1.
Julia Margaret Cameron
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Julia Margaret Cameron was a British photographer. She became known for her portraits of celebrities of the time, Camerons photographic career was short, spanning eleven years of her life. She took up photography at the late age of 48. She found more acceptance among pre-Raphaelite artists than among photographers and her work has influenced modern photographers, especially her closely cropped portraits. Her house, Dimbola Lodge, on the Isle of Wight is open to the public, Julia Margaret Cameron was born Julia Margaret Pattle in Calcutta, India, to Adeline de lEtang and James Pattle, a British official of the East India Company. Adeline de lEtang was the daughter of Chevalier Antoine de lEtang and he had married the Indian-born Therese Blin de Grincourt, a daughter of French aristocrats. Cameron was from a family of celebrated beauties and was considered an ugly duckling among her sisters, as her great-niece Virginia Woolf wrote in the 1926 introduction to the Hogarth Press collection of Camerons photographs, In the trio where. Was Beauty, and Dash, Mrs. Cameron was undoubtedly Talent, Camerons sister Virginia was the mother of the temperance leader Lady Henry Somerset. Cameron was educated in France, but returned to India, and in 1838 married Charles Hay Cameron, a jurist and member of the Law Commission stationed in Calcutta, who was twenty years her senior. They had five children together, and also raised five young relations, in 1848, Charles Hay Cameron retired, and the family moved to London, England. In 1860, Cameron visited the estate of poet Alfred Lord Tennyson on the Isle of Wight, Cameron was taken with the location, and the Cameron family purchased a property on the island soon after. They called it Dimbola Lodge after the familys Ceylon estate, in 1863, when Cameron was 48 years old, her daughter gave her a camera as a present, thereby starting her career as a photographer. Within a year, Cameron became a member of the Photographic Societies of London and she remained a member of the Photographic Society, London, until her death. In her photography, Cameron strove to capture beauty and she wrote, I longed to arrest all the beauty that came before me and at length the longing has been satisfied. The basic techniques of soft-focus fancy portraits, which she developed, were taught to her by David Wilkie Wynfield. She later wrote that to my feeling about his beautiful photography I owed all my attempts, Lord Tennyson, her neighbour on the Isle of Wight, often brought friends to see the photographer and her works. At the time, photography was an art that also was highly dependent upon crucial timing. Sometimes Cameron was obsessive about her new occupation, with sitting for countless exposures in the blinding light as she laboriously coated, exposed
2.
Portland, Maine
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Portland is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maine, with a population of 66,881 as of 2015. The Greater Portland metropolitan area is home to half a million people. The Old Port district is frequented by tourists, while Portland Head Light is also a destination, the city seal depicts a phoenix rising from ashes, which is a reference to the recoveries from four devastating fires. Portland was named for the English Isle of Portland, and the city of Portland, Oregon was in turn named after Portland, Native Americans originally called the Portland peninsula Machigonne. Portland, Maine was named for the English Isle of Portland, the first European settler was Capt. Christopher Levett, an English naval captain granted 6,000 acres in 1623 to found a settlement in Casco Bay. The settlement failed, and the fate of Levetts colonists is unknown, the explorer sailed from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony to meet John Winthrop in 1630, but never returned to Maine. Fort Levett in the harbor is named for him, the peninsula was first permanently settled in 1632 as a fishing and trading village named Casco. When the Massachusetts Bay Colony took over Casco Bay in 1658, in 1676, the village was destroyed by the Abenaki during King Philips War. During King Williams War, a party of French and Native allies attacked. On October 18,1775, Falmouth was burned in the Revolution by the Royal Navy under command of Captain Henry Mowat, following the war, a section of Falmouth called The Neck developed as a commercial port and began to grow rapidly as a shipping center. In 1786, the citizens of Falmouth formed a town in Falmouth Neck and named it Portland, after the isle off the coast of Dorset. Portlands economy was greatly stressed by the Embargo Act of 1807, which ended in 1809, and the War of 1812, in 1820, Maine became a state with Portland as its capital. In 1832, the capital was moved north to Augusta, in 1851, Maine led the nation by passing the first state law prohibiting the sale of alcohol except for medicinal, mechanical or manufacturing purposes. The law subsequently became known as the Maine law, as 18 states quickly followed, on June 2,1855, the Portland Rum Riot occurred. In 1853, upon completion of the Grand Trunk Railway to Montreal, the Portland Company manufactured more than 600 19th-century steam locomotives. Portland became a 20th-century rail hub as five rail lines merged into Portland Terminal Company in 1911. Following nationalization of the Grand Trunk system in 1923, Canadian export traffic was diverted from Portland to Halifax, Nova Scotia, in the 20th century, icebreakers later enabled ships to reach Montreal in winter, drastically reducing Portlands role as a winter port for Canada. On June 26,1863, a Confederate raiding party led by Captain Charles Read, entered the harbor at Portland, more than 10,000 people were left homeless
3.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
4.
Bowdoin College
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Bowdoin College is a private liberal arts college located in Brunswick, Maine. At the time Bowdoin was chartered in 1794, Maine was still a part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, the college currently enrolls 1,839 students, and has a student–faculty ratio of 9,1. Bowdoin offers 33 majors and four additional minors, and offers joint engineering programs with Columbia University, Dartmouth College, the college was a Founding Member of its athletic conference, the New England Small College Athletic Conference and the Colby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortium. Bowdoin has over 30 varsity teams and the mascot was selected as a Polar Bear in 1913 to honor a Bowdoin alumnus who led the first successful expedition to the north pole. For 2017 the college has been ranked as sixth-best liberal arts college in the U. S. by U. S. News & World Report, Bowdoin College was chartered in 1794 by the Massachusetts State Legislature and was later redirected under the jurisdiction of the Maine Legislature. It was named for former Massachusetts governor James Bowdoin, whose son James Bowdoin III was an early benefactor, at the time of its founding, it was the easternmost college in the United States, as it was located in Maine. The college also graduated two literary philosophers, the writers Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, both of whom graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1825, franklin and Hawthorne began an official militia company called the Bowdoin Cadets. From its founding, Bowdoin was known to educate the sons of the politically elite, fessenden and Hugh McCulloch both served as Secretary of the Treasury during the Lincoln Administration. However, the involvement in the Civil War was mixed as Bowdoin had many ties to slave labor. The Jefferson Davis Award was given to a student who excelled in legal studies after a donation was given to the college by the United Daughters of the Confederacy, President Ulysses S. Grant, too, was given an honorary degree from the college in 1865. Another alumnus in the sciences is the controversial entomologist-turned-sexologist Alfred Kinsey, the college went on to educate and eventually graduate Arctic explorers Robert E. Peary, class of 1877, and Donald B. Bowdoin began competing in the Colby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortium, with Bates and Colby in 1970, the consortium became an athletic rivalry, and academic exchange program. The three schools produce numerous contentions in athletics, most notably a football game and the Chase Regatta. In 2001, Barry Mills, class of 1972, was appointed as the fifth president of the college. President Mills stated, Some see a calling in such vital, as an institution devoted to the common good, Bowdoin must consider the fairness of such a result. In February 2009, following a $10 million donation by Subway Sandwiches co-founder and alumnus Peter Buck, class of 1952, the college completed a $250-million capital campaign. Additionally, the college has recently completed major construction projects on the campus, including a renovation of the colleges art museum. She insisted that distribution requirements would ensure students a more well-rounded education in a diversity of fields, current requirements require one course each in, Natural Sciences, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual and Performing Arts, International Perspectives and Exploring Social Differences
5.
Ernest Wadsworth Longfellow
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Ernest Wadsworth Longfellow was an artist in Boston, Massachusetts, and New York. He was the son of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Ernest Longfellow was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and raised at Craigie House. He was the second of six children, including his younger sister Alice Mary Longfellow, educated at Harvard College, he passed the winter of 1865 and 66 in Paris in work and study, and the summers of 1876 and 77 in Villiers-le-Bel under Couture. He married Harriet Hattie Spelman in 1868, an 1874 newspaper gossiped about him, Ernest Longfellow, the son of the poet, is described as a slender, delicate young man, an artist of talent, great at ten-pins, and tip-top at gunning. His professional life has been spent in Boston, with frequent visits to Europe, in the 1870s he kept a studio on West Street. He belonged to the Boston Art Club and he moved to New York around the turn of the century. He died in November 1921 at the Hotel Touraine in Boston, the funeral was held from the Craigie House. Services conducted by the Rev. Samuel A. Eliot, Longfellow bequeathed some 55 paintings from his collection to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, including works by Jacopo Bassano, John Constable, Thomas Couture, Luca Giordano, and others. Twenty poems from Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, illustrated from paintings by his son Ernest W. Longfellow, the Aldine, Vol.8, No.4 Clara Erskine Clement and Laurence Hutton. Artists of the century and their works, A handbook containing two thousand and fifty biographical sketches, Volume 2. Google books Men and women of America, a dictionary of contemporaries. Google books Whos who in New England, cut off Pacifist Nephews, Longfellows Son Left Most of $300,000 Estate to Widow. Kansas City Star, Date, 12-08-1921 The Bequest of Ernest Wadsworth Longfellow, Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin, Vol.21, No. Longfellow, Ernest Wadsworth 1845-1921 US National Park Service, Ernest Longfellow Archives of American Art. Ernest Wadsworth and Harriet S. Wadsworth Longfellow sketchbooks, 1867-1903 Harvard College, group portrait including Hattie and Ernest Longfellow
6.
Alice Mary Longfellow
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Alice Mary Longfellow was a philanthropist, preservationist, and the eldest surviving daughter of the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. She is best known as grave Alice from her fathers poem The Childrens Hour, Longfellow was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and attended classes at Radcliffe College during the 1880s and 1890s, studying at Newnham College in Cambridge, England, from 1883 to 1884. She traveled frequently throughout her life, spending the majority of her time abroad in France, most notably, she met with Benito Mussolini in 1927. Alice Longfellow remained unmarried throughout her life and she died in Cambridge in 1928 in the same house where she was born. Longfellow worked to preserve her fathers home in Cambridge, now Longfellow House–Washingtons Headquarters National Historic Site and she served as the Massachusetts Vice-regent of the Mount Vernon Ladies Association and held administrative positions at Radcliffe College throughout her life. Alice Longfellow was born on September 22,1850 at half past six in the morning, with the setting of the moon, to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Frances Fanny Elizabeth Appleton Longfellow, the daughter of Nathan Appleton, the Boston industrialist, and Maria Gold Appleton. Longfellow was christened on George Washingtons birthday at which she behaved beautifully and her parents made this date choice intentionally because of Longfellows birth in Washingtons former headquarters. Her mother Fanny wrote of the baby Alice, It is a great laughter and has a very expressive little face already, with blue eyes. Longfellow led a privileged childhood growing up in an affluent Cambridge family home. ”After the death of her mother in 1861, one of her best friends growing up was Harriet Hattie Spelman who would later go on to marry Longfellows brother, Ernest. As an example of the lifestyle Longfellow had growing up, there is an exchange between Henry and Alice Longfellow about Alices basket carriage, or horse and buggy, that Henry had given her. The letter recounts that Longfellow drove it recklessly and crashed into a post, scaring herself, in 1863 when she was just 12 years old Longfellow took her first trip to Maine. She went with her uncle Thomas Gold Appleton on his yacht that was named The Alice after her and this was the beginning of her long life of travel. By the time she was about 14, Henry Longfellow was already referring to his daughter Alice as my darling runaway as she was gone on vacations. Longfellows first European tour was from May 23,1868, to September 1,1869, Longfellow would have been 18 years old during most of the trip. They visited England, Scotland, France, Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, Germany, in January 1879 Longfellow joined The Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women, a committee of seven women, of which she was the youngest at just 28 years old. This group worked to establish the Harvard Annex for women to have classes taught by Harvard professors, Longfellow was the treasurer of the Annex from 1883–1891, a special student from 1879–81 and 1884–90, and a member of the governing board in various capacities until her death in 1928. The institution later known as Radcliffe College, now part of Harvard University. Longfellow held several early commencement ceremonies for Radcliffe in the Longfellow House library and she shared her love of travel by creating a traveling fellowship for Radcliffe graduates
7.
Paul Revere's Ride
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Paul Reveres Ride is a poem by American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow that commemorates the actions of American patriot Paul Revere on April 18,1775, although with significant inaccuracies. It was first published in the January 1861 issue of The Atlantic Monthly and it was later retitled The Landlords Tale in the collection Tales of a Wayside Inn. The poem is spoken by the landlord of the Wayside Inn, in the poem, Revere tells a friend to prepare signal lanterns in the Old North Church to inform him if the British will attack by land or sea. He would await the signal across the river in Charlestown and be ready to spread the alarm throughout Middlesex County, the unnamed friend climbs up the steeple and soon sets up two signal lanterns, informing Revere that the British are coming by sea. Revere rides his horse through Medford, Lexington, and Concord to warn the patriots, Longfellow was inspired to write the poem after visiting the Old North Church and climbing its tower on April 5,1860. He began writing the poem the next day and it was first published in the January 1861 issue of The Atlantic Monthly. It was later re-published in Longfellows Tales of a Wayside Inn as The Landlords Tale in 1863. The poem served as the first in a series of 22 narratives bundled as a collection, similar to Geoffrey Chaucers The Canterbury Tales, Longfellows family had a connection to the historical Paul Revere. His maternal grandfather, Peleg Wadsworth, was Reveres commander on the Penobscot Expedition, when the poem was written in 1860, America was on the verge of Civil War. Longfellow first came forward publicly as an abolitionist in 1842 with the publication of his Poems on Slavery. Paul Reveres Ride was published in the January,1861, issue of the The Atlantic magazine on December 20,1860, the poem was meant to appeal to Northerners sense of urgency and, as a call for action, noted that history favors the courageous. By emphasizing common history, he was attempting to dissolve social tensions, the phrase Hardly a man is now alive was true as one of the last men alive at the time had only recently died. Jonathan Harrington, the young fifer for Lexingtons militia during the battles of Lexington and Concord, died at the age of 96 in 1854, Longfellows poem is not historically accurate but his mistakes were deliberate. He had researched the event, using works like George Bancrofts History of the United States. He was purposefully trying to create American legends, much as he did with works like The Song of Hiawatha, modern critics of the poem emphasize its many historical inaccuracies. The poem also depicts Revere rowing himself across the Charles River when, in reality and he also did not reach Concord that night. Another inaccuracy is a lengthening of the time frame of the nights events. The majority of criticism, however, notes that Longfellow gave sole credit to Revere for the achievements of three riders
8.
The Song of Hiawatha
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The Song of Hiawatha is an 1855 epic poem in trochaic tetrameter by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow that features Native American characters. The epic relates the adventures of an Ojibwe warrior named Hiawatha, events in the story are set in the Pictured Rocks area on the south shore of Lake Superior. Longfellows poem, though based on oral traditions surrounding the figure of Manabozho, represents not a work of transmission. In sentiment, scope, overall conception, and many particulars, Longfellow insisted, I can give chapter and their chief value is that they are Indian legends. But in his entry for June 28,1854, he wrote, Work at Manabozho, or, as I think I shall call it. Longfellow, following Schoolcraft, was mistaken in thinking the names were synonyms, in Ojibwe lore the figure of Manabozho is legendary but the name Hiawatha is unknown. The name Hiawatha derives from the name of a figure associated with the League of the Iroquois. The poem was published on November 10,1855, and was an immediate success, in 1857, Longfellow calculated that it had sold 50,000 copies. Longfellow chose to set The Song of Hiawatha at the Pictured Rocks, the Song presents a legend of Hiawatha and his lover Minnehaha in 22 chapters. Hiawatha is not introduced until Chapter III, in Chapter I, Hiawathas arrival is prophesied by a mighty peace-bringing leader named Gitche Manito. Chapter II tells a legend of how the warrior Mudjekeewis became Father of the Four Winds by slaying the Great Bear of the mountains and his son Wabun, the East Wind, falls in love with a maiden whom he turns into the Morning Star, Wabun-Annung. Wabuns brother, Kabibonokka, the North Wind, bringer of autumn and winter, attacks Shingebis, Shingebis repels him by burning firewood, and then in a wrestling match. A third brother, Shawondasee, the South Wind, falls in love with a dandelion, in Chapter III, in unremembered ages, a woman named Nokomis falls from the moon. Nokomis gives birth to Wenonah, who grows to be a young woman. Nokomis warns her not to be seduced by the West Wind but she does not heed her mother, becomes pregnant and bears Hiawatha. In the ensuing chapters, Hiawatha has childhood adventures, falls in love with Minnehaha, slays the evil magician Pearl-Feather, invents written language, discovers corn, Minnehaha dies in a severe winter. The poem closes with the approach of a canoe to Hiawathas village, containing the Priest of Prayer. Hiawatha welcomes him joyously, and the Black-Robe chief brings word of Jesus Christ, Hiawatha and the chiefs accept the Christian message
9.
Evangeline
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Evangeline, A Tale of Acadie is an epic poem by the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, written in English and published in 1847. The poem follows an Acadian girl named Evangeline and her search for her lost love Gabriel, the idea for the poem came from Longfellows friend, Nathaniel Hawthorne. Longfellow used dactylic hexameter, imitating Greek and Latin classics, though the choice was criticized and it became Longfellows most famous work in his lifetime and remains one of his most popular and enduring works. The poem had an effect in defining both Acadian history and identity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. More recent scholarship has revealed the historical errors in the poem and the complexity of the Expulsion and those involved, which the poem ignores. The poem then follows Evangeline across the landscapes of America as she spends years in a search for him, finally she settles in Philadelphia and, as an old woman, works as a Sister of Mercy among the poor. While tending the dying during an epidemic she finds Gabriel among the sick, Hawthorne and Longfellow had attended Bowdoin College together, though they were not friends at the time. Hawthorne was not interested in fictionalizing it so Longfellow turned it into a poem after months of studying the histories of Nova Scotian families. He noted his reliance on sources in his journal on January 7,1847, Went to the library and got Watsons Annals of Philadelphia. Also, Darbys Geographical Description of Louisiana and these books must help me through the last part of Evangeline, so far as facts and local coloring go. But for the form and the poetry, —they must come from my own brain, Evangeline was published in book form on November 1,1847, and by 1857 it had sold nearly 36,000 copies. During this time, Longfellows literary payment was at its peak, for Evangeline, he received a net of twenty-five and sixteenths per cent royalties, believed to be an all-time high for a poet. Longfellow said of his poem, I had the fever a long time burning in my own brain before I let my hero take it, Evangeline is so easy for you to read, because it was so hard for me to write. The poem is written in unrhymed dactylic hexameter, possibly inspired by Greek and Latin classics, including Homer and he also had recently, in 1841, translated The Children of the Lords Supper, a poem by Swedish writer Esaias Tegnér, which also used this meter. Evangeline is one of the few compositions in that meter which is still read today. Some criticized Longfellows choice of dactylic hexameter, including poet John Greenleaf Whittier, Longfellow was conscious of the potential criticism. When sending a copy of the poem to Bryan Procter, Longfellow wrote, in fact, I could not write it as it is in any other, it would have changed its character entirely to have put it into a different measure. As an experiment, Longfellow reassured himself that he was using the best meter by attempting a passage in blank verse, the name Evangeline comes from the Latin word evangelium meaning gospel
10.
Dante Alighieri
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Durante degli Alighieri, simply called Dante, was a major Italian poet of the Late Middle Ages. In the late Middle Ages, the majority of poetry was written in Latin. In De vulgari eloquentia, however, Dante defended use of the vernacular in literature, as a result, Dante played an instrumental role in establishing the national language of Italy. In addition, the first use of the interlocking three-line rhyme scheme, Dante has been called the Father of the Italian language and one of the greatest poets of world literature. In Italy, Dante is often referred to as il Sommo Poeta and il Poeta, he, Petrarch, Dante was born in Florence, Republic of Florence, present-day Italy. The exact date of his birth is unknown, although it is believed to be around 1265. This can be deduced from autobiographic allusions in the Divine Comedy, in 1265, the sun was in Gemini between approximately May 11 and June 11. Dante claimed that his family descended from the ancient Romans, but the earliest relative he could mention by name was Cacciaguida degli Elisei, born no earlier than about 1100. Dantes father, Alaghiero or Alighiero di Bellincione, was a White Guelph who suffered no reprisals after the Ghibellines won the Battle of Montaperti in the middle of the 13th century. Dantes family had loyalties to the Guelphs, an alliance that supported the Papacy and which was involved in complex opposition to the Ghibellines. The poets mother was Bella, likely a member of the Abati family and she died when Dante was not yet ten years old, and Alighiero soon married again, to Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi. When Dante was 12, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Manetto Donati, contracting marriages at this early age was quite common and involved a formal ceremony, including contracts signed before a notary. But by this time Dante had fallen in love with another, Beatrice Portinari, years after his marriage to Gemma he claims to have met Beatrice again, he wrote several sonnets to Beatrice but never mentioned Gemma in any of his poems. The exact date of his marriage is not known, the certain information is that, before his exile in 1301. Dante fought with the Guelph cavalry at the Battle of Campaldino and this victory brought about a reformation of the Florentine constitution. To take any part in life, one had to enroll in one of the citys many commercial or artisan guilds, so Dante entered the Physicians. In the following years, his name is recorded as speaking or voting in the various councils of the republic. A substantial portion of minutes from meetings in the years 1298–1300 was lost, however
11.
Divine Comedy
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The Divine Comedy is a long narrative poem by Dante Alighieri, begun c.1308 and completed in 1320, a year before his death in 1321. It is widely considered the preeminent work in Italian literature, and is seen as one of the greatest works of world literature, the poems imaginative vision of the afterlife is representative of the medieval world-view as it had developed in the Western Church by the 14th century. It helped establish the Tuscan language, in which it is written and it is divided into three parts, Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. On the surface, the poem describes Dantes travels through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise or Heaven, but at a level, it represents, allegorically. At this deeper level, Dante draws on medieval Christian theology and philosophy, especially Thomistic philosophy, consequently, the Divine Comedy has been called the Summa in verse. The work was simply titled Comedìa and the word Divina was added by Giovanni Boccaccio. The first printed edition to add the word divina to the title was that of the Venetian humanist Lodovico Dolce, the Divine Comedy is composed of 14,233 lines that are divided into three canticas – Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso – each consisting of 33 cantos. An initial canto, serving as an introduction to the poem and generally considered to be part of the first cantica, the number three is prominent in the work, represented in part by the number of canticas and their lengths. Additionally, the scheme used, terza rima, is hendecasyllabic, with the lines composing tercets according to the rhyme scheme aba, bcb, cdc. Written in the first person, the tells of Dantes journey through the three realms of the dead, lasting from the night before Good Friday to the Wednesday after Easter in the spring of 1300. The Roman poet Virgil guides him through Hell and Purgatory, Beatrice, Dantes ideal woman, within each group of 9,7 elements correspond to a specific moral scheme, subdivided into three subcategories, while 2 others of greater particularity are added to total nine. For example, the seven sins of the Catholic Church that are cleansed in Purgatory are joined by special realms for the Late repentant. The core seven sins within Purgatory correspond to a scheme of love perverted, subdivided into three groups corresponding to excessive love, deficient love, and malicious love. In central Italys political struggle between Guelphs and Ghibellines, Dante was part of the Guelphs, who in general favored the Papacy over the Holy Roman Emperor, florences Guelphs split into factions around 1300, the White Guelphs and the Black Guelphs. The last word in each of the three canticas is stelle, the poem begins on the night before Good Friday in the year 1300, halfway along our lifes path. Conscious that he is ruining himself and that he is falling into a low place where the sun is silent, Dante is at last rescued by Virgil, the circles number 9, with the addition of Satan completing the structure of 9 +1 =10. Having survived the depths of Hell, Dante and Virgil ascend out of the undergloom to the Mountain of Purgatory on the far side of the world. The Mountain is on an island, the land in the Southern Hemisphere
12.
Fireside Poets
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The Fireside Poets — also known as the Schoolroom or Household Poets — were a group of 19th-century American poets associated with New England. These poets were very popular among readers and critics both in the United States and overseas and their domestic themes and messages of morality presented in conventional poetic forms deeply shaped their era until their decline in popularity at the beginning of the 20th century. Ralph Waldo Emerson is occasionally included in the group as well, the name Fireside Poets is derived from that popularity, their writing was a source of entertainment for families gathered around the fire at home. The name was inspired by Longfellows 1850 poetry collection The Seaside. Lowell published a book titled Fireside Travels in 1864 which helped solidify the title, in an era without radio, television, or Internet, these poets were able to garner a general public popularity that has no equivalent in the 21st century. These poets general adherence to poetic convention made their body of work particularly suitable for memorization and recitation in school, only Emerson rejected the traditional European forms that his contemporaries often utilized and instead called for new American forms and emphasized content over form. The poets primary subjects were domestic life, mythology, and the politics of the United States, the Fireside Poets did not write for the sake of other poets, for critics, or for posterity. Instead, they wrote for an audience of general readers. Emerson once wrote, I embrace the common, I explore and sit at the feet of the familiar, most of the Fireside Poets lived long lives. A culminating event was the 70th birthday party of Whittier in 1877 organized by publisher Henry Oscar Houghton, the event was meant to serve as a symbol of the magazines association with the poets. Most of them were present for the celebration, though Lowell had recently moved to Spain, mark Twain gave an infamous after-dinner speech in which he satirized the poets as uncouth drunkards. In his story, three impostors pretend to be Longfellow, Emerson, and Holmes, and forget which poet authored which poem. The speech was scandalous because it showed a lack of reverence and, in turn, Twain felt guilty for his transgression, Longfellows 74th birthday in 1881 was honored nationwide with celebrations in schools throughout the United States. Between 1884 and 1900, readers polls consistently placed these poets as the nations most important writers, teachers through modern times have frequently emphasized the Fireside Poets in the classroom. According to scholar Kevin Stein, this reflects an expectation that poetry should have didactic messages. Young readers, however, often away from this type of poetry because they dislike such sermonizing tones. In 1901, Emerson and Longfellow were inducted as members of the Hall of Fame for Great Americans. Even before the end of the century, however, Lowell acknowledged a change in the poetic climate and he wrote to William Dean Howells, The danger of our literature
13.
Harvard College
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Harvard College is the undergraduate liberal arts college of Harvard University. Founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it is the oldest institution of learning in the United States. The school came into existence in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony—though without a single building, in 1638, the college became home for North Americas first known printing press, carried by the ship John of London. Three years later, the college was renamed in honor of deceased Charlestown minister John Harvard who had bequeathed to the school his entire library, Harvards first instructor was schoolmaster Nathaniel Eaton, in 1639, he also became its first instructor to be dismissed, for overstrict discipline. The schools first students were graduated in 1642, in 1665, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck from the Wampanoag … did graduate from Harvard, the first Indian to do so in the colonial period. The colleges of Englands Oxford and Cambridge Universities are communities within the university, each an association of scholars sharing room. The Indian College was active from 1640 to no later than 1693, the body known as The President and Fellows of Harvard College retains its traditional name despite having governance of the entire University. Radcliffe College originally paid Harvard faculty to repeat their lectures for women students, since the 1970s, Harvard has been responsible for undergraduate governance matters for women, women were still formally admitted to and graduated from Radcliffe until a final merger in 1999. About 2,000 students are admitted each year, representing between five and ten percent of those applying, of those admitted, approximately three-quarters choose to attend and these figures make Harvard perhaps the most selective and sought-after college in the world. Midway through the year, most undergraduates join one of fifty standard fields of concentration. Joint concentrations and special concentrations are also possible, a smaller number receive the Scientiarum Baccalaureus. There are also special programs, such as a five-year program leading to both a Harvard undergraduate degree and a Master of Arts from the New England Conservatory of Music. In 2012, dozens of students were disciplined for cheating on an exam in one course. The university instituted a code beginning in the fall of 2015. The total annual cost of attendance, including tuition and room and board, under financial aid guidelines adopted in 2012, families with incomes below $65,000 no longer pay anything for their children to attend, including room and board. Families with incomes between $65,000 to $150,000 pay no more than 10% of their annual income, grants total 88% of Harvards aid for undergraduate students, with aid also provided by loans and work-study. Each house is presided over by a senior-faculty Faculty Dean, while its Allston Burr Resident Dean supervises undergraduates day-to-day academic, many tutors reside in the House, as do the Faculty Dean and Resident Dean. The way in which students come to live in particular Houses has changed greatly over time, under the original draft system, Masters negotiated privately over the assignment of rising sophomores considered most—or least—promising
14.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
15.
Lyric poetry
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Lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person. The term derives from a form of Ancient Greek literature, the lyric, the term owes its importance in literary theory to the division developed by Aristotle between three broad categories of poetry, lyrical, dramatic and epic. Much lyric poetry depends on regular meter based either on number of syllables or on stress, the most common meters are as follows, Iambic – two syllables, with the short or unstressed syllable followed by the long or stressed syllable. Trochaic – two syllables, with the long or stressed syllable followed by the short or unstressed syllable, in English, this metre is found almost entirely in lyric poetry. Pyrrhic – Two unstressed syllables Anapestic – three syllables, with the first two short or unstressed and the last long or stressed, dactylic – three syllables, with the first one long or stressed and the other two short or unstressed. Spondaic – two syllables, with two successive long or stressed syllables, some forms have a combination of meters, often using a different meter for the refrain. For the ancient Greeks, lyric poetry had a technical meaning, verse that was accompanied by a lyre, cithara. Because such works were sung, it was also known as melic poetry. The lyric or melic poet was distinguished from the writer of plays, the writer of trochaic and iambic verses, the writer of elegies, the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria created a canon of nine lyric poets deemed especially worthy of critical study. These archaic and classical musician-poets included Sappho, Alcaeus, Anacreon, archaic lyric was characterized by strophic composition and live musical performance. Some poets, like Pindar extended the metrical forms to a triad, including strophe, antistrophe, among the major extant Roman poets of the classical period, only Catullus and Horace wrote lyric poetry, which however was no longer meant to be sung but instead read or recited. What remained were the forms, the meters of the Greeks adapted to Latin. Catullus was influenced by both archaic and Hellenistic Greek verse and belonged to a group of Roman poets called the Neoteroi who spurned epic poetry following the lead of Callimachus, instead, they composed brief, highly polished poems in various thematic and metrical genres. The varying forms of the new Chu ci provided more rhythm, originating in 10th-century Persian, a ghazal is a poetic form consisting of couplets that share a rhyme and a refrain. Formally, it consists of a short lyric composed in a meter with a single rhyme throughout. Notable authors include Hafiz, Amir Khusro, Auhadi of Maragheh, Alisher Navoi, Obeid e zakani, Khaqani Shirvani, Anvari, Farid al-Din Attar, Omar Khayyam, and Rudaki. The ghazal was introduced to European poetry in the early 19th century by the Germans Schlegel, Von Hammer-Purgstall, and Goethe, lyric in European literature of the medieval or Renaissance period means a poem written so that it could be set to music—whether or not it actually was. A poems particular structure, function, or theme might all vary, the lyric poetry of Europe in this period was created by the pioneers of courtly poetry and courtly love largely without reference to the classical past
16.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
17.
Wadsworth-Longfellow House
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The Wadsworth-Longfellow House is a historic house and museum in Portland, Maine, United States. It is located at 489 Congress Street and is operated by the Maine Historical Society and it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962, and administratively added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The house is open daily to public from May through October, the house has both historical and literary importance, as it is both the oldest standing structure on the Portland peninsula and the childhood home of famous American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. American Revolutionary War General Peleg Wadsworth built the house in 1785–1786, Wadsworth raised ten children in the two-story structure with a pitched roof before retiring to the family farm in Hiram, Maine, in 1807. His daughter Zilpah and her husband Stephen Longfellow IV were married in the house and their son, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, was born nearby at the home of an aunt, Stephens sister, on February 27,1807. The home was a three-story Federal architecture-style home at the corner of Fore, young Longfellow did not move with his parents to the Wadsworth-Longfellow House until he was eight months old, but spent the next 35 years there. The Longfellows added todays third story in 1815, Anne Longfellow Pierce was the last family member to live in the house. She deliberately kept the house much as it was in Peleg Wadsworths time and her will stipulated that the house, lot, and many furnishings be given to the Maine Historical Society upon her death. Pierce died in 1901 and the Maine Historical Society opened the home to the public within a year, at the time, only one other American authors home was owned by an organization committed to its preservation, specifically the John Greenleaf Whittier Homestead in Haverhill, Massachusetts. Pearl Wing started the Longfellow Garden Club in 1924 to establish the Longfellow Garden located alongside the Wadsworth-Longfellow House, the Longfellow Garden Club engaged landscape architect Myron Lamb to design the Colonial Revival style Longfellow Garden located in what was once part of the Longfellow family farmyard. The garden was replanted in 2007 after renovations to Maine Historical Library, a lilac tree mentioned by Anne Longfellow is located in the back corner alongside the library. A Children’s Gate designed by Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow, nephew of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, was installed in the 1930s, the gate was removed in the 1960s and restored in 2012. The Longfellow Garden is open to the public at no charge Monday-Saturday from May–October from 10 AM to 5 PM
18.
Peleg Wadsworth
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Peleg Wadsworth was an American officer during the American Revolutionary War and a Congressman from Massachusetts representing the District of Maine. He was also grandfather of noted American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Wadsworth was born in Duxbury, Massachusetts, to Peleg and Susanna Wadsworth. He graduated from Harvard College with an A. B. there he met Elizabeth Bartlett, whom he married in 1772. The Wadsworths lived in Kingston, Massachusetts, until 1775, when Wadsworth recruited a company of minutemen and his company mustered in response to the alarms generated by the Battle of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775. The Plymouth County battalion, commanded by Col. Theophilus Cotton marched to Marshfield, the attack was delayed for two days, allowing the British time to escape Marshfield by sea. During that time, Capt. Wadsworth, frustrated with the delay, advanced his company to within firing range of the British encampment, nearly instigating combat. Wadsworth served as aide to Gen. Artemas Ward in March 1776 and he was present at the Battle of Long Island on August 1,1776. He was made general of militia in 1777 and Adjutant General of Massachusetts in 1778. Wadsworths finest military engagement was in one of the worst American military defeats of the war, Commodore Dudley Saltonstall was in command of the naval forces. Lt. Colonel Paul Revere also served in this expedition as commander of artillery, while General Lovell remained aboard the Commodores vessel, Wadsworth and Revere landed with the infantry and artillery and laid siege to the fort for about two weeks. Wadsworth, still with the forces on shore, organized and led an overland retreat through the Maine frontier. Colonel Revere and Commodore Saltonstall were court-martialed for their roles in the debacle, in March 1780, Peleg was given command of all the troops raised for the defense of the Province of Maine. On February 17,1781, British soldiers overran his headquarters in Thomaston, Wadsworth then returned to his family in Plymouth, where he remained until the wars end. In April 1784 Wadsworth returned to Maine, purchased 1.5 acres of land on Back Street, engaged in surveying, there he also built a house, now the historic Wadsworth-Longfellow House. He headed the committee organized the first convention to discuss independence for Maine from Massachusetts. He and his wife had children, Alexander Scammell, Charles Lee, Zilpah, Elizabeth, John, Lucia, Henry, George, Alexander Scammell, Samuel Bartlett. Zilpah, became the mother of the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, in January 1807 he moved to Hiram where he incorporated the township and served as selectman, treasurer and magistrate. For the remainder of his life he devoted himself to farming and he died in Hiram on November 12,1829, and is buried in the family cemetery at Wadsworth Hall
19.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
20.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
21.
Second Battle of Tripoli Harbor
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The Second Battle of Tripoli Harbor, was a naval action during a naval blockade which took place in Tripoli Harbor in 1804. The battle is part of the First Barbary War between forces of the United States and the forces of Tripoli, commodore Edward Preble had assumed command of the U. S. Mediterranean Squadron in 1803. By October of that year Preble had begun a blockade of Tripoli harbor, Philadelphia was turned against the Americans and anchored in the harbor as a gun battery. On the night of 16 February 1804, a contingent of U. S. Decaturs men stormed the vessel and decimated the Tripolitan sailors standing guard, to complete the daring raid, Decaturs party set fire to Philadelphia, denying her use to the enemy. Decaturs bravery in action made him one of the first American military heroes since the Revolutionary War, the British Admiral Horatio Nelson, himself known as a man of action and bravery, is said to have called this the most bold and daring act of the age. Even Pope Pius VII stated, The United States, though in their infancy, have more to humble the anti-Christian barbarians on the African coast than all the European states had done. Intrepid, packed with explosives, was to enter Tripoli harbor and destroy itself, several of the United States early naval heroes served in the blockade including Stephen Decatur, William Bainbridge, Charles Stewart, Isaac Hull, David Porter, Reuben James and Edward Preble. Collectively referred to as Prebles Boys, many of these officers would play a significant role in the upcoming War of 1812
22.
Samuel Longfellow
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Samuel Longfellow was an American clergyman and hymn writer. Samuel Longfellow was born June 18,1819, in Portland, Maine and his older brother was the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. He attended Harvard College and graduated in 1839 ranked eighth in a class of 61 and he went on to study at Harvard Divinity School, where his classmates included Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Samuel Johnson, with whom he would later collaborate in his hymn writing. Longfellow served as a pastor in Fall River, Massachusetts, Brooklyns Second Unitarian Church, after his older brothers death, Longfellow published a two-volume biography of him in 1886. He wrote the book while living at his brothers home, Craigie House in Cambridge. Longfellow died in 1892 and is buried in Western Cemetery in Portlands West End, a Book of Hymns for Public and Private Devotion,1846, edited with Samuel Johnson. The collection was enlarged and revised in 1860
23.
English Americans
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In the 2014 American Community Survey, English Americans are of the total population. Eight out of the ten most common surnames in the United States are of English origin or having possible mixed British Isles heritage, scotch-Irish Americans are for the most part descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English settlers who colonized Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century. The English were the top group, with 66% saying they were a good thing for the United States. Ben J. Wattenberg argues that this demonstrates an general American bias against Hispanics. English immigrants in the 19th century, as other groups. They began migrating in large numbers without state support, Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply American due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U. S. and their influence on the countrys population. While there may be reasons for this, after centuries of intermarriage and internal geographic mobility. For these reasons, no part of the pluralist American society is so difficult to describe as a separate entity as the English. The original 17th-century settlers were overwhelmingly English and it was conducted on August 2,1790. The ancestry of the 3,929,214 population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names in the very first United States official census and assigning them a country of origin. The estimate results indicate that people of English ancestry made up about 47. 5% of the population or 60. 9% of the European American population. Some 80. 7% of the total United States population was of European heritage, around 757,208 were of African descent with 697,624 being slaves. Of the remaining population, more than 75% was of British origin, in the 2000 census,24.5 million Americans reported English ancestry,8. 7% of the total U. S. population. This estimate is probably a serious undercount by over 30 million given that, in the 1980 census, as many as 80 million Americans may be wholly or partly of English ancestry. In 1980,23,748,772 Americans claimed wholly English ancestry, in 1860, an estimated 11 million or almost 35% of the population of the United States was wholly or primarily of English ancestry. The population has increased by almost ten times the numbers in 1860, in total, there are estimated to be around 678,000 British born expatriates in the United States with the majority of these being English. English Americans are found in numbers throughout America, particularly in the Northeast, South. Dark blue and purple colours indicate a percentage, highest in the east and west
24.
New England
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New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
25.
Mayflower
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The Mayflower was the ship that transported the first English Separatists, known today as the Pilgrims, from Plymouth, England to the New World in 1620. There were 102 passengers, and the crew is estimated to have been about 30 and this voyage has become an iconic story in some of the earliest annals of American history, with its story of death and of survival in the harsh New England winter environment. The culmination of the voyage in the signing of the Mayflower Compact was an event which established a form of democracy. There was a ship named Mayflower that made the London to Plymouth. This was the cause of the voyage from England to America taking more than two months. The Mayflowers return trip to London in April–May 1621 took less than half that time, by 1620, the Mayflower was aging, nearing the end of the usual working life of an English merchant ship in that era, some 15 years. No dimensions of her hull can be stated exactly, since this was years before such measurements were standardized. She probably measured about 100 feet in length from the end at the beak of her prow to the tip of her stern superstructure aft. She was about 25 feet at her widest point, with the bottom of her keel about 12 feet below the waterline, although William Bradford was not a mariner, he estimated that Mayflower had a cargo capacity of 180 tons. What is known on the basis of surviving records from that time is that she could certainly accommodate 180 casks of wine in her cargo hold, the casks were great barrels that each held hundreds of gallons of claret wine. This was a ship that traditionally was heavily armed while on trading routes around Europe, due to the possibility of encountering pirates, and with its armament, the ship and crew could easily be conscripted by the English monarch at any time in case of conflict with other nations. The general layout of the ship was as follows, Three masts, mizzen, main, and fore, Three primary levels, main deck, gun deck, and cargo hold. Aft on the deck in the stern was the cabin for Master Christopher Jones. Forward of that was the room, which housed a whipstaff for sailing control, not a wheel. Also here was the compass and probably also berths for the ships officers. Forward of the room was the capstan, a vertical axle used to pull in ropes or cables. Far forward on the deck, just aft of the bow, was the forecastle space where the ships cook prepared meals for the crew. The poop deck was above the cabin of Master Jones, on the ships highest level above the stern on the aft castle, the poop house was on this deck, which may have been for passengers use either for sleeping or cargo
26.
Richard Warren
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Richard Warren was one of the passengers on the Pilgrim ship Mayflower and a signer of the Mayflower Compact. Richard Warren married Elizabeth Walker, at Great Amwell, Hertfordshire, Elizabeth Walker was the daughter of Augustine Walker of Great Amwell. She was baptized at Baldock in September 1583 and this information came to light with the discovery of Augustine Walkers will dated April 19,1613, in which he named his daughter Elizabeth and her children Mary, Ann and Sarah Warren. Based on his marriage in Hertfordshire, current speculation is that he came from that county. His parentage and apparent birthplace in Hertfordshire are uncertain, but there is a Warren family that may be of that ancestry residing in the vicinity of Therfield, the author and genealogist Charles Edward Banks states that Warren came from London and was called a “merchant” of that city. Richard Warren was one of very few English merchants who signed on to make the Mayflower voyage as a member of the Leiden contingent. His reason for this has not been determined, and given his status, at the time of the Mayflower’s voyage in 1620, Richard and his wife had five daughters, Mary, Ann, Sarah, Elizabeth and Abigail. But Richard came on the Mayflower alone, deciding to wait until conditions in the New World were satisfactory before bringing over his family. Bradford’s recollection of time, “Mr. Richard Warren, but his wife and children were lefte behind. The small,100 ft ship had 102 passengers and a crew of about 30-40 in extremely cramped conditions. This, combined with a lack of rations and unsanitary conditions for several months, attributed to what would be fatal for many. On November 9/19,1620, after about 3 months at sea, including a month of delays in England, they spotted land, the Mayflower Compact was signed that day. Richard Warrens name appears 12th in the list and he participated in some of the early explorations of Cape Cod, when a suitable settlement location was being searched for. This exploration would result in their first encounter with Indians and did not turn out well and this Indian challenge to the Pilgrims was later known as the First Encounter. In 1623 Warren felt that conditions were right to bring his family over from England, and they arrived that year on the Anne. In Plymouth two more children were added to their family - in 1624 his wife Elizabeth gave birth to a son Nathaniel and in 1626 another son, Joseph. ”In 1626 twenty seven Plymouth settlers, the agreement was dated October 26,1626 and was finalized sometime in 1627. The ninth lot also listed John Billington and the Soule family, in his “Increasings and Decreasings”, Bradford assigns Richard Warren the title of “Mr. ” which indicates someone of status, but does not mention him at all in his recording of Plymouth history. And except for a few mentions elsewhere, not very much is known about him in Plymouth, during her widowhood, Elizabeth Warren’s name is noted in Plymouth Colony records
27.
William Brewster (Mayflower passenger)
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William Brewster was an English official and Mayflower passenger in 1620. In Plymouth Colony, by virtue of his education and existing stature with those immigrating from the Netherlands, Brewster, a separatist, became a regular preacher, William Brewster was born in 1568, most probably in Scrooby, Nottinghamshire, England. He was the son of William Brewster and Mary and he had a number of half-siblings and his paternal grandparents were William Brewster, and Maud Mann. His maternal grandfather was William Smythe and he studied briefly at Peterhouse, Cambridge, before entering the service of William Davison in 1584. Brewster was the only Pilgrim with political and diplomatic experience, with his mentor in prison, Brewster had returned home to Scrooby for a time, where he took up his father’s former position as postmaster. While, earlier in the 16th century, reformers had hoped to amend the Anglican church, by the end of it, many were looking toward splitting from it. On its first attempt, in 1607, the group was arrested at Scotia Creek, in 1609, he was selected as ruling elder of the congregation. William lived near St. Peters church in Leiden with his wife and he taught English to Leiden University students and was also a printer of religious pamphlets. His son, Jonathan, was a ribbonweaver, William was chosen as assistant and later as an elder to Pastor John Robinson. He was still an elder when he travelled to Plymouth Colony in 1620, in Leiden, the group managed to make a living. Brewster taught English and later, in 1616–1619, as the partner of one Thomas Brewer, printed and published books for sale in England. In 1619 Brewster and Edward Winslow published a religious tract critical of the English king, the printing type was seized by the authorities from the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, and Brewsters partner was arrested. Brewster escaped and, with the help of Robert Cushman and Sir Edwin Sandys, obtained a patent from the London Virginia Company on behalf of himself. With Brewster in hiding, the Separatists looked to their deacon John Carver, in 1620 when it came time for the Mayflower departure, Elder Brewster returned to the Leiden congregation. He had been hiding out in Holland and perhaps even England for the last year, at the time of his return, Brewster was the highest-ranking layperson of the congregation and would be their designated spiritual leader in the New World. Brewster joined the first group of Separatists aboard the Mayflower on the voyage to North America, Brewster was accompanied by his wife, Mary Brewster, and his sons, Love Brewster and Wrestling Brewster. Among the people boarding the Mayflower were four unaccompanied children from Shipton and they were placed as indentured servants with senior Separatists William Brewster, John Carver and Robert Cushman, on behalf of Samuel More, husband of the children’s mother, Katherine More. Two children were placed with William and Mary Brewster, the Mayflower departed Plymouth in England in September 1620
28.
John Alden
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John Alden Sr. was a crew member on the historic 1620 voyage of the Pilgrim ship Mayflower. Rather than return to England with the ship, he stayed at what became Plymouth Colony and he was hired in Southampton, England, as the ships cooper, responsible for maintaining the ships barrels. He was a signatory to the Mayflower Compact and he married fellow Mayflower passenger Priscilla Mullins, whose entire family perished in the first winter. His origins are subject to speculation, but it is currently believed that he was from the Alden family of Harwich in Essex. Harwich is an ancient North Sea port, northeast of London, the Alden family of Harwich had distant connections to Jones, residing there in the 17th century and possibly related to him by marriage. Jane, the widow, may have been his mother and Richard, records providing information from the tax list of Holyrood Ward in 1602 list the names of George Alden and Johns future father-in-law William Mullins. The Mayflower departed Plymouth, England, on September 6/16,1620, the 100-foot ship had 102 passengers and a crew of about 30-40 in extremely cramped conditions. This, combined with a lack of rations and unsanitary conditions for several months, attributed to what would be fatal for many. On the way there were two deaths, a member and a passenger, but the worst was yet to come. After arriving at their destination, in the space of several months, almost half the passengers perished in the cold, harsh, on November 9/19,1620, after a month of delays in England and about two months at sea, they spotted the Cape Cod Hook. The Mayflower Compact was signed that day, John Alden was among the original settlers of the Plymouth Colony. Although not himself a Separatist he had hired to be a cooper and decided to join the journey when she set sail. Aldens rivalry with Miles Standish for the affection of Priscilla Mullins is told elaborately in Henry Wadsworth Longfellows poem The Courtship of Miles Standish, from 1633 until 1675, he was assistant to the governor of the Plymouth Colony, frequently serving as acting governor and also on many juries. In 1634, Alden was jailed, in Boston, for a fight at Kenebeck in Maine between members of the Plymouth Colony and the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The fight involved a fur trading dispute that escalated into a killing of Plymouth colonist Moses Talbot by John Hocking by a shot to the head, Hocking was then immediately killed by Plymouth colonists by a shot to the head. While Alden did not participate in the fight, he was the member from Plymouth that the Massachusetts Bay colonists found to arrest. It was only through the intervention of Bradford that he was eventually released, John Alden married Priscilla Mullins on May 12,1622. She was the survivor of the Mayflower Mullins family
29.
Priscilla Alden
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Priscilla Alden, was a noted member of Massachusettss Plymouth Colony of Pilgrims, the wife of fellow colonist John Alden. They married in 1621 in Plymouth, Priscilla was most likely born in Dorking in Surrey, the daughter of William and Alice Mullins. She was just eighteen when she boarded the Mayflower and she lost her parents and her brother Joseph during the first winter in Plymouth. She was then the one of her family in the New World, although she had another brother. John Alden and Priscilla Mullins were probably the third couple to be married in Plymouth Colony, William Bradford’s marriage to Alice Carpenter on August 14,1623 is known to be the fourth. The first was that of Edward Winslow and Susannah White in 1621, francis Eaton’s marriage to his second wife Dorothy, maidservant to the Carvers, was possibly the second. Priscilla is last found in the records in 1650, but oral tradition states that she died only a few years before her husband and she lies buried at the Miles Standish Burial Ground in Duxbury, Massachusetts. The exact location of her grave is unknown, but there is a marker honoring her, according to the poem, Standish asked his good friend John Alden to propose to Priscilla on his behalf, only to have Priscilla ask, “Why don’t you speak for yourself, John. The basic story was handed down in the Alden family and published by John. Scholars have recently confirmed the place of romantic love in Pilgrim culture. Circumstantial evidence of the love triangle also exists, Miles Standish and John Alden were likely roommates, Priscilla Mullins was the only single woman of marriageable age. The families of the alleged lovers remained close for several generations, moving together to Duxbury, Priscilla and John Alden had ten children, with a possible eleventh dying in infancy. It is presumed, although not documented, that the first three children were born in Plymouth, the remainder in Duxbury, married William Pabodie, a civic and military leader of Duxbury, where all thirteen of their children were born. They moved to Little Compton, Rhode Island, where Elizabeth died in 1717 at the age of about ninety-four and their descendants were prominent in settling areas of Rhode Island and Connecticut. From Elizabeths line comes the individual most credited with spreading the fame of John and Priscilla far and wide, moved to Boston and married there Elizabeth Everill, widow of Abiel Everill. He was a mariner and became a commander of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He was a member of the Old South Church of Boston, perhaps the best known event of his life was when he was accused of witchcraft on a trip to Salem, spending fifteen weeks in a Boston jail. He escaped shortly before nine of the victims were executed during the Salem witch trials
30.
Plymouth Colony
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Plymouth Colony was an English colonial venture in North America from 1620 to 1691. The first settlement of the Plymouth Colony was at New Plymouth, the settlement served as the capital of the colony, and is the modern town of Plymouth, Massachusetts. At its height, Plymouth Colony occupied most of the portion of the modern state of Massachusetts. Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of Separatists initially known as the Brownist Emigration and Anglicans, who came to be known as the Pilgrims. The colony was able to establish a treaty with Chief Massasoit which helped to ensure its success, in this, they were aided by Squanto and it played a central role in King Philips War, one of the earliest of the Indian Wars. Ultimately, the colony was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony, despite the colonys relatively short existence, Plymouth holds a special role in American history. The social and legal systems of the colony became closely tied to their religious beliefs, many of the people and events surrounding Plymouth Colony have become part of American folklore, including the North American tradition known as Thanksgiving and the monument known as Plymouth Rock. Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of English separatists who later came to be known as the Pilgrims, the core group was part of a Congregationalist congregation led by William Bradford. The congregation began to feel the pressures of religious persecution while still in the English village of Scrooby, near East Retford, in 1607, Archbishop Tobias Matthew raided homes and imprisoned several members of the congregation. The congregation then left England in 1609 and emigrated to the Netherlands, first to Amsterdam, in Leiden, the congregation gained the freedom to worship as they chose, but Dutch society was unfamiliar to them. Scrooby had been a community, whereas Leiden was a thriving industrial center. The community remained close-knit, but their children began adopting Dutch language and customs, the Separatists were also still not free from the persecutions of the English Crown. English authorities came to Leiden to arrest William Brewster in 1618, after he published comments critical of the King of England. Brewster escaped arrest, but the events spurred the congregation to move farther from England. This land patent allowed them to settle at the mouth of the Hudson River and they then sought financing through the Merchant Adventurers, a group of businessmen who principally viewed the colony as a means of making a profit. Upon arriving in America, the Pilgrims began working to repay their debts, using the financing secured from the Merchant Adventurers, the Colonists bought provisions and obtained passage on two ships, the Mayflower and the Speedwell. The Congregation and the colonists finally boarded the Speedwell in July 1620 in the Dutch port of Delfshaven. Speedwell was re-rigged with larger masts before leaving Holland and setting out to meet Mayflower in Southampton, the Mayflower was purchased in London
31.
Elizabeth Pabodie
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Elisabeth Pabodie, also known as Elisabeth Alden Pabodie or Elisabeth Peabody, was allegedly the first white woman born in New England. Elisabeth Pabodie was born Elisabeth Alden in 1623, the child of the Plymouth Colony settlers John Alden and Priscilla Mullins. She married William Pabodie, a leader of Duxbury, Massachusetts, all thirteen of their children were born in Duxbury before Elisabeth eventually moved to Little Compton, Rhode Island in the 1680s. She died on May 31,1717 in Little Compton and was buried in the cemetery on Little Compton Common, elizabeth Alden and William Pabodie gave birth to a daughter named Lydia, and to a son, also named William. Lydia was their first born, and married a man named Daniel Grinnell Jr, they married in 1683, William the younger and his wife Judith had a daughter Rebecca Peabody who married the Reverend Joseph Fish. The Sillimans were Yale professors of chemistry who started the Chemistry Department at Yale, benjamin Silliman, Jr. married Susan Huldah Forbes, giving birth to Alice Trumbull Silliman, who married William Richardson Belknap. It is through this lineage that the Belknap and Humphrey families of Kentucky descended, henry Wadsworth Longfellow was also a descendant of Elisabeth Pabodie and made her parents John Alden and Priscilla Mullins famous through his poem The Courtship of Miles Standish
32.
Dame school
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A Dame school was an early form of a private elementary school in English-speaking countries. They were usually taught by women and were located in the home of the teacher. Dame schools were first mentioned in literature in the 16th century and they were private schools at the lowest end of the spectrum. The establishments were quite varied—some functioned primarily as day care facilities overseen by illiterate women, around 1843, the quoted fee in Middlesex was 5s. A week while the school would charge 11s. There were also schools, run mainly by the Church of England. Many children just went to Sunday Schools that were run by every Christian denomination, after the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act in 1802, apprentices were guaranteed daily education for 4 years within the factory, but this did not apply to free children working there. The education provided by these schools ranged from basic to exceptional, an education in reading and religion was required for children by the Massachusetts School Law of 1642. This law was strengthened by the famous Old Deluder Satan Act. According to Puritan beliefs, Satan would assuredly try to keep people from understanding the Scriptures, Dame schools fulfilled this requirement if parents were unable to educate their young children in their own home. For a small fee, women, often housewives or widows, offered to take in children to whom she would teach a little writing, reading, basic prayers and these women received tuition in coin, home industries, alcohol, baked goods, and other valuables. Teaching materials generally included, and often did not exceed, a hornbook, primer, Psalter, both girls and boys were provided education through the dame school system. Dame schools generally focused on the four Rs of education-Riting, Reading, Rithmetic, in addition to primary education, girls in dame schools might also learn sewing, embroidery, and other graces. Most girls received their formal education from dame schools because of sex-segregated education in common or public schools during the colonial period. In the 18th and 19th centuries, some dame schools offered boys, the women running these elite dame schools taught reading, writing, English, French, arithmetic, and music, and dancing. Schools for upper-class girls were usually called female seminaries, finishing schools etc. rather than dame schools, the first school in Australia, started in 1789, was a Dame school in which children were taught basics by a convict, Isabella Rossen. gov williamsburgkids. com
33.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
34.
Robinson Crusoe
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Robinson Crusoe /ˌrɒbɪnsən ˈkruːsoʊ/ is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published on 25 April 1719. The first edition credited the works protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author, leading readers to believe he was a real person. Despite its simple style, Robinson Crusoe was well received in the literary world and is often credited as marking the beginning of realistic fiction as a literary genre. It is generally seen as a contender for the first English novel, Crusoe sets sail from the Queens Dock in Hull on a sea voyage in August 1651, against the wishes of his parents, who want him to pursue a career, possibly in law. After a tumultuous journey where his ship is wrecked in a storm and this journey, too, ends in disaster, as the ship is taken over by Salé pirates and Crusoe is enslaved by a Moor. Two years later, he escapes in a boat with a boy named Xury, the ship is en route to Brazil. Crusoe sells Xury to the captain, with the captains help, Crusoe procures a plantation. He observes the latitude as 9 degrees and 22 minutes north and he sees penguins and seals on his island. As for his arrival there, only he and three animals, the dog and two cats, survive the shipwreck. Overcoming his despair, he fetches arms, tools and other supplies from the ship before it breaks apart and he builds a fenced-in habitat near a cave which he excavates. By making marks in a cross, he creates a calendar. By using tools salvaged from the ship, and some he makes himself from ironwood, he hunts, grows barley and rice, dries grapes to make raisins, learns to make pottery and he also adopts a small parrot. He reads the Bible and becomes religious, thanking God for his fate in which nothing is missing, more years pass and Crusoe discovers native cannibals, who occasionally visit the island to kill and eat prisoners. At first he plans to them for committing an abomination but later realizes he has no right to do so. He dreams of obtaining one or two servants by freeing prisoners, when a prisoner escapes, Crusoe helps him, naming his new companion Friday after the day of the week he appeared. Crusoe then teaches him English and converts him to Christianity, after more natives arrive to partake in a cannibal feast, Crusoe and Friday kill most of the natives and save two prisoners. One is Fridays father and the other is a Spaniard, who informs Crusoe about other Spaniards shipwrecked on the mainland. A plan is devised wherein the Spaniard would return to the mainland with Fridays father and bring back the others, build a ship, before the Spaniards return, an English ship appears, mutineers have commandeered the vessel and intend to maroon their captain on the island
35.
Don Quixote
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Don Quixote, fully titled The history of the valorous and wittie Knight-Errant Don-Quixote of the Mancha, is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. Published in two volumes, in 1605 and 1615, Don Quixote is considered the most influential work of literature from the Spanish Golden Age, the story follows the adventures of an hidalgo named Mr. He recruits a simple farmer, Sancho Panza, as his squire, Don Quixote, in the first part of the book, does not see the world for what it is and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story. Throughout the novel, Cervantes uses such techniques as realism, metatheatre. Arthur Schopenhauer cited Don Quixote as one of the four greatest novels written, along with Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Héloïse. Cervantes wrote that the first chapters were taken from The Archive of La Mancha, and this metafictional trick appears to give a greater credibility to the text, implying that Don Quixote is a real character and that the story truly occurred several decades back. However, it was common practice in that era for fictional works to make some pretense of being factual. As a result, he is given to anger and believes every word of these fictional books of chivalry to be true. Imitating the protagonists of these books, he decides to become a knight-errant in search of adventure. He spends the night holding vigil over his armor and becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules. In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him, and sends him on his way. Don Quixote next frees a young boy tied to a tree and beaten by his master, and makes his master swear to treat the boy fairly, Don Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo, who insult the imaginary Dulcinea. He attacks them, only to be beaten and left on the side of the road. While Don Quixote is unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, a large part of this section consists of the priest deciding which books deserve to be burned and which to be saved. This gives an occasion for many comments on books Cervantes liked and disliked, for example, Cervantes own pastoral novel La Galatea is saved, while the rather unbelievable romance Felixmarte de Hyrcania is burned. After the books are dealt with, they seal up the room contained the library. After a short period of feigning health, Don Quixote requests his neighbor, Sancho Panza, to be his squire, Sancho, who is both greedy and unintelligent, agrees to the offer and sneaks away with Don Quixote in the early dawn. It is here that their famous adventures begin, starting with Don Quixotes attack on windmills that he believes to be ferocious giants, the two next encounter a group of friars accompanying a lady in a carriage
36.
Hiram, Maine
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Hiram is a town in Oxford County, Maine, United States. The population was 1,620 at the 2010 census and it includes the villages of Hiram, East Hiram, South Hiram and Durgintown. Located among the rugged and unspoiled Western Maine Mountains, Hiram is part of the Portland-South Portland-Biddeford, Maine metropolitan New England city and it became a stage stop along the Pequawket Trail, the former wilderness path of the Sokokis Abenakis which runs from Standish to Fryeburg. First known as Great Ossipee after the Ossipee River, the town was settled in the 1780s and organized as Hiram Plantation, named after Hiram I, like King Hirams domain, Hiram Plantation was set among forests. It was incorporated as a district on February 27,1807, peleg Wadsworth bought a tract of land here in 1790, and in 1792 or 1794 began clearing a farm for his eldest son. Although uneven at the center, there was good and fertile farmland in the intervales, the soil was sandy loam, yielding wheat and hay, the principal crop. Sheep grazed the pastures, and their wool became an important product, in 1830, the towns population was 1,148. The Saco River and ponds serving as reservoirs for tributary streams supplied water power for mills, in 1859, town industries included a number of cooper shops, two blacksmiths, several shoemaking shops and a harness making shop. By 1886, the town had five sawmills and planing mills, producing short and long lumber, barrel staves and it also had two gristmills and a carding mill. Other products included mens clothing, harness and slate blackboards. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 38.87 square miles. Hiram is drained by the Ossipee River and Saco River, the town is crossed by state routes 5,113,117, and 160. It is bordered by the towns of Brownfield and Denmark to the north, Porter to the west, Sebago and Baldwin to the east and this climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot summers and cold winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Hiram has a continental climate. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,620 people,652 households, the population density was 43.1 inhabitants per square mile. There were 905 housing units at a density of 24.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 95. 7% White,0. 1% African American,0. 6% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 4% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 7% of the population. 26. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.00
37.
Brunswick, Maine
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Brunswick is a town in Cumberland County in southeastern Maine, United States. The population was 20,278 at the 2010 United States Census and it is also home to Mid Coast Hospital, one of Maines newest full-service hospitals, and Parkview Adventist Medical Center that closed in 2015 after filing for bankruptcy. It was home to Naval Air Station Brunswick which was closed on May 31,2011. Settled in 1628 by Thomas Purchase and other fishermen, the area was called by its Indian name, Pejepscot, meaning the long, in 1639, Purchase placed his settlement under protection of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. During King Philips War in 1676, Pejepscot was burned and abandoned, during the war, in Major Benjamin Churchs second expedition a year later, he arrived on 11 September 1690 with 300 men at Casco Bay. He went up the Androscoggin River to the English Fort Pejepscot, from there he went 40 miles up-river and attacked a native village. Three or four men were shot in retreat, when Church discovered 5 English captives in the wigwams, six or seven prisoners were butchered as an example. A few days later, in retaliation, the natives attacked Church at Cape Elizabeth on Purpooduc Point, killing 7 of his men, on September 26, Church returned to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The 1713 Treaty of Portsmouth brought peace to the region between the Abenaki Indians and the English colonists, in 1714, a consortium from Boston and Portsmouth bought the land, thereafter called the Pejepscot Purchase. The Massachusetts General Court constituted the township in 1717, naming it Brunswick in honor of the House of Brunswick and its scion, a stone fort called Fort George was built in 1715 near the falls. But during Dummers War on July 13,1722, Abenaki warriors from Norridgewock burned the village, consequently, Governor Samuel Shute declared war on the Abenakis. In 1724,208 English troops left Fort Richmond and sacked Norridgewock during Dummers War, Brunswick was rebuilt again in 1727, and in 1739 incorporated as a town. It became a seaport, where Bowdoin College was chartered in 1794. The Androscoggin River falls in three stages for a total vertical drop of 41 feet, providing water power for industry. Brunswick became a producer of lumber, with as many as 25 sawmills. Some of the lumber went into shipbuilding, other firms produced paper, soap, flour, marble and granite work, carriages and harness, plows, furniture, shoes and confections. The town was site of the first cotton mill in Maine, purchased in 1812, the mill was enlarged by the Maine Cotton & Woolen Factory Company. In 1857, the Cabot Manufacturing Company was established to make cotton textiles and it bought the failed Worumbo Mill and expanded the brick factory along the falls
38.
Trustee
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Trustee is a legal term which, in its broadest sense, can refer to any person who holds property, authority, or a position of trust or responsibility for the benefit of another. A trustee can also refer to a person who is allowed to do certain tasks, in all cases, the trustee may be a person or company, whether or not they are a prospective beneficiary. However, a trustee may act otherwise than in accordance with the terms of the trust if all beneficiaries, being sui juris and together absolutely entitled, direct the trustee to do so. If any question arises as to the constriction of the provisions of the trust, account for actions and keep beneficiaries informed, these include a duty to inform beneficiaries as to their entitlements under the trust and other matters concerning the trust. As trustees as not under a duty to disclose their reasoning in applying a trust power, protection of confidentiality has been described as one of the most important limitations on the right to disclose of trust documents. Memoranda or letter of wishes do not necessarily need to be disclosed to a beneficiary if they are of a number of potential beneficiaries, corporate trustees, typically trust departments at large banks, often have very narrow duties, limited to those the trust indenture explicitly defines. A trustee carries the responsibility and liability to use the trust assets according to the provisions of the trust instrument. The trustee may find himself liable to claimants, prospective beneficiaries and it is common for lawyers to draft will trusts so as to permit such payment, and to take office accordingly, this may be an unnecessary expense for small estates. In an exception to the duties outlined above, sabbatical officers of unions who are also trustees of these organisations they work for do have the right to a salary. This is an exception explicitly granted in the 1993 act The broadest sense of the term applies to someone held to a fiduciary duty similar in some respects to that of a trustee proper. For example, the directors of a bank may be trustees for the depositors, directors of a corporation are trustees for the stockholders, many corporations call their governing board a board of trustees, though in those cases they act as a board of directors. Many UK charities are also limited liability companies registered with Companies House, in case the trustees are also directors of the company. This is the model if the charity owns property or employs people. The law on this in England changed considerably with the Charities Act of 2006, an account of the main changes can be found in Charities Act 2006 A guide to the new law by Michael King and Ann Phillips. One of the key changes made was that it introduced the Charitable Incorporated Organisation which is basically a limited liability charity, there are thus now two main aspects of corporate management of charities. One is the way in which a corporation is a corporate trustee of a given charity. The second is the new way, in which the charity itself is incorporated as a CIO, the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods is a complicated matter. According to King and Philips, many of the advantages of incorporating as a CIO are obtained if the trustees are not individuals but a corporate entity
39.
Nathaniel Hawthorne
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Nathaniel Hawthorne was an American novelist, dark romantic, and short story writer. He was born in 1804 in Salem, Massachusetts, to Nathaniel Hathorne and his ancestors include John Hathorne, the only judge involved in the Salem witch trials who never repented of his actions. Nathaniel later added a w to make his name Hawthorne in order to hide this relation and he entered Bowdoin College in 1821, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa in 1824, and graduated in 1825. Hawthorne published his first work, a novel titled Fanshawe, in 1828, he tried to suppress it. He published several stories in periodicals, which he collected in 1837 as Twice-Told Tales. The next year, he engaged to Sophia Peabody. He worked at the Boston Custom House and joined Brook Farm, the couple moved to The Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, later moving to Salem, the Berkshires, then to The Wayside in Concord. The Scarlet Letter was published in 1850, followed by a succession of other novels, a political appointment as consul took Hawthorne and family to Europe before their return to Concord in 1860. Hawthorne died on May 19,1864, and was survived by his wife, much of Hawthornes writing centers on New England, many works featuring moral allegories with a Puritan inspiration. His fiction works are considered part of the Romantic movement and, more specifically and his themes often center on the inherent evil and sin of humanity, and his works often have moral messages and deep psychological complexity. His published works include novels, short stories, and a biography of his college friend Franklin Pierce, Nathaniel Hawthorne was born on July 4,1804, in Salem, Massachusetts, his birthplace is preserved and open to the public. William Hathorne, the authors great-great-great-grandfather, a Puritan, was the first of the family to emigrate from England, first settling in Dorchester, Massachusetts, before moving to Salem. There he became an important member of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and held political positions including magistrate and judge. Williams son and the authors great-great-grandfather, John Hathorne, was one of the judges who oversaw the Salem witch trials. Hawthornes father, Nathaniel Hathorne, Sr. was a sea captain who died in 1808 of yellow fever in Suriname, he had been a member of the East India Marine Society. After his death, young Nathaniel, his mother, and two sisters moved in with relatives, the Mannings, in Salem, where they lived for 10 years. In 1819, he was sent back to Salem for school and soon complained of homesickness and being too far from his mother and sisters. In spite of his homesickness, for the sake of having fun, he distributed seven issues of The Spectator to his family in August, the homemade newspaper was written by hand
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Federalist Party
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The Federalist Party was the first American political party. It existed from the early 1790s to 1816, its remnants lasted into the 1820s, the Federalists called for a strong national government that promoted economic growth and fostered friendly relationships with Great Britain, as well as opposition to revolutionary France. The party controlled the government until 1801, when it was overwhelmed by the Democratic-Republican opposition led by Thomas Jefferson. The Federalist Party came into being between 1792 and 1794 as a coalition of bankers and businessmen in support of Alexander Hamiltons fiscal policies. These supporters developed into the organized Federalist Party, which was committed to a fiscally sound, the only Federalist president was John Adams, although George Washington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, he remained officially non-partisan during his entire presidency. Federalist policies called for a bank, tariffs, and good relations with Great Britain as expressed in the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794. Hamilton developed the concept of implied powers and successfully argued the adoption of that interpretation of the United States Constitution, the Jay Treaty passed, and the Federalists won most of the major legislative battles in the 1790s. They held a strong base in the cities and in New England. After the Democratic-Republicans, whose base was in the rural South, won the election of 1800. They recovered some strength by their opposition to the War of 1812. On taking office in 1789, President Washington nominated New York lawyer Alexander Hamilton to the office of Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton wanted a strong national government with financial credibility. James Madison was Hamiltons ally in the fight to ratify the new Constitution, Political parties had not been anticipated when the Constitution was drafted in 1787 and ratified in 1788, even though both Hamilton and Madison played major roles. Parties were considered to be divisive and harmful to republicanism, No similar parties existed anywhere in the world. By 1790 Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition and his attempts to manage politics in the national capital to get his plans through Congress, then, brought strong responses across the country. In the process, what began as a capital faction soon assumed status as a faction and then, finally. The Federalist Party supported Hamiltons vision of a centralized government. In foreign affairs, they supported neutrality in the war between France and Great Britain, the majority of the Founding Fathers were originally Federalists. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and many others can all be considered Federalists and these Federalists felt that the Articles of Confederation had been too weak to sustain a working government and had decided that a new form of government was needed
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Phi Beta Kappa Society
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The Phi Beta Kappa Society - the oldest honor society for the liberal arts and sciences in the United States - is widely recognized and considered as the nations most prestigious honor society. Phi Beta Kappa aims to promote and advocate excellence in the arts and sciences and to induct the most outstanding students of arts. Phi Beta Kappa stands for Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Cybernētēs, according to Phi Beta Kappa, they have chapters in about 10% of American higher learning institutions, and about 10% of these schools Arts and Sciences graduates are invited to join the society. Although most students are elected their senior year, many colleges elect a limited number of extremely select students in their junior year. There is an initiation fee, which is sometimes covered by the inductees university. There had been earlier fraternal societies at the College, but these, Society, founded in 1750, were Latin-letter societies, their names were taken from initial letters of a secret Latin motto. William and Mary alumnus and third U. S. President Thomas Jefferson was perhaps the most famous member of the F. H. C, other notable members of the original Society included Col. James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe. Jefferson noted that When I was a student of Wm. & Mary college of this state, Society, confined to the number of six students only, of which I was a member, but it had no useful object, nor do I know whether it now exists. The best opinion is that the society did not survive the invasion by British forces during the Revolution, a second Latin-letter fraternity at William and Mary was the P. D. A. John Heath, chief organizer of Phi Beta Kappa, according to tradition earlier sought but was refused admission to the P. D. A, though he may instead have disdained to join it. The new society was intended to be purely of domestic manufacture, without any connexion whatever with anything European, either English or German. The founders of Phi Beta Kappa declared that the society was formed for congeniality and to good fellowship, with friendship as its basis and benevolence. Like the older, Latin-letter fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa was a secret society, the new society was given the motto, Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs, which means in English The Love for Knowledge be the Guide of Life. Greek was chosen, because Greek was in Roman times the language of science like Latin in medieval times, one official historian of the society, William T. The heading on the original list of states, A List of the members. This new complex of gestures was created to allow the recognition of members in any foreign country or place. A second chapter was founded at Yale College in late 1780, a third, at Harvard College in 1781, from these new chapters, the Phi Beta Kappa evolved from a fraternity with principally academic and some social purposes to an entirely honorary organization recognizing scholastic achievement. Further chapters appeared at Union College in 1817, Bowdoin College in 1825, the original chapter at William and Mary was re-established
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Benjamin Orr (Massachusetts politician)
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Benjamin Orr was a member of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts. Orr was born in Bedford, New Hampshire, on December 1,1772 and he was self-educated and apprenticed as a carpenter. He attended Fryeburg Academy, taught school at Concord and New Milford, New Hampshire and he studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1801 and commenced the practice of law in Brunswick, Maine. Orr moved to Topsham, Maine, in 1801 and continued the practice of law, was overseer of Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, Orr was elected as a Federalist to the Fifteenth Congress but was not a candidate for renomination in 1818. He resumed the practice of law in Topsham and, in 1822 and he died in Brunswick, on September 3,1828, and he was interred in Pine Grove Cemetery. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
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Horace
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Quintus Horatius Flaccus, known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus. Horace also crafted elegant hexameter verses and caustic iambic poetry and his career coincided with Romes momentous change from a republic to an empire. An officer in the army defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, he was befriended by Octavians right-hand man in civil affairs, Maecenas. Some of the writings contained in his writings can be supplemented from the short. He was born on 8 December 65 BC in the Samnite south of Italy and his home town, Venusia, lay on a trade route in the border region between Apulia and Lucania. Various Italic dialects were spoken in the area and this perhaps enriched his feeling for language and he could have been familiar with Greek words even as a young boy and later he poked fun at the jargon of mixed Greek and Oscan spoken in neighbouring Canusium. Literary Latin must have sounded to him like a semi-foreign language, one of the works he probably studied in school was the Odyssia of Livius Andronicus, crammed into Italian boys with threats and floggings by teachers like the Orbilius mentioned in one of his poems. School was made particularly irksome by a number of his fellow pupils, the army veterans could have been settled there at the expense of local families uprooted by Rome as punishment for their part in the Social War. Such state-sponsored migration must have added still more variety to the area. According to a tradition reported by Horace, a colony of Romans or Latins had been installed in Venusia after the Samnites had been driven out early in the third century. In that case, young Horace could have felt himself to be a Roman though there are indications that he regarded himself as a Samnite or Sabellus by birth. Italians in modern and ancient times have always been devoted to their towns, even after success in the wider world. Images of his setting and references to it are found throughout his poems. Horaces father was probably a Venutian taken captive by Romans in the Social War, either way, he was a slave for at least part of his life. He was evidently a man of strong abilities however and managed to gain his freedom, thus Horace claimed to be the free-born son of a prosperous coactor. The father spent a fortune on his sons education, eventually accompanying him to Rome to oversee his schooling. The poet later paid tribute to him in a poem that one scholar considers the best memorial by any son to his father. As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude, I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedmans son
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