1.
Inveresk
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Inveresk is a village in East Lothian, Scotland situated immediately to the south of Musselburgh. It has been designated an area since 1969. It is situated on elevated ground on the north bank of a loop of the River Esk. This ridge of ground,20 to 25 metres above sea level, was used by the Romans as the location for a fort in the 2nd century AD. The element Inver, from the Gaelic inbhir, refers to the confluence of the river Esk with the Firth of Forth, the village was formerly in the Midlothian parish of the same name and developed distinctly from the separate burgh of Musselburgh. Inveresk is notable for its fine street of 17th- and 18th-century houses and this was formerly the mansion of James Wedderburn who had made his fortune as a slave-owning sugar plantation owner in Jamaica. When his son by one of his slaves, Robert Wedderburn, travelled to Inveresk to claim his kinship he was rejected by his father who gave him some small beer. This experience turned Robert Wedderburn to radicalism, the village is dominated by St. Michaels church that stands at its west end on the summit of the local hill overlooking Musselburgh. The current church is by Robert Nisbet and dates to 1805 and has a spire of Wren-influence but is believed to date to the 6th century. Robert Mylne, architect/master mason, 1633-1710, lived and died here Clarissa Dickson Wright the chef, henry Yule, Scottish Orientalist, born here Canmore - Inveresk, Musselburgh, Roman Fort site record Workhouses - Inveresk Scottish Places - Inveresk
2.
Gold Medal (RGS)
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The Gold Medal presented by the Royal Geographical Society consists of two separate awards, the Founders Medal 1830 and the Patrons Medal 1838. Together they form the most prestigious of the societys awards and they are given for the encouragement and promotion of geographical science and discovery. Royal approval is required before an award can be made, the awards originated as an annual gift of fifty guineas from King William IV, first made in 1831, to constitute a premium for the encouragement and promotion of geographical science and discovery. The Royal Geographical Society decided in 1839 to change this monetary award into the two gold medals, prior to 1902 the Patrons Medal was alternatively known as the Victoria Medal. List of medals Gold medal awards List of Past Gold Medal Winners
3.
Order of the Star of India
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The article is about the order of chivalry known as Star of India. For other items of the name, please see disambiguation at Star of India. The Most Exalted Order of the Star of India is an order of chivalry founded by Queen Victoria in 1861, with the death of the last surviving knight, the Maharaja of Alwar, the order became dormant in 2009. The motto of the order is Heavens light our guide, the Star of India, the emblem of the order, also appeared on the flag of the Viceroy of India and other flags used to represent British India. The last appointments to the orders relating to the British Empire in India were made in the 1948 New Year Honours, the orders have never been formally abolished, and Elizabeth II succeeded her father George VI as Sovereign of the Orders when she ascended the throne in 1952. She remains Sovereign of the Order to this day, however, there are no living members of the order. The last Grand Master of the Order, Admiral of the Fleet The Earl Mountbatten of Burma, was assassinated by the Provisional IRA on 27 August 1979. The last surviving Knight Grand Commander, HH Maharaja Sree Padmanabhadasa Sir Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma GCSI, GCIE, Maharajah of Travancore, the last surviving Knight Commander, HH Maharaja Sir Tej Singh Prabhakar Bahadur KCSI, Maharaja of Alwar, died on 15 February 2009 in New Delhi. The last surviving Companion of the Order, Vice-Admiral Sir Ronald Brockman CSI, the British Sovereign was, and still is, Sovereign of the Order. The next-most senior member was the Grand Master, the position was held, ex officio, when the order was established in 1861, there was only one class of Knights Companions, who bore the postnominals KSI. In 1866, however, it was expanded to three classes, members of the first class were known as Knights Grand Commanders, rather than Knights Grand Cross, so as not to offend the non-Christian Indians appointed to the Order. All those surviving members who had already been made Knights Companions of the Order were retroactively Known as Knights Grand Commanders. Former viceroys and other officials, as well as those who served in the Department of the Secretary of State for India for at least thirty years were eligible for appointment. Rulers of Indian Princely States were also eligible for appointment, like some rulers of princely states, some rulers of particular prestige, for example the Maharajas of the Rana dynasty or the Sultans of Oman, were usually appointed Knights Grand Commanders. Women, save the princely rulers, were ineligible for appointment to the order and they were, unlike the habit of many other orders, admitted as Knights, rather than as Dames or Ladies. The first woman to be admitted to the order was HH Nawab Sikandar Begum Sahiba, Nawab Begum of Bhopal, the orders statutes were specially amended to permit the admission of Queen Mary as a Knight Grand Commander in 1911. Members of the Order wore elaborate costumes on important ceremonial occasions, The mantle, on the left side was a representation of the star. The collar, also only by Knights Grand Commanders, was made of gold
4.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
5.
Oriental studies
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European study of the region formerly known as the Orient had primarily religious origins, which has remained an important motivation until recent times. Learning from Arabic medicine and philosophy, and the Greek translations from Arabic, was an important factor in the Middle Ages. Linguistic knowledge preceded a wider study of cultures and history, and as Europe began to encroach upon the region, political, from the late 18th century archaeology became a link from the discipline to a wide European public, as treasures brought back filled new European museums. In the last century, scholars from the region itself have participated on equal terms in the discipline, the classical world had initimate knowledge of their Ancient Persian neighbours, but very imprecise knowledge of most of the world further East, including the Seres. However, there was substantial direct Roman trade with India in the Imperial period, the rise of Islam and Muslim conquests in the 7th century established a sharp opposition, or even a sense of polarity, between medieval European Christendom and the medieval Islamic world. During the Middle Ages, Muslims and Jews were considered the enemies of Christendom. The earliest translation of the Quran into Latin was completed in 1143, although little use was made of it until it was printed in 1543, gerard of Cremona and others based themselves in Al-Andaluz to take advantage of the Arabic libraries and scholars there. Later, with the Christian Reconquista in full progress, such contacts became rarer in Spain, chairs of Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic were briefly established at Oxford, and four other universities following the Council of Vienne. There was vague but increasing knowledge of the civilizations in China and India. From the Age of Exploration, European interest in mapping Asia, University Oriental studies became systematic during the Renaissance, with the linguistic and religious aspects initially continuing to dominate. There was also a political dimension, as translations for diplomatic purposes were needed, a landmark was the publication in Spain in 1514 of the first Polyglot Bible, containing the complete existing texts in Hebrew and Aramaic, in addition to Greek and Latin. At Cambridge University there has been a Regius Professor of Hebrew since 1540, Oxford followed for Hebrew in 1546. The University of Salamanca had Professors of Oriental Languages from at least the 1570s, Study of the Far East was pioneered by missionaries, especially Matteo Ricci and others in the Jesuit China missions, and missionary motives were to remain important, at least in linguistic studies. The end of the saw the beginnings in the great increase in study of the archaeology of the period. Egyptology led the way, and as many other ancient cultures, provided the linguists with new material for decipherment. Some of these occurred in the context of Franco–British rivalry for control of India. Liberal economists, such as James Mill, denigrated Eastern civilizations as static, karl Marx, himself of Jewish origin, characterized the Asiatic mode of production as unchanging, because of the economic narrowness of village economies and the States role in production. Oriental despotism was generally regarded in Europe as a factor in the relative failure of progress of Eastern societies
6.
Marco Polo
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He learned the mercantile trade from his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, who travelled through Asia and met Kublai Khan. In 1269, they returned to Venice to meet Marco for the first time, the three of them embarked on an epic journey to Asia, returning after 24 years to find Venice at war with Genoa, Marco was imprisoned and dictated his stories to a cellmate. He was released in 1299, became a merchant, married. He died in 1324 and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Venice, Marco Polo was not the first European to reach China, but he was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of his experience. This book inspired Christopher Columbus and many other travellers, there is a substantial literature based on Polos writings, he also influenced European cartography, leading to the introduction of the Fra Mauro map. Marco Polo was born in 1254 in Venice Republic and his exact date and place of birth are archivally unknown. Some historians mentioned that he was born on September 15 but that date is not endorsed by mainstream scholarship, Marco Polos birthplace is generally considered Venice, but also varies between Constantinople, and the island of Korčula. There is dispute as to whether the Polo family is of Venetian origin, the first recorded Polo is Venetian Domenico Polo who was mentioned in 971 regarding the prohibition of trade with the Arabs. Later other Polos were also mentioned in the service of the realm, whether they were related with the family of Marco Polo is uncertain, but this could indicate that his ancestors travelled between Venice and Dalmatia. Some of the first indications of where his family originated and were resident come from Venetian documents and manuscripts. Some scholars argued that this account could go along with the note from Il Milione that his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, the non-Venetian i. e. Sanuto also mentioned a captain from Korčula, Antonio di Polo. Moule cited two early 17th century Venetian manuscripts questi ueneno de dalmatia, Polo questi uene de Dalmatia, scholars etymologically argued that his family name derives from Latin Paulus, the name of a certain bird species, or like Albert tSerstevens considered - from Eastern origin. However, the habitat of the shorebird is non-existent on Korčula, the surname Polo seems related with other widespread Dalmatian surnames. The lack of evidence makes the Korčula theory as a specific birthplace strongly disputed, in 1168, his great-uncle, Marco Polo, borrowed money and commanded a ship in Constantinople. His grandfather, Andrea Polo of the parish of San Felice, had three sons, Maffeo, yet another Marco, and the travellers father Niccolò and this genealogy, described by Ramusio, is not universally accepted as there is no additional evidence to support it. His father, Niccolò Polo, a merchant, traded with the Near East, becoming wealthy, Niccolò and his brother Maffeo set off on a trading voyage before Marcos birth. In 1260, Niccolò and Maffeo, while residing in Constantinople, then the capital of the Latin Empire, foresaw a political change, they liquidated their assets into jewels and moved away. According to The Travels of Marco Polo, they passed through much of Asia, and met with Kublai Khan and their decision to leave Constantinople proved timely
7.
Dominican Order
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Members of the order, who are referred to as Dominicans, generally carry the letters O. P. after their names, standing for Ordinis Praedicatorum, meaning of the Order of Preachers. Membership in the order includes friars, nuns, active sisters, the order is famed for its intellectual tradition, having produced many leading theologians and philosophers. The Dominican Order is headed by the Master of the Order, in the year 2000, there were 5,171 Dominican friars in solemn vows,917 student brothers, and 237 novices. By the year 2013 there were 6,058 Dominican friars, a number of other names have been used to refer to both the order and its members. In England and other countries the Dominican friars are referred to as Black Friars because of the black cappa or cloak they wear over their white habits, Dominicans were Blackfriars, as opposed to Whitefriars or Greyfriars. They are also distinct from the Augustinian Friars who wear a similar habit and their identification as Dominicans gave rise to the pun that they were the Domini canes, or Hounds of the Lord. The Dominican Order came into being in the Middle Ages at a time when religion began to be contemplated in a new way, men of God were no longer expected to stay behind the walls of a cloister. Instead, they travelled among the people, taking as their examples the apostles of the primitive Church. Out of this emerged two orders of mendicant friars, one, the Friars Minor, was led by Francis of Assisi, the other. Dominics new order was to be an order, trained to preach in the vernacular languages. Rather than earning their living on vast farms as the monasteries had done, at the same time, Dominic inspired the members of his order to develop a mixed spirituality. They were both active in preaching, and contemplative in study, prayer and meditation, the brethren of the Dominican Order were urban and learned, as well as contemplative and mystical in their spirituality. While these traits affected the women of the order, the nuns especially absorbed the latter characteristics, in England, the Dominican nuns blended these elements with the defining characteristics of English Dominican spirituality and created a spirituality and collective personality that set them apart. The orders origins in battling heterodoxy influenced its development and reputation. Many later Dominicans battled heresy as part of their apostolate, indeed, many years after St. Dominic reacted to the Cathars, the first Grand Inquistor of Spain, Tomás de Torquemada, would be drawn from the Dominican Order. As an adolescent, he had a love of theology. During his studies in Palencia, Spain, he experienced a famine, prompting Dominic to sell all of his beloved books. At the age of twenty-four or twenty-five, he was ordained to the priesthood, at that time the south of France was the stronghold of the Cathar or Albigensian heresy, named after the Duke of Albi, a Cathar sympathiser and opponent to the subsequent Albigensian Crusade
8.
Anglo-Indian
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The term Anglo-Indians can refer to at least two groups of people, those with mixed Indian and British ancestry, and people of British descent born or living in the Indian subcontinent. The latter sense is now historical, but confusions can arise. People fitting the definition are more usually known as British Asian or British Indian. This article focuses primarily on the definition, a distinct minority community of mixed Eurasian ancestry. During the centuries that Britain was in India, the born to British men. These Anglo-Indians formed a small but significant portion of the population during the British Raj, the Anglo-Indian population dwindled from roughly 500,000 at the time of independence in 1947 to fewer than 150,000 by 2010. Many have adapted to local communities and emigrated to the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, the first use of Anglo-Indian was to describe all British people living in India. People of mixed British and Indian descent were referred to as Eurasians, terminology has changed, and the latter group are now called Anglo-Indians, the term that will be used throughout this article. By the mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers and this was followed up by another pamphlet, entitled An Appeal on behalf of Indo-Britons. Prominent Eurasians in Calcutta formed the East Indian Committee with a view to send a petition to the British Parliament for the redress of their grievances, john William Ricketts, a pioneer in the Eurasian cause, volunteered to proceed to England. In April 1834, in obedience to an Act of Parliament passed in August 1833, intermarriage declined after the events of the Rebellion of 1857, after which several anti-miscegenation laws were implemented. As a result, Eurasians were neglected by both the British and Indian populations in India, over generations, Anglo-Indians intermarried with other Anglo-Indians to form a community that developed a culture of its own. Their cuisine, dress, speech, and religion all served to segregate them from the native population. A number of factors fostered a sense of community among Anglo-Indians. Their English language school system, their Anglo-centric culture, and their Christian beliefs in particular helped bind them together and they formed social clubs and associations to run functions, including regular dances on occasions such as Christmas and Easter. Indeed, their Christmas balls, held in most major cities, the Anglo-Indian community also had a role as go-betweens in the introduction of Western musical styles, harmonies and instruments in post-Independence India. During the colonial era, genres including ragtime and jazz were played by bands for the elites. During the independence movement, many Anglo-Indians identified with British rule and their position at independence was difficult
9.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
10.
Bengal Army
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The Bengal Army was the army of the Bengal Presidency, one of the three presidencies of British India within the British Empire. In 1895 all three armies were merged into the Indian Army. The Bengal Army originated with the establishment of a European Regiment in 1756, in 1757 the first locally recruited unit of Bengal sepoys was created in the form of the Lal Paltan battalion. It was recruited from Bhumihar, Bihari Rajputs and Pathan soldiers that had served in the Nawabs Army from Bihar, there were actually no soldiers from the modern Bengal region. Drilled and armed along British army lines this force served well at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and 20 more Indian battalions were raised by 1764. In 1824 the Bengal Army underwent reorganisation, with the infantry being grouped into 68 single battalion regiments numbered according to their date of establishment. Nine additional infantry regiments were raised, though several existing units were disbanded between 1826 and 1843. On the eve of the First Afghan War the Bengal Army had achieved a dominant role in the forces of the HEIC, there were 74 battalions of Bengal regular infantry against only 52 from Madras,26 from Bombay and 24 British. A new feature in the Bengal Army was the creation of irregular infantry and cavalry regiments during the 1840s and these were permanently established units but with less formal drill and fewer British officers than the regular Bengal line regiments. The main source of recruitment continued to be high caste Brahmins and Rajputs from Bihar and Oudh, during the 1840s and early 1850s numbers of Nepalese Gurkhas and Sikhs from the Punjab were however accepted in the Bengal Army. Both Gurkhas and Sikhs served in separate units but some of the latter were incorporated into existing Bengal infantry regiments, two of these BNI regiments were serving in China in 1857 and so escaped any involvement in the great rebellion of that year. A total of 64 Bengal Army regular infantry and cavalry regiments rebelled during the Indian Mutiny, from 1858 onwards the actual high-caste Awadhi and Bihari Hindu presence in the Bengal Army was reduced because of their perceived primary role as mutineers in the 1857 rebellion. A largely unspoken rationale was that an army of diverse origins was unlikely to unite in rebellion, in 1895 the three separate Presidency Armies were abolished and the Army of India was divided into four commands, each commanded by a lieutenant-general. These comprised Madras, Punjab, Bengal and Bombay, the Bengal infantry units in existence at the end of the Presidency era continued as the senior regiments (1st Brahmans to 48th Pioneers of the newly unified Indian Army. Prior to 1857, and despite the name, the actual ethnic Bengali presence was minimal to non-existent, the Bengal Army of the East India Company was mainly recruited from high castes living in Bihar and the Awadh, especially Bihari Rajputs and Bhumihars who were referred to as Purbiyas. Governor Generals Bodyguard 1st to 10th Bengal Light Cavalry Regiments, eight of these regular regiments mutinied and two were disbanded during 1857–58. None were carried over into the post-Mutiny army, 1st to 4th Bengal European Light Cavalry Regiments. Recruited hastily in Britain in November 1857 to replace the eight regiments of Bengal Light Cavalry which had mutinied, the mention of European in the name indicated that it consisted of white soldiers rather than Indian sowars
11.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
12.
Persian literature
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Persian literature is one of the worlds oldest literatures. It spans two-and-a-half millennia, though much of the material has been lost. For instance, Mowlana Rumi, one of best-loved Persian poets, born in Balkh or Vakhsh, wrote in Persian, the Ghaznavids conquered large territories in Central and South Asia and adopted Persian as their court language. There is thus Persian literature from Iran, Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan, not all Persian literature is written in Persian, as some consider works written by ethnic Persians in other languages, such as Greek and Arabic, to be included. The bulk of surviving Persian literature, however, comes from the following the Islamic conquest of Iran c.650 CE. After the Abbasids came to power, the Iranians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the Islamic empire and, increasingly, also its writers and poets. The New Persian literature arose and flourished in Khorasan and Transoxiana because of political reasons——the early Iranian dynasties such as Tahirids and Samanids were based in Khorasan, Iranians wrote in both Persian and Arabic, Persian predominated in later literary circles. Persian poets such as Ferdowsi, Sadi, Hafiz, Attar, Nezami, Rumi, very few literary works of Achaemenid Iran have survived, due partly to the destruction of the library at Persepolis. Most of what remains consists of the inscriptions of Achaemenid kings, particularly Darius I. Many Zoroastrian writings were destroyed in the Islamic conquest of Iran in the 7th century, the Parsis who fled to India, however, took with them some of the books of the Zoroastrian canon, including some of the Avesta and ancient commentaries thereof. Some works of Sassanid geography and travel also survived, albeit in Arabic translations, no single text devoted to literary criticism has survived from Pre-Islamic Iran. However, some essays in Pahlavi, such as Ayin-e name nebeshtan, some researchers have quoted the Shoubiyye as asserting that the Pre-Islamic Iranians had books on eloquence, such as Karvand. No trace remains of such books, there are some indications that some among the Persian elite were familiar with Greek rhetoric and literary criticism. While initially overshadowed by Arabic during the Umayyad and early Abbasid caliphates, New Persian soon became a literary language again of the Central Asian, in short, the ability to write in verse form was a pre-requisite for any scholar. For example, almost half of Avicennas medical writings are in verse, works of the early era of Persian poetry are characterized by strong court patronage, an extravagance of panegyrics, and what is known as سبک فاخر exalted in style. The tradition of patronage began perhaps under the Sassanid era. The Qasida was perhaps the most famous form of panegyric used, khorasani style, whose followers mostly were associated with Greater Khorasan, is characterized by its supercilious diction, dignified tone, and relatively literate language. The chief representatives of this lyricism are Asjadi, Farrukhi Sistani, Unsuri, panegyric masters such as Rudaki were known for their love of nature, their verse abounding with evocative descriptions
13.
Ali
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‘Ali ibn Abi Talib was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic Nabi Muhammad, ruling over the Caliphate from 656 to 661 ACE, and was Imam of Shi‘ite from 632 to 661 ACE. ‘Ali was the first young male who accepted Islam, after migrating to Medina, he married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali took part in the early caravan raids from Mecca and later in almost all the battles fought by the nascent Muslim community and he was appointed caliph by Muhammads Companions in 656, after Caliph Uthman ibn Affan was assassinated. ‘Alis reign saw wars and in 661, he was attacked and assassinated by a Kharijite while praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa. ‘Ali is important to various Sunni and Shi‘ite denominations politically, legislatively and spiritually, while Sunnis consider Ali the fourth and final of the Rashidun caliphs, Shi‘ites regard ‘Ali as the first Imam after Muhammad due to their interpretation of the events at Ghadir Khumm. Shias also believe that ‘Ali and the other Shi‘ite Imams are the successors to Muhammad. This disagreement split the Ummah into the Sunni and Shia branches, ‘Alis father, Abu Talib, was the custodian of the Kabah and a sheikh of the Banu Hashim, an important branch of the powerful Quraysh tribe. He was also an uncle of Muhammad, Alis mother, Fatima bint Asad, also belonged to Banu Hashim, making Ali a descendant of Ismail, the son of Ibrahim. Many sources, especially Shii ones, attest that Ali was born inside the Kaaba in the city of Mecca, according to a tradition, Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw as he took the newborn in his hands. Muhammad named him Ali, meaning the exalted one, Muhammad had a close relationship with Alis parents. When Muhammad was orphaned and later lost his grandfather Abdul Muttalib, Ali was born two or three years after Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. When Ali was five or six years old, a famine occurred in and around Mecca, affecting the economic conditions of Alis father, Muhammad took Ali into his home to raise him. The second period of life began in 610 when he declared Islam at the age of 10. When Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation, Ali, then only about ten years old, believed him. According to Ibn Ishaq and some authorities, Ali was the first male to embrace Islam. Tabari adds other traditions making the claim of being the first Muslim in relation to Zayd ibn Harithah or Abu Bakr. Some historians and scholars believe Alis conversion is not worthy enough to him the first male Muslim because he was a child at the time. Hence the Shia say of Ali that his face is honoured, the Sunnis also use the honorific Karam Allahu Wajhahu, which means Gods Favour upon his Face
14.
Muhammad
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Muhammad is the prophet of Islam. From a secular historical perspective he was a religious, political, from an Islamic perspective, he was Gods Messenger sent to confirm the essential teachings of monotheism preached previously by Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. He is viewed as the prophet of God in all branches of Islam. Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity and ensured that his teachings, practices, born approximately 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca, Muhammad was orphaned at an early age, he was raised under the care of his paternal uncle Abu Talib. Muhammad gained few early followers, and met hostility from some Meccan tribes, to escape persecution, Muhammad sent some followers to Abyssinia before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina in the year 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, in Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent conflict with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts, the attack went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill, before his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. The revelations, which Muhammad reported receiving until his death, form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the Word of God and around which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammads teachings and practices, found in the Hadith and sira literature, are upheld by Muslims. The name Muhammad means praiseworthy and appears four times in the Quran, Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address, thus he is referred to as the enwrapped in Quran 73,1 and the shrouded in Quran 74,1. In Sura Al-Ahzab 33,40 God singles out Muhammad as the Seal of the Prophets, the Quran also refers to Muhammad as Aḥmad more praiseworthy. The name Abū al-Qāsim Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim, begins with the kunya Abū, the Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad, the Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammads chronological biography, most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context. An important source may be found in the works by writers of the 2nd. These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which additional information about Muhammads life. The earliest surviving written sira is Ibn Ishaqs Life of Gods Messenger written c.767 CE, although the work was lost, this sira was used verbatim at great length by Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari. Another early history source is the history of Muhammads campaigns by al-Waqidi, many scholars accept the earliest biographies as accurate, though their accuracy is unascertainable
15.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
16.
Royal High School, Edinburgh
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For the A-listed building on Calton Hill, see Old Royal High School, Edinburgh. The Royal High School of Edinburgh is a school administered by the City of Edinburgh Council. The school was founded in 1128 and is one of the oldest schools in Scotland and it serves 1,200 pupils drawn from four feeder primaries in the north-west of the city, Blackhall, Clermiston, Cramond and Davidsons Mains. The Royal High School was last inspected by HMIE in April 2007, the rector is Pauline Walker who replaced Jane Frith, the first woman to head the school. The Royal High School is, by one reckoning, the 18th-oldest school in the world, historians associate its birth with the flowering of the 12th century renaissance. It first enters the record as the seminary of Holyrood Abbey, founded for Alwin. In 1505 the school was described as a school, the first recorded use of this term in either Scotland or England. In 1584 the Town Council informed the rector, Hercules Rollock, as far as possible, instruction was carried out in Latin. The study of Greek began in 1614, and geography in 1742, the egalitarian spirit of Scotland and the classical tradition exerted a profound influence on the school culture and the Scottish Enlightenment. The historian William Ross notes, Walter Scott stood head and shoulders above his literary contemporaries, the Royal High School was used as a model for the first public high school in the United States, the English High School of Boston, in 1821. Learning Greek ceased to be compulsory in 1836, and the allotted to its study was reduced in 1839 as mathematics became recognised. In 1866 classical masters were confined to teaching Latin and Greek, a modern and commercial course was introduced in 1873. A school choir was instituted in 1895, the Jocks Lodge site is now the Royal High Primary, and is no longer associated with the secondary school. For many years the school maintained a facility for pupils from outside Edinburgh. The boarders ranged in age six to eighteen. The House, as it was known, was located at 24 Royal Terrace and in later years moved to 13 Royal Terrace. When the boarding house was closed the records of all boarders, the artefacts such as the board with the names of boys. The Royal High School moved to its current site at Barnton in 1968, in 1973 it became a co-educational state comprehensive
17.
Ripon
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Ripon is a cathedral city in the Borough of Harrogate, North Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is located at the confluence of two tributaries of the River Ure, the Laver and Skell. The city is noted for its feature, Ripon Cathedral which is architecturally significant, as well as the Ripon Racecourse. The city itself is just over 1,300 years old and it was for a period under Viking control, and later suffered under the Normans. After a brief period of building projects under the Plantagenets, the city emerged with a prominent wool, Ripon became well known for its production of spurs during the 16th and 17th centuries, but would later remain largely unaffected by the Industrial Revolution. Ripon is the third smallest city in England, according to the 2011 United Kingdom Census it had a population of 16,702, an increase on the 2001 United Kingdom Census figure of 15,922. It is located 11 miles south-west of Thirsk,16 miles south of Northallerton and 12 miles north of Harrogate. As well as its racecourse and cathedral, Ripon is a tourist destination because of its proximity to the UNESCO World Heritage Site which consists of the Studley Royal Park. During its pre-history the area later became Ripon was under the control of the Brigantes. Three miles north at Hutton Moor there is a circular earthwork created by them. The Romans did not settle Ripon, but they had a military outpost around five miles away at North Stainley, solid evidence for the origins of Ripon can be traced back to the 7th century, the time of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria. The first structure built in the area, known at the time as Inhrypum, was a Christian church dedicated to St. Peter and this was founded by a Northumbrian nobleman known as Wilfrid, who later became Archbishop of York, he was granted the land by King Alhfrith. The earliest settlers were stonemasons, glaziers and plasterers that Wilfrid brought over to construct the Ripon monastery, from Lyon in Francia. The years following the death of Wilfrid are obscure in Ripons history, after the invasion of the Great Heathen Army of Norse Vikings in Northumbria, the Danelaw was established and the Kingdom of Jórvík was founded in the Yorkshire area. In 937 Athelstan, then King of England, granted the privilege of sanctuary to Ripon, one of his successors was less well-disposed, after the Northumbrians rebelled against English rule in 948, King Edred had the buildings at Ripon burned. Prosperity was restored by the end of the 10th century, as the body of Saint Cuthbert was moved to Ripon for a while, Ripon is thought to have shrunk to a small community around the church following the suppression. Eventually developed in the Gothic style, the project owed much to the work of Roger de Pont LEvêque and Walter de Gray, during the 12th century Ripon built up a booming wool trade, attracting Italian trade merchants, especially Florentines, who bought and exported large quantities. Ripons proximity to Fountains Abbey, where the Cistercians had a tradition of sheep farming
18.
North Yorkshire
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North Yorkshire is a non-metropolitan county and larger ceremonial county in England. It is located primarily in the region of Yorkshire and the Humber, created by the Local Government Act 1972, it covers an area of 8,654 square kilometres, making it the largest county in England. The majority of the Yorkshire Dales and the North York Moors lie within North Yorkshires boundaries, the largest settlements are York, Middlesbrough, Harrogate and Scarborough, the county town, Northallerton, has a population of 16,832. The area under the control of the county council, or shire county, is divided into a number of local government districts, Craven, Hambleton, Harrogate, Richmondshire, Ryedale, Scarborough, the changes were planned to be implemented no later than 1 April 2009. This was rejected on 25 July 2007 so the County Council, the largest settlement in the administrative county is Harrogate, the second largest is Scarborough, while in the ceremonial county, the largest is York. The largest urban area within the county is the Middlesbrough built-up area sub-division of Teesside. Uniquely for a district in England, Stockton-on-Tees is split between North Yorkshire and County Durham for this purpose, Middlesbrough, Stockton-on-Tees, and Redcar and Cleveland boroughs form part of the North East England region. The ceremonial county area, including the authorities, borders East Riding of Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumbria. The geology of North Yorkshire is closely reflected in its landscape, within the county are the North York Moors and most of the Yorkshire Dales, two of eleven areas of countryside within England and Wales to be officially designated as national parks. Between the North York Moors in the east and the Pennine Hills in the west lie the Vales of Mowbray, the Tees Lowlands lie to the north of the North York Moors and the Vale of Pickering lies to the south. Its eastern border is the North sea coast, the highest point is Whernside, on the Cumbrian border, at 736 metres. The two major rivers in the county are the River Swale and the River Ure, the Swale and the Ure form the River Ouse which flows through York and into the Humber estuary. The River Tees forms part of the border between North Yorkshire and County Durham and flows from upper Teesdale to Middlesbrough and Stockton and to the coast, North Yorkshire is a non-metropolitan county that operates a cabinet-style council, North Yorkshire County Council. The full council of 72 elects a council leader, who in turn appoints up to 9 more councillors to form the executive cabinet, the cabinet is responsible for making decisions in the County. The county council have their offices in the County Hall in Northallerton, the county is affluent and has above average house prices. Unemployment is below average for the UK and claimants of Job Seekers Allowance is also very low compared to the rest of the UK at 2. 7%, agriculture is an important industry, as are mineral extraction and power generation. The county also has high technology, service and tourism sectors. This is a chart of trend of gross value added for North Yorkshire at current basic prices with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling
19.
James Challis
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James Challis FRS was an English clergyman, physicist and astronomer. Plumian Professor and director of the Cambridge Observatory, he investigated a range of physical phenomena though made few lasting contributions outside astronomy. He is best remembered for his opportunity to discover the planet Neptune in 1846. Challis was born in Braintree, Essex where his father, John Challis, was a stonemason, after attending various local schools, he graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge in 1825 as Senior Wrangler and first Smiths prizeman. He was elected a fellow of Trinity in 1826 and was ordained in 1830 and he held the benefice of Papworth Everard, Cambridgeshire from the college until 1852. In 1831 Challis married Sarah Copsey, née Chandler, a widow, the couple had a son and a daughter. In 1836, he director of the Cambridge Observatory and Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy. He lectured in all areas of physics, as examiner for the Smiths prize, he appraised the early work of G. G. Stokes, Arthur Cayley, John Couch Adams, William Thomson, Peter Guthrie Tait and James Clerk Maxwell. For over a decade, in correspondence and publications, Challis repeatedly disagreed with Stokess conclusions from his research, Challis was referee for Thomson and for Stokes in their respective applications for chairs at the University of Glasgow, and for Maxwell at Aberdeen. He and Thomson together set and examined the Adams prize topic on Saturns rings, Challis succeeded George Biddell Airy at the observatory and gradually improved the instrumentation and accuracy of observations. He made some observations of the fracture of comet 3D/Biela into two pieces on 15 January 1846 and re-observed both fragments in 1852. He published over 60 scientific papers recording other observations of comets and he invented the meteoroscope and the transit-reducer. Challis published twelve volumes of Astronomical Observations Made at the Observatory of Cambridge and he and his wife lived at the observatory as genial hosts for 25 years, though Challis once left his wife to guard an intruder while he summoned assistance. Challis eventually resigned the observatory post because of stress in his inability to keep up with processing new astronomical observations. His predecessor Airy had taken a more relaxed attitude and he was succeeded by Adams though he maintained his professorship until his death. In 1846, Airy finally persuaded a reluctant Challis to join in the search for a planet in the solar system. Adams had predicted the location of such a planet as early as 1844, Adams failed to promote his prediction successfully and there was little enthusiasm for a systematic search of the heavens until Airys intervention. Challis finally began his, somewhat reluctant, search in July 1846, german astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle, assisted by Heinrich Louis dArrest, finally confirmed Le Verriers prediction on 23 September
20.
Papworth Everard
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Papworth Everard is a village in Cambridgeshire, England. A bypass now means that most traffic can avoid Ermine Street, today, Papworth Everard is a large village with a thriving community, home to substantial light industry and local business. It is also the centre for the Papworth Trust, a charity which offers housing and training to the disabled, recent archaeological work in the area of the Papworth Business Park has shown that there was some Bronze Age activity in the area. But by the Roman period, when Ermine Street was built in the first century AD, however the same archaeological work shows signs of Romano-British activity, as well as the road, in the area. Roman rule collapsed in Britain in 410 AD, indeed Papworth means the enclosure of Papas people, they were also involved in establishing Papworth St Agnes and Papley Grove. A moated area in the village is the remains of his castle, Papworth Everard has a King Georges Field in memorial to King George V. Adjacent to the fields are a bowling green and a series of all-weather. The village also has a paddling pool in its park. Papworth Blasters is the villages local Association football team and they play their Home games at King Georges Field. They have varying age ranges of teams from under 8s to under 16s, Papworth Everard is served by a variety of local services, primarily based in the central location of Pendrill Court, between Chequers Lane and Ermine Street. This area is adjacent to the fields and so provides a central hub for the village. The Village Hall was re-opened in 2015, under the control of the Parish Council, plans remain to develop the old print works in the village into a micro-brewery and bakery but at present these remain hopeful. The re-developed social club opened as Rockys Bar and Restaurant in August 2015, local news and information is published monthly in Papworth News & Views. Media related to Papworth Everard at Wikimedia Commons
21.
John Mason Neale
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John Mason Neale was an Anglican priest, scholar and hymn-writer. Neale was born in London, his parents being the Revd Cornelius Neale and Susanna Neale and he was educated at Sherborne School, Dorset, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where his lack of ability in mathematics prevented him taking an honours degree. Neale was named after the Puritan cleric and hymn writer John Mason, at the age of 22 Neale was the chaplain of Downing College, Cambridge. At Cambridge he was affected by the Oxford Movement and helped to found the Cambridge Camden Society, in 1854 Neale co-founded the Society of Saint Margaret, an order of women in the Church of England dedicated to nursing the sick. Many Anglicans in his day, however, were suspicious of anything suggestive of Roman Catholicism. Only nine years earlier, John Henry Newman had encouraged Catholic practices in Anglican churches and had ended up becoming a Roman Catholic and this encouraged the suspicion that anyone such as Neale was an agent of the Vatican, assigned to destroy Anglicanism by subverting it from within. Once, Neale was attacked and mauled at a funeral of one of the Sisters, from time to time unruly crowds threatened to stone him or to burn his house. He received no honour or preferment in England, and his doctorate was bestowed by Trinity College, however, his basic goodness eventually won the confidence of many who had fiercely opposed him, and the Sisterhood of St Margaret survived and prospered. He was also the founder of the Anglican and Eastern Churches Association. A result of this organisation was the Hymns of the Eastern Church, edited by John Mason Neale, Neale was strongly high church in his sympathies, and had to endure a good deal of opposition, including a fourteen years inhibition by his bishop. Neale translated the Eastern liturgies into English, and wrote a mystical and devotional commentary on the Psalms, however, he is best known as a hymn writer and, especially, translator, having enriched English hymnody with many ancient and mediaeval hymns translated from Latin and Greek. More than anyone else, he made English-speaking congregations aware of the tradition of Latin, Greek, Russian. The 1875 edition of the Hymns Ancient and Modern contains 58 of his hymns, The English Hymnal contains 63 of his translated hymns. He is also commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America as a hymnwriter on 1 July with Catherine Winkworth. John Mason Neale, DD, A Memoir, Eleanor Towle Memoir by his friend, Richard Frederick Littledale Letters of John Mason Neale, selected and edited by Eleanor Towle Neale, John Mason. Has a complete list of Neales works This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
22.
Harvey Goodwin
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Harvey Goodwin was a Cambridge academic and Anglican bishop, Bishop of Carlisle from 1869 until his death. Born at Kings Lynn, he was a son of Charles Goodwin, one of his brothers was Charles Wycliffe Goodwin the Egyptologist and judge. From 1825 to 1833 he was educated at a school at High Wycombe. Before going into residence at Cambridge, he joined a party at Keswick, Cumbria and read with William Hepworth Thompson and he was admitted pensioner of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge on 16 November 1835, and soon gave evidence of ability in mathematics. From Lady-day 1837 to Michaelmas 1839 he was scholar of his college, in his second year he became a pupil of the private tutor William Hopkins, and in the Mathematical Tripos of 1839 came out second to Robert Leslie Ellis. He was elected second Smiths prizeman, Ellis being first, in 1840 he won the Schuldham prize, and in 1844 delivered the Wortley speech. He graduated Bachelor of Arts in 1840 and Cambridge Master of Arts in 1843, immediately after graduating BA, Goodwin was appointed to a mathematical lectureship at Caius, and at Michaelmas 1841 became Fellow of his college. In 1842 he was ordained deacon, and priest in 1844 and his close friends at Cambridge, besides Leslie Ellis and Charles Mackenzie, whose life he wrote in 1864, were Thomas Thorp, John Mason Neale, Philip Freeman, and Benjamin Webb. With them he shared advanced ecclesiological views, and with Neale and Webb he set on foot in 1848 the Ecclesiological Society, in 1844 Goodwin took charge, as locum, of St Giles Church, Cambridge. In the same year he preached for the first time in the university pulpit, in 1845 he preached before the British Association, which met at Cambridge. In 1848 he was appointed to the incumbency of St Edwards, Cambridge, Goodwin was offered the colonial bishopric of Grahamstown in 1853, which he refused. In November 1858 he was appointed by Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby to the deanery of Ely, in 1859 received from his university the degree Doctor of Divinity, and the public orator William George Clark spoke of his work. On 11 December 1880 he was elected fellow of Gonville and Caius. The lantern also was rebuilt, the nave pavement relaid, the Galilee entrance restored, while at Ely he served on two royal commissions, those on clerical subscription and ritual. In October 1869 he accepted Gladstones offer, and became Bishop of Carlisle and he held the post until his death. From his known interest in subjects he was asked by George Bradley, Dean of Westminster. He died on 25 November 1891 at Bishopthorpe, while on a visit to William Maclagan, Archbishop of York and his monument in Carlisle Cathedral consists of a recumbent figure in bronze, executed by Hamo Thornycroft. A street in Cambridge and a school in Carlisle are named after Goodwin
23.
Society of Saint Margaret
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The Society of Saint Margaret is an order of women in the Anglican Church. The Order is currently withdrawing from Scotland, but remains active in England, Haiti, Sri Lanka, the Sisters of St Margaret were founded in 1855 by Dr John Mason Neale at Rotherfield, England. As their numbers increased, they moved into their first convent, Saint Margarets in East Grinstead, the society began its overseas activities in 1873. St Margarets, East Grinstead, had a total of 201 inhabitants in 1881,57 staff,6 Industrial Girl scholars,69 Orphanage scholars, and 60 St Agnes School scholars. The Convent thus already included both Sisters and teachers, and the people cared for included orphans, poor girls and schoolgirls from wealthier families. In 1891, St Margarets, East Grinstead had 205 inhabitants, the pupils were now divided into,20 girls in Training for domestic service,57 Pupils in Ladies School,61 Scholars in Orphanage School aged between 3 and 16. There were also 7 orphans aged 15 or 16 Training for service, there were 42 Sisters of Charity,4 teachers and a needlewoman in Ladies School,2 Caretakers in Orphanage, and 2 Teachers in Day School - the Ladies School was for boarders. Photographs show St Margarets Convent at Moat Road until 1936, the society had a difficult start. Many Anglicans in the century were very suspicious of anything suggestive of Roman Catholicism. The founder, J. M. Neale, was attacked and manhandled at a funeral of one of the Sisters, however, Neale eventually won the confidence of many who had fiercely opposed the order. The rapid growth of the Order led to the development of a series of autonomous convents and priories within the SSM, since the death of Neale, there has been no single figure with authority across the entire Order. St Margarets Convent, Duxbury, is a house of the Order, with its convent located at Duxbury. This house has outreach ministries to schools, prisons, homeless shelters, the sisters were historically based in their convent in Boston, Massachusetts, whilst Duxbury was a dependent priory. However, following recent re-organisation, the convent at Boston has been vacated, Duxbury is now the chief convent of the community, although a small branch house is being retained in Boston, as well as in New York and Haiti. There are dependent priories at, Boston, Massachusetts Port-au-Prince, Haiti New York St Saviours Priory, Hackney, is a house of the Order, located in east London. The sisters have a particular ministry amongst marginalised groups, the homeless, alcoholics, some sisters are involved in parish work. St Marys Convent, Chiswick was formerly a dependent daughter house of the large autonomous SSM house in Uckfield. The order was dedicated to nursing the sick, and at Chiswick the Uckfield sisters went on caring for elderly women in a nursing home
24.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
25.
Bishop of Carlisle
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The Bishop of Carlisle is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of Carlisle in the Province of York. The diocese covers the County of Cumbria except for Alston Moor, the see is in the City of Carlisle where the seat is located at the Cathedral Church of the Holy and Undivided Trinity which was a collegiate church until elevated to cathedral status in 1133. The diocese was created in 1133 by Henry I out of part of the Diocese of Durham and it was extended in 1856 taking over part of the Diocese of Chester. The residence of the bishop was Rose Castle, near Carlisle until 2009, the current bishop is the first to reside in the new Bishops House, Keswick. The current bishop is The Right Reverend James Newcome, the 67th Bishop of Carlisle, in 1133, during the reign of his successor, Henry I, a diocese was erected in the territory of the earldom, the territory being subtracted from the Diocese of Durham. This happened despite there being locally a strong Celtic element that looked to Glasgow for episcopal administration, an efficient administrator, he ruled the diocese until his death in 1156 and succeeded in imparting a certain vigour to diocesan life. Among other initiatives, he built a moderate-sized Norman minster of which the transepts, there was only one archdeaconry, that of Carlisle. Of the next bishop, Bernard, little is known, and after his death, in or about 1186, there was a vacancy, during which the diocese was administered by another Bernard. The papal legate, Gualo, punished this action by exiling the canons and appointing Hugh, Abbot of Beaulieu, the next bishop was Walter Malclerk, formerly agent of King John, and a prominent figure in the reign of Henry III. Always a patron of the Friars Preachers, he introduced both Dominicans and Franciscans into the city and diocese and he resigned his see in 1246 in order to join the Order of St. Dominic. About this time a new choir was begun and carried to completion, a fresh beginning was made by the energetic Bishop John de Halton, a favourite of Edward I, and for nearly a hundred years the building of the present choir proceeded, though with many interruptions. Its chief glory is the great East window, remarkable both for its own beauty and as marking a transition from the style to the perfection of tracery. During this time the see was governed by a line of bishops, busy and useful diplomats in their day, but not remarkable in other respects. Bishop John Kirkby took a role in Border military actions, defeating a Scottish raid in 1345. Thomas Merke was a friend of Richard II, who was later tried for high treason under Henry IV. The subsequent bishops were scholars, frequently employed in negotiating truces and treaties with Scotland, among this generation of scholar diplomats was Cardinal Thomas Wolseys friend, John Kite, who remained faithful to his master, and who supported him in the poverty of his latter days. The last of the bishops in communion with Rome was Owen Oglethorpe and this was an act he afterwards much regretted. On Christmas Day after the Queen’s accession he disobeyed the note she sent him in the Chapel Royal forbidding him to elevate the Sacred Host in her presence
26.
Cambridge Observatory
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Cambridge Observatory is an astronomical observatory at the University of Cambridge in the East of England. It was established in 1823 and is now part of the site of the Institute of Astronomy, the old Observatory building houses the Institute of Astronomy Library which has a collection of modern and historical astronomical books. There are a set of optical telescopes at the site on the Madingley Road in the west of Cambridge, by modern standards these are small, as well as being affected by light pollution. Much more significant is the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory, built in 1957 a few kilometres southwest, from 1990 to 1998, the Royal Greenwich Observatory was based in Cambridge in Greenwich House, just to the north of the Observatory. Hugh Ernest Butler Institute of Astronomy website Institute of Astronomy Library website
27.
University College London
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University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL
28.
Addiscombe Military Seminary
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The East India Company Military Seminary was a British military academy at Addiscombe, Surrey, in what is now the London Borough of Croydon. It opened in 1809 and closed in 1861 and its purpose was to train young officers to serve in the East India Company’s private army in India. The institution was known as the East India Company Military Seminary until 1855. In 1858, when the college was taken over by the government, colloquially, it was known as Addiscombe Seminary, Addiscombe College, or Addiscombe Military Academy. The Seminary was an institution to the East India Company College in Hertfordshire. In military terms it was a counterpart to the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, drapers father-in-law was the diarist John Evelyn, who in 1703 pronounced the house in all points of good and solid architecture to be one of the very best gentlemans houses in Surrey, when finishd. By the late 18th century the house was in the ownership of Charles James Clarke, regular visitors during Liverpools tenure included King George III and William Pitt. Following the death of Lord Liverpool in December 1808, Addiscombe Place was put on the market by Emelius Delmé-Radcliffe and it was bought by the Court of Directors of the East India Company for use as a military academy. They were now to be trained at Addiscombe, the doors of the Seminary opened on 21 January 1809, although the formal transfer of title of the property did not take place until a year later, on 26 January 1810. The initial purchase comprised the house and 58 acres of land to the south of Lower Addiscombe Road. New buildings were added, so that the house, which originally housed the entire establishment. In the early days cadets entered the Seminary between the ages of 13½ and 16, and later between 15 and 18 and they normally remained for 4 terms, although it was possible to pass the final examination within a shorter period. The initial intake comprised 60 cadets, but numbers rose to about 75 a year, Cadets or their families were required to pay fees, but these were heavily subsidised and represented only a proportion of the true costs of their education. In all, some 3,600 cadets passed through Addiscombe during the years of its existence, of these, over 500 entered the Engineers, nearly 1,100 the Artillery, and about 2,000 the Infantry, some of whom subsequently transferred to the Cavalry. In practice, the emphasis was on mathematics, and the Seminary was criticised for not including more training in military science. In the 1850s photography was also studied, J. M. Cadets were required to wear uniforms at all times, and were not permitted to go beyond the grounds or into Croydon without permission. However, they gained a reputation for indiscipline, and fights with the townspeople of Croydon were not infrequent, there was no corporal punishment, but in the early years cadets could be punished by being incarcerated in the so-called Black Hole, and fed on bread and water. Until 1829 they worshipped regularly at Croydon Parish Church, after that date they began to worship at the newly consecrated St Jamess Church, the days events are described in one account as a performance carefully prepared and rehearsed beforehand
29.
Addiscombe
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Addiscombe /ˈædᵻskəm/ is an area of south London within the London Borough of Croydon. It is located east of Croydon, and is situated 9.1 miles south of Charing Cross, Addiscombe is also a ward, which had a population of 16,883 in 2011. There are several schools, including the Trinity School of John Whitgift, Archbishop Tenisons School, Oasis Academy Shirley Park. Addiscombe as a name is Anglo-Saxon in origin, and means Eadda or Æddis estate from an Anglo-Saxon personal name. The same Anglo-Saxon land-owner may have given his name to Addington around two miles to the north-west, by the 13th century, Addiscombe formed part of Croydon Manor, and was known as enclosed land belonging to Eadda. The area was a rural and heavily wooded area, remaining so until the late 19th Century and its main industries were farming and brick-making. Clay deposits at Woodside provided the raw materials for the latter, during the Tudor period, Addiscombe was a large country estate a mile from Croydon owned by the Heron family. Sir Nicholas Heron, who died in 1586, is interred in Croydon Parish Church, the estate passed through several owners until 1650 when it was sold to Sir Purbeck Temple, a member of the Privy Council in the time of Charles II. When William Draper died in 1718, he left his estate to his son of the name and it was then passed to his nephew. In 1702, Addiscombe Place was built to Sir John Vanbrughs design and he was best known for Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard and was a prime exponent of the English Baroque style. The house was built on a site which is now the corner of Outram Road and it became known as one of three great houses in Addiscombe, the others being Ashburton House and Stroud Green House. It replaced the fine Elizabethan mansion built by Thomas Heron in 1516, John Evelyn recorded in his Diary I went to Adscomb on 11 July 1703 to see my son-in-law’s new house. It has excellent brickwork and Portland stone features, that I pronounced it good solid architecture, distinguished guests who stayed at the mansion include George III, William Pitt and Peter the Great of Russia. Peter the Great was reputed to have planted a tree in Mulberry Lane to record his visit. During the 18th Century Addiscombe Place was successively the home to The Lord Talbot, The Lord Grantham and lastly The Earl of Liverpool, who died there in 1808. In 1809, Emelius Ratcliffe sold the Addiscombe Place to the British East India Company for £15,500, the company dealt in the importation of tea, coffee, silk, cotton, and spices, and maintained its own private army. The officers of this army were trained at Addiscombe before setting off for India, after the Indian Mutiny of 1857 the British Government took over control of British India and amalgamated the forces of the Company with the Presidency armies. The military seminary was closed in 1861 and the remaining cadets transferred to the Royal Military College, in 1863, the seminary buildings were sold for £33,600 to developers who razed most of them to the ground
30.
Croydon
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Croydon is a large town in south London, England,9.5 miles south of Charing Cross. The principal settlement in the London Borough of Croydon, it is one of the largest commercial districts outside Central London, with a shopping district. Its population of 52,104 at the 2011 census includes the wards of Addiscombe, Broad Green, Croydon expanded in the Middle Ages as a market town and a centre for charcoal production, leather tanning and brewing. The Surrey Iron Railway from Croydon to Wandsworth opened in 1803 and was the worlds first public railway, later nineteenth century railway building facilitated Croydons growth as a commuter town for London. By the early 20th century, Croydon was an important industrial area, known for car manufacture, metal working, Croydon was amalgamated into Greater London in 1965. Road traffic is diverted away from a largely pedestrianised town centre, East Croydon is a major hub of the national railway transport system, with frequent fast services to central London, Brighton and the south coast. The town is unique in Greater London for its Tramlink light rail transport system, alternative, although less probable, theories of the names origin have been proposed. According to John Corbett Anderson, The earliest mention of Croydon is in the joint will of Beorhtric and Aelfswth, in this Anglo-Saxon document the name is spelt Crogdaene. Crog was, and still is, the Norse or Danish word for crooked, which is expressed in Anglo-Saxon by crumb, from the Danish came our crook and crooked. This term accurately describes the locality, it is a crooked or winding valley, in reference to the valley runs in an oblique. However, there was no long-term Danish occupation in Surrey, which was part of Wessex, and Danish-derived nomenclature is also highly unlikely. The town lies on the line of the Roman road from London to Portslade, later, in the 5th to 7th centuries, a large pagan Saxon cemetery was situated on what is now Park Lane, although the extent of any associated settlement is unknown. By the late Saxon period Croydon was the hub of an estate belonging to the Archbishops of Canterbury, the church and the archbishops manor house occupied the area still known as Old Town. Croydon appears in Domesday Book as Croindene, held by Archbishop Lanfranc and its Domesday assets were,16 hides and 1 virgate,1 church,1 mill worth 5s,38 ploughs,8 acres of meadow, woodland worth 200 hogs. The church had established in the middle Saxon period, and was probably a minster church. A charter issued by King Coenwulf of Mercia refers to a council that had taken place close to the monasterium of Croydon, an Anglo-Saxon will made in about 960 is witnessed by Elfsies, priest of Croydon, and the church is also mentioned in Domesday Book. The will of John de Croydon, fishmonger, dated 6 December 1347, includes a bequest to the church of S John de Croydon, the church still bears the arms of Archbishop Courtenay and Archbishop Chichele, believed to have been its benefactors. In 1276 Archbishop Robert Kilwardby acquired a charter for a market
31.
Royal School of Military Engineering
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The Peninsular War revealed deficiencies in the training and knowledge of officers and men in the conduct of siege operations and bridging. During this war low ranking Royal Engineers officers carried out large scale operations and they had under their command working parties of two or three battalions of infantry, two or three thousand men, who knew nothing in the art of siegeworks. Royal Engineers officers had to demonstrate the simplest tasks to the soldiers often while under enemy fire, several officers were lost and could not be replaced and a better system of training for siege operations was required. The need for a school was highlighted by problems experienced during the Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo In January 1812, Captain Charles Pasley who had been pressing for such an establishment since 1809 was selected as the first Director with the rank of major. The location chosen was Chatham which was, at that time, the town was surrounded by batteries, bastions and ditches designed to be defended by 7000 men and so provided excellent areas for training in siege operations. Pasley received his orders to move from Plymouth on 2 May 1812, in 1815 Pasley recommended that the Royal Sappers and Miners Training Depot at Woolwich be closed, to concentrate all training at Chatham. But that was not achieved until 1850 when the training Depot was moved to Brompton Barracks, the move was made possible by the completion of North Kent Railway, which facilitated a fast transport link into London. The Headquarters of the Royal Engineers, also based in Woolwich, was not moved to Chatham until 1857, the first courses at the Royal Engineers Establishment were done on an all ranks basis with the greatest regard to economy. To reduce staff the NCOs and officers were responsible for instructing and examining the soldiers, if the men could not read or write they were taught to do so and those that could read and write were taught to draw and interpret simple plans. The Royal Engineers Establishment quickly became the centre of excellence for all fieldworks, Pasley was keen to confirm his teaching and regular exercises were held as demonstrations or as experiments to improve the techniques and teaching of the Establishment. From 1833 bridging skills were demonstrated annually by the building of a bridge across the Medway which was proved by the infantry of the garrison. Immediately recruits started to arrive - in the first six weeks of the war 15,000 men arrived, a hundred recruits per day had been expected to arrive but they arrived at a rate of two hundred rising to a peak of nine hundred per day. The Depot coped so well with this influx that on 3 October 1914, the courses at Chatham had to change to produce soldiers at the rate required by the war. Training in the Construction, Survey and Electrical Schools was cut back to allow for increases in fieldworks, recruit courses were cut from eight months to four months and a batch of thirty officers arrived every month for five months training. After the war, the SME returned to its training role. In 1920 officers started to go to Cambridge University for one year courses. This was limited to officers who then also had to do one year at SME. Between the wars sports were an important part of life at SME, the barracks had an open-air swimming pool
32.
Commission (document)
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A commission is a formal document issued to appoint a named person to high office or as a commissioned officer in a territorys armed forces. Commissions are typically issued in the name of or signed by the Head of State, however the document is not usually in the form of a scroll and is more often printed on paper instead of parchment. In Canada, there is a differentiation in terminology according to rank, officers are accorded commissioning scripts whereas Chief Warrant Officers are accorded scrolls. Here is an example from Canada, ELIZABETH THE SECOND, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, Canada and Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, hereby appointed an Officer in Her Majestys Canadian Armed Forces With Seniority of the. WE reposing especial Trust and Confidence in your Loyalty, Courage and Integrity do by these Presents Constitute and you are therefore carefully and diligently to discharge your Duty as such in the Rank of. IN WITNESS Whereof our Governor General of Canada hath hereunto set his hand, to Mr. hereby appointed Sub Lieutenant in Her Majestys Canadian Fleet. Hereof nor you nor any of you may fail as you answer the contrary at your Peril. And for so doing so this shall be Your Commission, Officers in the Swedish Armed Forces have not received written commissions since 1982 when a new employment structure was instituted by law. They are nowadays hired on contracts, as in any other civil service position, prior to 1982 all officers received written certificates of commission, each signed by the King of Sweden. The wording used prior to 1982 in translation would be, We N. N. By the Grace of God, King of the Swedes, the Goths and the Wends, make known and this for the observance of all. To our Trusty and Well Beloved, greeting, We, reposing especial Trust and Confidence in your Loyalty, Courage, and good Conduct, do by these Presents Constitute and Appoint you to be an Officer in Our Royal Naval Reserve from the. You are therefore carefully and diligently to discharge your Duty as such in the Rank of, given at Our Court, at Saint Jamess the. Year of Our Reign By Her Majestys Command The above would be signed by the Queen, the naval officers commission was worded as follows, By the Commissioners for Executing the Office of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom. Hereby appointed a. in Her Majestys Fleet, by Virtue of the Power of Authority to us given by Her Majestys Letters Patent under the Great Seal, We do hereby constitute and appoint you a. in Her Majestys Fleet. Given under our hands and the Seal of the Office of Admiralty this, hereby appointed Lieutenant of His Majestys Ship the. By Virtue of the Power and Authority to us given We do hereby constitute, willing and requiring you forthwith to go on board and take upon you the Charge and Command of Lieutenant in her accordingly. Hereof nor you nor any of you may fail as you answer the contrary at your peril
33.
Bengal Engineer Group
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The Bengal Sappers have their regimental centre at Roorkee Cantonment in Roorkee city, Uttarakhand. Besides service on the battlefield, the Bengal Engineers also rendered valuable peacetime contributions, the military engineer, Lt. James Agg, designed St Johns Church in Calcutta. It was based on James Gibbss St Martin-in-the-Fields in London and was consecrated in 1787, wood at Kanpur as Bengal Pioneers in November 1803, also known as Roorkee Safar Maina. The remaining part of the Corps of Bengal Pioneers was absorbed in 1833, in 1843 Broadfoots Sappers, which had been raised in 1840, merged into the Bengal Sappers and Miners. In 1847 the Bengal Sappers and Miners was renamed Bengal Sappers and Pioneers, on 7 November 1853, the regiment moved to Roorkee, where it has maintained its regimental centre ever since. Lord Kitcheners reforms in 1903 saw it redesignated as the 1st Sappers and Miners, in 1937 it was renamed King George Vs Bengal Sappers and Miners, and in 1941 they became the King George Vs Bengal Sappers and Miners Group of the Indian Engineers. In 1946 it became the King George Vs Group of the Royal Indian Engineers, on Indian independence and partition in 1947, about half of the serving personnel were allocated to the Pakistan Royal Engineers. In 1950 they became the Bengal Centre, Corps of Engineers, after which they became the Bengal Engineer Group, Short Histories, The Indian Sappers and Miners, By Lieut. -Colonel E. W. C. Published by The Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham,1948, calendar of battles, honours and awards, King George Vs Own Bengal Sappers & Miners from 1803 to 1939, by Rhamat Ullan Khan, ca. History and digest of service of the 1st King Georges Own Sappers & Miners, Roorkee, 1st Kings Own Press, Regimental history of the King Georges Own Bengal Sappers & Miners. Roorkee, KGO Sappers & Miners Press,1937, Corps reunion and the unveiling of the war memorial.1927. History of the Corps of Royal Engineers, by Great Britain Army, the Bengal Sappers 1803–2003, by General Sir George Cooper GCB MC and Major David Alexander. The Military Engineer in India, by Lt. Col. E. W. C Sandes, a Short history of the Corps of King Georges Own Bengal Sappers & Miners during the War, 1914-1918. Brief history of the K. G. Vs own Bengal Sappers and Miners Group, Roorkee, Pearson,1947. org Bengal Sappers and Miners and the Victoria Cross
34.
Indian Rebellion of 1857
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The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857–58 against British rule. For nearly 100 years, that rule had been presided over by the British East India Company, the rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Companys army in the garrison town of Meerut,40 miles northeast of Delhi. It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a threat to British power in that region. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities formally to have ended until 8 July 1859. The rebellion is known by names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection. Many Indians did rise against the British, however, very many also fought for the British, after the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi, whose 81-year-old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, they declared the Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, the rebels had captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces. The East India Companys response came rapidly as well, with help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857, and Delhi by the end of September. However, it took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow. Other regions of Company controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, in the Punjab, the Sikh princes crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system, even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian- and British Empire history. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj, on 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects. In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, the victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the granted the Company the right to the collection of Revenue in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras, later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars, in 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys. After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories and this was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation
35.
Udny Yule
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George Udny Yule FRS, usually known as Udny Yule, was a British statistician, born at Beech Hill, a house in Morham near Haddington, Scotland and died in Cambridge, England. He came from an established Scottish family composed of officers, civil servants, scholars. His father, Sir George Udny Yule was a brother of the noted orientalist Sir Henry Yule, in 1899, Yule married May Winifred. The marriage was annulled in 1912, they didnt have any children, Udny Yule was educated at Winchester College and at the age of 16 at University College London where he read engineering. Pearson was beginning to work in statistics and Yule followed him into new field. Yule progressed to an assistant professorship but he left in 1899 to a position as secretary to an examination board. In 1912 Yule moved to Cambridge University to a newly created Lectureship in Statistics, during the First World War Yule worked for the army and then for the Ministry of Food. A heart attack in 1931 left him semi-invalided and led to his early retirement and his flow of publications almost ceased but, in the 1940s he found new interests, one of which led to a book, The Statistical Study of Literary Vocabulary. Yule was a writer, the highlight of his publications being perhaps the textbook Introduction to the Theory of Statistics. He was active in the Royal Statistical Society, was awarded its Guy Medal in Gold in 1911, yule’s first paper on statistics appeared in 1895, On the Correlation of Total Pauperism with Proportion of Out-relief. Yule was interested in applying statistical techniques to problems and he quickly became a member of the Royal Statistical Society. For many years the members interested in mathematical statistics were Yule, Edgeworth. In 1897–99 Yule wrote important papers on correlation and regression), after 1900 he worked on a theory of association. His approach to association was quite different from Pearson’s and relations between them deteriorated, Yule had broad interests and his collaborators included the agricultural meteorologist R. H. Hooker, the medical statistician Major Greenwood and the agricultural scientist Sir Frank Engledow. Yule’s sympathy towards the newly rediscovered Mendelian theory of genetics led to several papers, in 1925 Yule published the paper A Mathematical Theory of Evolution, based on the Conclusions of Dr. J. C. Willis, F. R. S. where he proposes a process that leads to a distribution with a power-law tail — in this case. This was later called the Yule process, but is now known as preferential attachment. Herbert A. Simon dubbed the resulting distribution the Yule distribution in his honor, Yule made important contributions to the theory and practice of correlation, regression, and association, as well as to time series analysis
36.
Kolkata
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Kolkata /koʊlˈkɑːtɑː/ is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. In 2011, the city had a population of 4.5 million, while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. Recent estimates of Kolkata Metropolitan Areas economy have ranged from $60 to $150 billion making it third most-productive metropolitan area in India, after Mumbai, in the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756, and the East India Company retook it the following year. In 1793 the East India company was enough to abolish Nizamat. Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement, it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics, following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics, suffered several decades of economic stagnation. Many people from Kolkata—among them several Nobel laureates—have contributed to the arts, the sciences, Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods and freestyle intellectual exchanges. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football, there are several explanations about the etymology of this name, The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô, meaning Field of Kali. Similarly, it can be a variation of Kalikshetra, alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila, or flat area. The name may have its origin in the words khal meaning canal, followed by kaṭa, according to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun and coir or kata, hence, it was called Kolikata. The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh,35 kilometres north of Kolkata, Kolkatas recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. The area occupied by the city encompassed three villages, Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a village, Sutanuti was a riverside weavers village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor and these rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698. In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and his warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked, he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta. A force of Company soldiers and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year, declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1772. In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took control of the city
37.
Bengal
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Bengal is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in Asia, which is located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, in 2011, the population of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million, making it the most densely populated region in South Asia. An estimated 160 million people live in Bangladesh, while 91.3 million people live in West Bengal, the predominant ethno-linguistic group are the Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language. Bengali Muslims are the majority in Bangladesh, Bengali Hindus are the majority in West Bengal. Dense woodlands, including rainforests, cover Bengals northern and eastern areas. In the littoral southwest are the Sunderbans, the worlds largest mangrove forest, in the coastal southeast lies Coxs Bazaar, the longest beach in the world at 125 km. The region has a climate, which the Bengali calendar divides into six seasons. Bengal has played a role in the history of Asia. In antiquity, its kingdoms were known as seafaring nations, at times an independent regional empire, or a bastion of larger empires, the historical region was a leading power of the Indian subcontinent and the Islamic East. Bengali culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature, music, art, architecture, sports, currency, commerce, politics and cuisine. The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga, theories on the origin of the term Banga point to the Proto-Dravidian Bong tribe that settled in the area circa 1000 BCE and the Austric word Bong. The term Bangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th century South Indian records, the modern term Bangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the Shah of Bangala. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the Age of Discovery, most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, the total area of Bengal is 232,752 km2—West Bengal is 88,752 km2 and Bangladesh 147,570 km2. The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet regions are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres above the sea level, because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres, a major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered, West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south
38.
Meghalaya
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Meghalaya is a state in northeast India. The name means the abode of clouds in Sanskrit, the population of Meghalaya as of 2016 is estimated to be 3,211,474. Meghalaya covers an area of approximately 22,430 square kilometers, the state is bounded to the south by the Bangladeshi divisions of Mymensingh and Sylhet, to the west by the Bangladeshi division of Rangpur, and to the north and east by Indias State of Assam. The capital of Meghalaya is Shillong, during the British occupation of India, the British imperialist authorities nicknamed it the Scotland of the East. Meghalaya was previously part of Assam, but on 21 January 1972, English is the official language of Meghalaya. The other principal languages spoken include Khasi, Pnar, Hajong, Rabha, Garo, the state is the wettest region of India, recording an average of 12,000 mm of rains a year. About 70% of the state is forested, the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion encompasses the state, its mountain forests are distinct from the lowland tropical forests to the north and south. The forests are notable for their biodiversity of mammals, birds, Meghalaya has predominantly an agrarian economy with a significant commercial forestry industry. The important crops are potatoes, rice, maize, pineapples, bananas, papayas, spices, the service sector is made up of real estate and insurance companies. Meghalayas gross state product for 2012 was estimated at ₹16,173 crore in current prices. The state is rich in minerals, but it has no significant industries. The state has about 1,170 km of national highways and it is also a major logistical center for trade with Bangladesh. Ancient Meghalaya, along with neighboring Indian states, have been of archeological interest, people have lived here since neolithic era. Neolithic sites discovered so far are located in areas of high elevation such as in Khasi Hills, Garo Hills, here neolithic style jhum or shifting cultivation is practiced even today. The highland plateaus fed by abundant rains provided safety from floods, the importance of Meghalaya is its possible role in human history through domestication of rice. The limited archeology done in the hills of Meghalaya suggest human settlement since ancient times, modern history Meghalaya was formed by carving out two districts from the state of Assam, the United Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills, and the Garo Hills on 21 January 1972. Before attaining full statehood, Meghalaya was given semi-autonomous status in 1970, the Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes had their own kingdoms until they came under British administration in the 19th century. Later, the British incorporated Meghalaya into Assam in 1835, the region enjoyed semi-independent status by virtue of a treaty relationship with the British Crown
39.
Karnal
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Karnal, is a city located in the NCR and the headquarters of Karnal District in the Indian state of Haryana. It is one of the Counter-Magnet cities, Karnal was also known as Karnaal, Kurnaul or Karnaul during the British Raj. This Ang Raaj was later developed by Karna which is Karnal today, Karnal has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Karnal is also the place of first Indo-American women astronaut Kalpana Chawla who went to space twice. She first flew on the Space Shuttle Columbia in 1997 as a mission specialist, in 2003, Chawla was one of the seven crew members that died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Former Chief of Naval Staff of the Pakistan Navy Admiral Iftikhar Ahmed Sirohey, was also from Karnal
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Delhi
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Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi or NCT, is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east, the NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres. According to 2011 census, Delhis city population was about 11 million, Delhis urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people making it the worlds second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a wealth of $450 billion. Delhi has been inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and it has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. New Delhi is jointly administered by the government of India and the local government of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a unique interstate regional planning area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985, Delhi ranks among the cities with the worst air pollution in the world. There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi, one of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal, according to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali, another theory suggests that the citys original name was Dhillika. The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas, the city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring, aas-paas barse, Dilli pani tarse, literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty. The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC, the city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called Khandavaprastha which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha, the earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period, in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight cities have been discovered in Delhi
