was overshadowed by later developments and it was upheld in 1700 by Lord Chief Justice Sir John Holt when he ruled that a slave became free as soon as he arrived in England. English colonists imported slaves to the North American colonies and by the 18th century, traders began to import slaves from Africa, India and East Asia to London and Edinburgh to work as servants. Men who migrated to the North American colonies often took their East Indian slaves or servants with them, some of the first freedom suits, court cases in Britain to challenge the legality of slavery, took place in Scotland in 1755 and 1769. The cases were Montgomery v. Sheddan and Spens v. Dalrymple, each of the slaves had been baptised in Scotland and challenged the legality of slavery. They set the precedent of legal procedure in British courts that would lead to success for the plaintiffs. In these cases, deaths of the plaintiff and defendant, respectively, African slaves were not bought or sold in London itself but were brought by masters from other places. Together with people from nations, especially non-Christian ones, Africans were considered foreigners. At the time, England had no naturalisation procedure, the African slaves legal status was unclear until the 1772 Somersetts Case, when the fugitive slave James Somersett forced a decision by the courts. Somersett had escaped and his master, Charles Steuart, had him captured and imprisoned on board a ship, while in London, Somersett had been baptised and three godparents issued a writ of habeas corpus. As a result, Lord Mansfield, Chief Justice of the Court of the Kings Bench, had to judge whether Somersetts abduction was lawful or not under English Common Law, no legislation had ever been passed to establish slavery in England. The case received national attention and five supported the action on behalf of Somersett. It is so odious, that nothing can be suffered to support it, whatever inconveniences, therefore, may follow from a decision, I cannot say this case is allowed or approved by the law of England, and therefore the black must be discharged. The decision did not apply to British overseas territories, e. g. the American colonies had established slavery by positive laws, Somersetts case became a significant part of the common law of slavery in the English-speaking world and it helped launch the movement to abolish slavery. After reading about Somersetts Case, Joseph Knight, an enslaved African who had purchased by his master John Wedderburn in Jamaica and brought to Scotland. Married and with a child, he filed a freedom suit, in the case of Knight v. Wedderburn, Wedderburn said that Knight owed him perpetual servitude
6.
Calvinism
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Calvinism is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians. The term Calvinism can be misleading, because the tradition which it denotes has always been diverse. The movement was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, early influential Reformed theologians include Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B, Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van Til, and Gordon Clark were influential. Contemporary Reformed theologians include J. I, sproul, Timothy J. Keller, John Piper, David Wells, and Michael Horton. Reformed churches may exercise several forms of polity, most are presbyterian or congregationalist. Calvinism is largely represented by Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist traditions, the biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world. There are more conservative Reformed federations such as the World Reformed Fellowship, Calvinism is named after John Calvin. It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552 and it was a common practice of the Catholic Church to name what they perceived to be heresy after its founder. Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles, Calvin denounced the designation himself, They could attach us no greater insult than this word, Calvinism. It is not hard to guess where such a deadly hatred comes from that they hold against me, despite its negative connotation, this designation became increasingly popular in order to distinguish Calvinists from Lutherans and from newer Protestant branches that emerged later. Moreover, these churches claim to be—in accordance with John Calvins own words—renewed accordingly with the order of gospel. Since the Arminian controversy, the Reformed tradition—as a branch of Protestantism distinguished from Lutheranism—divided into two groups, Arminians and Calvinists. However, it is now rare to call Arminians a part of the Reformed tradition, some have also argued that Calvinism as a whole stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things including salvation. First-generation Reformed theologians include Huldrych Zwingli, Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, John Oecolampadius, scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal theology of the sacraments of baptism and the Lords Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace. Another Reformed distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the presence of Christ in the Lords supper. Each of these also understood salvation to be by grace alone. Martin Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians, the doctrine of justification by faith alone was a direct inheritance from Luther
7.
Grammar school
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The original purpose of medieval grammar schools was the teaching of Latin. Over time the curriculum was broadened, first to include Ancient Greek, and later English and other European languages, natural sciences, mathematics, history, geography, and other subjects. In the late Victorian era grammar schools were reorganised to provide secondary education throughout England and Wales, Grammar schools of these types were also established in British territories overseas, where they have evolved in different ways. With the move to comprehensive schools in the 1960s and 1970s, some grammar schools became fully independent and charged fees. In both cases, many of these schools kept grammar school in their names, more recently, a number of state grammar schools still retaining their selective intake gained academy status, meaning that they are independent of the Local Education Authority. Some parts of England retain forms of the Tripartite System, some of the remaining grammar schools can trace their histories to before the 16th century. The schools were attached to cathedrals and monasteries, teaching Latin – the language of the church – to future priests, other subjects required for religious work were occasionally added, including music and verse, astronomy and mathematics and law. With the foundation of the ancient universities from the late 12th century, grammar schools became the point to a liberal arts education. Pupils were usually educated in schools up to the age of 14, after which they would look to universities. An example of a grammar school founded by a medieval borough corporation unconnected with church or university is Bridgnorth Grammar School. During the English Reformation in the 16th century, most cathedral schools were closed and replaced by new foundations funded from the dissolution of the monasteries. For example, the oldest extant schools in Wales – Christ College, Brecon, with the increased emphasis on studying the scriptures after the Reformation, many schools added Greek and, in a few cases, Hebrew. The teaching of languages was hampered by a shortage of non-Latin type. Many of these are commemorated in annual Founders Day services and ceremonies at surviving schools. The usual pattern was to create an endowment to pay the wages of a master to instruct boys in Latin. The school day ran from 6 a. m. to 5 p. m. with a two-hour break for lunch, in winter, school started at 7 a. m. Most of the day was spent in the learning of Latin. To encourage fluency, some schoolmasters recommended punishing any pupil who spoke in English, by the end of their studies at age 14, they would be quite familiar with the great Latin authors, and with Latin drama and rhetoric
8.
Highbury College
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Highbury College is a general further education college in Portsmouth, Hampshire, England. It provides vocational and academic education and training, from first-step courses to university level degrees, A Levels, specialised services for business. These are, Highbury Campus, Highbury City of Portsmouth Centre, Highbury Northarbour Centre, Highbury Arundel Centre, highbury’s 2010/2011 student success rates make it the top-performing general further education College in the South East. The College was inspected by Ofsted in May 2011 and was judged to be Grade 1 Outstanding in all areas. The College actively promotes lifelong learning and delivers a range of adult courses at more than 50 community venues in and around Portsmouth. Highbury was judged to make a contribution to community cohesion in its 2011 Ofsted report. The College is also a provider of apprenticeship training in the South East. Highbury NCTJ Diploma in Journalism was recognised as the best-performing newspaper journalism fast-track course in the country for 2007/8, former Highbury journalism students include political correspondent John Pienaar and Emmy Award winning ITV news presenter Mark Austin. The history of Highbury College can be traced back to the Portsmouth and Gosport School of Science and the Arts, the main function of the School was to equip the City’s future engineers and workers with the skills required in Portsmouth’s thriving docks and the Royal Navy Dockyard. In 1894 the School’s science and technology courses were brought under the control of the authorities as the Borough of Portsmouth Municipal Technical Institute. The Institute had three departments, Chemistry, Mathematics & Physics, and Civil & Mechanical Engineering. More than 1,300 students attended evening courses with only a number of students attending during the day. By 1903 subjects taught included hygiene, biology, physiology, woodcarving, navigation, nautical astronomy, in 1908 the Institute was renamed the Portsmouth Municipal College, Within a few years the College was offering external degree courses recognised by the University of London. The Municipal College continued to grow until, in the 1930s, similarly, in the 1950s Art & Design also became an independent unit. The Municipal College was designated a regional College by the Department of Education and Science in the 1950s, Highbury College was officially opened on 17 September 1963 as Highbury Technical College. Built at a cost of £590,700, the College was originally designed for a student population of 2,800, overcrowding quickly became a problem and the College leased huts at Rugby Camp, Hilsea, for use as temporary classrooms. The huts had rudimentary facilities, and are referred to as the Army Camp by students. A full-time teaching staff of 78, plus staff and visiting lecturers were responsible for delivering Highburys courses
9.
Treaty of Paris (1856)
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The Treaty of Paris of 1856 settled the Crimean War between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, the Second French Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The treaty marked a setback to Russian influence in the region. Conditions for the return of Sevastopol and other towns and cities in the south of Crimea were clear, the Treaty of Paris would have far reaching implications on the future of the Ottoman Empire, as would the ending of the war itself. At the time, it was seen as an achievement of the Tanzimât foreign policy, as the first modern war came to a close after 18 long months of violence, all sides of the war wanted to come to a lasting resolution. Yet, competing goals would come to spoil the idea of a lasting, distrust sewn between the allied nations of France and Britain during the war effort compounded problems in hammering out a comprehensive peace plan. With the signing of the deal in 1856 the Crimean War might have formally come to a close. When Alexander II took the crown of Russia in 1855 he inherited a crisis that threatened to collapse the Russian Empire. Problems all throughout the Empire stretching from parts of Finland to Poland, as well as Crimea, Russia knew that within a few months a total defeat in the Crimean War was imminent and that would mean the complete humiliation of Russia on a global scale. A huge aim of the Russians was ending war with the appearance of some left in the Russian Bear that once terrified the Western allies. Russia in the peace talk process “contrived to turn defeat into victory…through…peacetime reforms, the most interesting relationship at the Treaty of Paris negotiations was probably the French and British, who mid war began to seemingly pick up their Napoleonic War rivalry once again. The French blamed many of the defeats the Great Powers lost to the Russians on the fact that Britain had marched into war without a plan of action. This was perhaps illustrated by the celebrated and valourous but fruitless Charge of the Light Brigade in the Battle of Balaclava, the British and French diplomats and politicians welcomed the Russian peace talks because it would end the war before either ally could turn their attention to betray the other. Great Britain and France also desired to ensure that the Ottoman Empire came out of the Peace of Paris stronger, thus, full removal of Russian presence of the Danubian provinces and the Black Sea was necessary to protect British and dominance, as well as to weaken Russia. While only losing a few battles during the course of the whole Crimean War, the Ottomans, British and French governments would have desired a more crushing defeat for the Tsar, however, the defeat left Russia crippled in many key areas. For one, the Russians lost over 500,000 troops, Russia was forced with their desire for peace to remove themselves from the Danubian provinces completely restoring power back over to the Turks. Russian battleships were banned from sailing the Black Sea, which decreased their influence over the essential warm water port. Another loss the Russians needed to contend with after the Peace of Paris was the stretched economy, the political and social unrest, compounded by economic decay, led indirectly to the emancipation of the serfs and revolutionary ideas spreading. One immediate result of the Peace of Paris of 1856 was the reopening of the Black Sea for safe, prior to the peace the naval war and presence of Russian warships made trade difficult
10.
Ceredigion (UK Parliament constituency)
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Ceredigion, formerly Cardiganshire, is a constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Created in 1536, the boundaries have remained unchanged for nearly five centuries. The county constituency was enlarged in 1983 with the addition of part of Pembrokeshire, being renamed Ceredigion, in 1997 it reverted to its former boundaries, being renamed Ceredigion. The Ceredigion Welsh Assembly constituency was created with the boundaries in 1999. The boundaries of this constituency mirror almost exactly those of the county of Ceredigion, under proposed constituency boundary changes announced in September 2016, ahead of the next general election, the seats boundaries will be extended. Ceredigion, formerly known by the version of its name as Cardiganshire, was first enfranchised in 1536 when King Henry VIII incorporated Wales within England. The county was one member, who was to be elected by each person who owned property of a sufficient value. In addition the inhabitants of Cardigan, Aberystwyth, Adpar and Lampeter were given the right to elect one MP between them, with the vote restricted to the Freemen. From 1832 the Reform Act changed the system so that householders of homes worth over £10 were enfranchised in the boroughs. The county saw more influence of the Powell family of Nanteos who were Conservatives, by agreement between the two, neither challenged the others domination and so elections were almost always unopposed. In the 1841 election there was a deal of confusion in the borough constituency. The poll books for Aberystwyth were either lost or stolen and never reached the returning officer, other than an 1855 byelection victory by 12 votes, the Conservatives never won the borough. The county saw its first contest in the 1859 general election when two Conservatives fought for the seat. In 1865 the sitting MP stood down and there was a contest between two Liberals, won by Sir Thomas Lloyd, Bt. who defeated a Gladstonian opponent, David Davies, Llandinam. Lloyd transferred to the borough in the 1868 election when the seat was captured by Swansea industrialist and this election is often regarded as a landmark when tenant farmers apparently refused to follow patterns of age-old deference and vote in line with the wishes of their landlords. Following this election there were allegations of intimidation by Conservative landlords, in reality, however, Richards victory owed much to the support of the powerful Pryse family of Gogerddan. There were close contests for the county thereafter, on a slightly widened franchise, in a redistribution of seats for the 1885 general election, the borough constituency was abolished and absorbed into the county. This brought into the county seat the more radical politics of urban voters in the boroughs of Aberystwyth, Cardigan, Lampeter and Adpar
11.
Aberystwyth
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Aberystwyth is a historic market town, administrative centre, and holiday resort within Ceredigion, West Wales, often colloquially known as Aber. It is located near the confluence of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, historically part of Cardiganshire, since the late 19th century, Aberystwyth has also been a major Welsh educational centre, with the establishment of a university college there in 1872. At the 2001 census, the population was 15,935. During nine months of the year, there is an influx of students—to a total number of 10,400 as of September 2012, including the suburbs of Llanbadarn Fawr, the population is 16,420. The town is situated near the confluence of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, although the name may seem to suggest otherwise, only the River Rheidol passes through the town, following the reconstruction of the harbour, the River Ystwyth skirts the town. Today, it comprises a number of different areas, Aberystwyth town, Llanbadarn Fawr, Waunfawr, Llanbadarn, Trefechan. Aberystwyth is a town, considering the population density of the United Kingdom. The Welsh capital, Cardiff, is over 100 miles away, London is 210 miles distant from Aberystwyth. Aberystwyth experiences a climate similar to almost all of the United Kingdom. This is particularly pronounced due to its west coast location facing the Irish Sea, air undergoes little land moderation and so temperatures closely reflect the sea temperature when winds are coming from the predominant onshore direction. The nearest Met Office weather station is Gogerddan,3 miles to the northeast, the absolute maximum temperature is 34.6 °C, set during July 2006. Typically the warmest day will average 28.0 °C and 5.6 days will achieve a maximum of 25.1 °C or above, the absolute minimum temperature is −13.5 °C, set in January 2010. Typically 39.8 days will register an air frost, rainfall averages 1,112 mm a year, with over 1mm recorded on 161 days. All averages refer to the 1971–2000 period, Aberystwyth is a tourist destination, and forms a cultural link between North Wales and South Wales. Constitution Hill, scaled by the Aberystwyth Cliff Railway, gives access to views and to other attractions at the summit. Scenic Mid Wales landscape within easy reach of the town includes the wilderness of the Cambrian Mountains, whose valleys contain forests, a convenient way to access the interior is by the preserved narrow-gauge Vale of Rheidol Railway. Although the town is modern, there are a number of historic buildings, including the remains of the castle. The Old College was originally built and opened in 1865 as a hotel, the new university campus overlooks Aberystwyth from Penglais Hill to the east of the town centre
12.
Liberal Party (UK)
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The Liberal Party was a liberal political party which was one of the two major parties in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th century. The party arose from an alliance of Whigs and free-trade Peelites and Radicals favourable to the ideals of the American, by the end of the nineteenth century, it had formed four governments under William Gladstone. Despite splitting over the issue of Irish Home Rule, the party returned to power in 1906 with a landslide victory, by the end of the 1920s, the Labour Party had replaced the Liberals as the Conservatives main rival. The party went into decline and by the 1950s won no more than six seats at general elections, apart from notable by-election victories, the partys fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party in 1981. At the 1983 General Election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, at the 1987 General Election, its vote fell below 23% and the Liberal and Social Democratic parties merged in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats. A splinter group reconstituted the Liberal Party in 1989 and it was formed by party members opposed to the merger who saw the Lib Dems diluting Liberal ideals. Prominent intellectuals associated with the Liberal Party include the philosopher John Stuart Mill, the economist John Maynard Keynes, the Liberal Party grew out of the Whigs, who had their origins in an aristocratic faction in the reign of Charles II, and the early 19th century Radicals. The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown, although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of democracy for its own sake. The great figures of reformist Whiggery were Charles James Fox and his disciple, after decades in opposition, the Whigs returned to power under Grey in 1830 and carried the First Reform Act in 1832. The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggism, but it brought about the Whigs demise. As early as 1839 Russell had adopted the name of Liberals, the leading Radicals were John Bright and Richard Cobden, who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act. They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England, avoidance of war and foreign alliances, for a century, free trade remained the one cause which could unite all Liberals. This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston, and the Peelite Lord Aberdeen to hold office for most of the 1850s and 1860s, a leading Peelite was William Ewart Gladstone, who was a reforming Chancellor of the Exchequer in most of these governments. The formal foundation of the Liberal Party is traditionally traced to 1859 and this was brought about by Palmerstons death in 1865 and Russells retirement in 1868. After a brief Conservative government Gladstone won a victory at the 1868 election. The establishment of the party as a membership organisation came with the foundation of the National Liberal Federation in 1877. John Stuart Mill was a Liberal MP from 1865 to 1868, for the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous. William Ewart Gladstone served as prime minister four times, called the Grand Old Man later in life, Gladstone was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class and to the lower middle class
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Lee, Sidney, ed. (1896). "Richard, Henry". Dictionary of National Biography. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Richard, Henry". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 297.
