1.
Living history
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Living history is an activity that incorporates historical tools, activities and dress into an interactive presentation that seeks to give observers and participants a sense of stepping back in time. Although it does not necessarily seek to reenact a specific event in history, living history is similar to, Living history approach to gain authenticity is less about replaying a certain event according to a planned script as in other reenactment fields. List, himself a right wing neopagan, asked his staff of landlords and he also asked to have any visitors redressed in costumes and described rituals to signify in-game and out-game status to enhance the immersion experience. E. g. the role of the garment is of interest till today, the term living history describes the performance of bringing history to life for the general public in a rather freewheeling manner. The players are confined in their actions, but often have to stay at a certain place or building. The line between amateur and professional presentations at living history museums can be blurred, same as the border to Live action role-playing games. Such events do not necessarily include a battle but aim at portraying the life. This often includes both military and civilian impressions, occasionally, storytelling or acting sketches take place to involve or explain the everyday life or military activity to the viewing public. More common are craft and cooking demonstrations, song and leisure activities, combat training or duels can also be encountered even when larger combat demonstrations are not present. In the United States, The National Park Service land, NPS policy does not allow for battle reenactments on NPS property, there are exceptions i. e. Saylors Creek, Gettysburg. So e. g. the Peter and Paul festival in Bretten, the Landshut Wedding or the Schloss Kaltenberg knights tournament. The majority of combat reenactment groups are battlefield reenactment groups, some of which have become isolated to some degree because of a focus on authenticity. Events with the professional reenactment-group Ulfhednar lead to a controversy in German archaeology, the German Polish living history group was supported by large museums and scholars and, since 2000 has largely coined the image of early history in Germany and international. Among others, a paper with the programmatic title Under the crocheted Swastika, Germanic Living History and that sort of second hand living history is as well part of western Germany folklore and tries for a high level of authenticity. Activities may be confined to wearing period dress and perhaps explaining relevant historical information, while many museums allow their staff to move in and out of character to better answer visitor questions, some encourage their staff to stay in role at all times. Living history portrayal often involves demonstrating everyday activities such as cooking, cleaning, medical care, or particular skills, considerable research is often applied to identifying authentic techniques and often recreating replica tools and equipment. Historical reenactment groups often attempt to organize such displays in an encampment or display area at an event, during the 1990s, reenactment groups, primarily American Civil War groups, began to show interest in this style of interpretation and began using it at their reenactments. Living history can be a used to bridge the gap between school and daily life to educate people on historical topics
2.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
3.
Tank locomotive
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A tank locomotive or tank engine is a steam locomotive that carries its water in one or more on-board water tanks, instead of a more traditional tender. A tank engine may also have a bunker to hold fuel, there are several different types of tank locomotive, distinguished by the position and style of the water tanks and fuel bunkers. The most common type has tanks mounted either side of the boiler and this type originated about 1840 and quickly became popular for industrial tasks, and later for shunting and shorter distance main line duties. Tank locomotives have advantages and disadvantages compared to traditional tender locomotives, the first tank locomotive was the Novelty that ran at the Rainhill Trials in 1829. It was an example of a Well Tank and these were E. B. Wilson and Company, William Fairbairn & Sons, George England, Kitson Thompson and Hewitson and William Bridges Adams. By the mid-1850s tank locomotives were to be performing a variety of main line and industrial roles. There are a number of types of locomotive, based on the location. These include the side tank, the tank, the pannier tank. A configuration very common in the U. K, the water is contained in rectangular tanks mounted on either side of the locomotive, near to the boiler but not quite touching. The tank sides extend down to the platform, if such is present. The length of side tanks was limited in order to give access to the inside motion. If it was desired to extend them to the front of the locomotive for greater capacity, with larger side tanks it was sometimes necessary to taper the tanks slightly at the front end to improve forward visibility. Side tanks almost all stopped at, or before, the end of the boiler barrel, a few designs did reach to the front of the smokebox and these were termed flatirons. The water tank sits on top of the boiler like a saddle sits atop a horse, usually the tank is curved in cross-section, although in some cases there were straight sides surmounted by a curve, or even an ogee shape. Saddle tanks were a popular arrangement especially for smaller locomotives in industrial use and it gave a greater water supply, but limited the size of the boiler and restricted access to it for cleaning. However, the locomotive has a centre of gravity and hence must operate at lower speeds. The drivers vision may also be restricted, again restricting the safe speed, Water in the tank is slightly pre-heated by the boiler, which reduces the loss of pressure found when cold feedwater is injected into the boiler. However if the water becomes too hot, injectors lose efficiency, for this reason, the tanks often stopped short of the hotter and uninsulated smokebox
4.
Water crane
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A water crane is a device used for delivering a large volume of water into the tank or tender of a steam locomotive. The device is also called a water column in the United States. Generally, water cranes consist of a steel pipe about 8 to 12 inches in diameter with a horizontal. The swinging arm is designed to rest parallel to the rails when not in use. Water cranes may be able to deliver up to ten metres of water per minute. In hilly country, natural streams can be dammed and water fed by gravity to the water crane, in flatter country this arrangement is not always possible, so water may be supplied by a tank next to the crane. Water tanks may vary in volume from 190 kilolitres to greater than 757 kilolitres, in some cases a well may be used to supply the water to the tank. Depending on the quality of the water supply, it may need to be treated chemically to eliminate hardness which induces scale buildup on the inside of the locomotive boiler. The scale which builds up on heat transfer surfaces forms a layer of insulation between the metal and the boiler water and this causes metal to overheat or corrode and eventually fail
5.
Bishops Lydeard
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Bishops Lydeard is a village and civil parish located in Somerset, England,5 miles north-west of Taunton in the district of Taunton Deane. The civil parish had a population of 2,839 persons as recorded in the 2011 census, the village is bypassed, since 1967, by the A358 road, the West Somerset Railway also runs through the area. The hamlet of East Lydeard is less than a mile to the east of the village, west of the village is Sandhill Park, an eighteenth-century country house. The name of the village relates to Gisa, Bishop of Wells. Lydeard is a compound of two Saxon personal names Lide and Geard, the remaining as a local name, Yarde. As well as a name, geard means a fence, enclosure. The parish of Bishops Lydeard was part of the Kilmersdon Hundred, Cotford St Luke is a new village, built in the southern part of Bishops Lydeard parish, which became a separate civil parish in 2011, splitting off from Bishops Lydeard. The parish council has responsibility for issues, including setting an annual precept to cover the council’s operating costs. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security. Conservation matters and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council, the village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of Taunton Deane, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Taunton Rural District. There is a ward with the same name as the parish. However the most populous area of the ward is at Cotford St. Luke from where it visits Halse, the ward has a population of 6,323 as at the 2011 Census. It is also part of a county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, there were originally two flour mills in the Bishops Lydeard. The Bishops Lydeard Mill and Rural Life Museum is housed in a building which dates from the 18th century and it has an overshot waterwheel and has been designated as a Grade II listed building. Since 2000 the building has been renovated and was opened by the town Mayor in 2003, the water wheel weighs over two tonnes and is driven by water from Back Stream which originates in the Brendon Hills. The museum focuses on traditional trades and crafts including a shop, coopers shop, saddlers shop, blacksmiths shop. Sandhill Park was built as a house around 1720. It was built by John Periam, the Member of Parliament for Minehead, as Hill House, during World War I it was used as a prisoner of war camp for German and Austrian Officers
6.
West Somerset Railway
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The West Somerset Railway is a 22. 75-mile heritage railway line in Somerset, England. The WSR plc operates services using heritage steam and diesel trains. It originally opened in 1862 between Taunton and Watchet, in 1874 it was extended from Watchet to Minehead by the Minehead Railway. Although just a track, improvements were needed in the first half of the twentieth century to accommodate the significant number of tourists that wished to travel to the Somerset coast. The line was closed by British Rail in 1971 and reopened in 1976 as a heritage line and it is the longest standard gauge independent heritage railway in the United Kingdom. Services normally operate over just the 20.5 miles between Minehead and Bishops Lydeard, during special events some trains continue a further two miles to Norton Fitzwarren where a connection to Network Rail allows occasional through trains to operate onto the national network. In 1845, when the Bristol and Exeter Railway had recently completed its line, there were proposals for a number of different. This prompted the promotion of a line from Williton to Minehead and Porlock. Shortly afterwards, a Bristol and English Channels Connection Railway was suggested from Stolford to Bridport which would have passed through the Quantock Hills near Crowcombe. An alternative link to South Devon was proposed by the Exeter, Tiverton and Minehead Direct Railway through Dunster, none of these schemes were pursued and it was to be more than ten years before schemes for railways in the area were to be again proposed. On 9 July 1856, a meeting was held at Williton to discuss a West Somerset Railway from Watchet to join the B&ER at either Taunton or Bridgwater. An alternative route may have been possible north through Wiveliscombe to Washford where it could connect with the West Somerset Mineral Railway which was then under construction, the line would enable the cheap import of coal from south Wales into Somerset. The promoters had approached Isambard Kingdom Brunel for his views as the engineer of the B&ER. This first meeting had been dominated by people from Minehead, Wiveliscombe and Bridgwater but, on 1 August 1856, Brunel explained to those present the advantages of the different routes and gave some weight to the argument for a route to Bridgwater with a long tunnel under the Quantocks. He also suggested that the line should be continued to Minehead or Porlock, Brunel was engaged to undertake a more detailed survey and the B&ER agreed to operate the line for ten years in return for 45% of the receipts. A prospectus was issued to raise the required £120,000, the railways engineer, George Furness of London, started construction on 7 April 1859 at Crowcombe and construction lasted for nearly three years. The railway opened for passengers from Watchet Junction to Watchet on 31 March 1862, trains were operated through to Taunton railway station as no station was provided at the junction. The West Somerset Mineral Railway was intended to link the iron-ore mines of the Brendon Hills with the harbour at Watchet, instead, an Act for a new Minehead Railway was passed on 5 July 1865 to build a line from the WSR at Watchet to Minehead
7.
Truss bridge
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A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss, a structure of connected elements usually forming triangular units. The connected elements may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads, Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss bridges shown in this article have simple designs which could be analyzed by 19th-. A truss bridge is economical to construct because it uses materials efficiently, the nature of a truss allows the analysis of the structure using a few assumptions and the application of Newtons laws of motion according to the branch of physics known as statics. For purposes of analysis, trusses are assumed to be pin jointed where the components meet. This assumption means that members of the truss will act only in tension or compression, a more complex analysis is required where rigid joints impose significant bending loads upon the elements, as in a Vierendeel truss. The central vertical member stabilizes the upper member, preventing it from buckling. If the top member is sufficiently stiff then this element may be eliminated. If the lower chord is sufficiently resistant to bending and shear, the vertical elements may be eliminated. The ability to distribute the forces in various ways has led to a variety of truss bridge types. In other cases the appearance of the structure may take on greater importance, a pure truss can be represented as a pin-jointed structure, one where the only forces on the truss members are tension or compression, not bending. This is used in the teaching of statics, by the building of bridges from spaghetti. Spaghetti is brittle and although it can carry a modest tension force, a model spaghetti bridge thus demonstrates the use of a truss structure to produce a usefully strong complete structure from individually weak elements. In 1820 a simple form of truss, Towns lattice truss, was patented, few iron truss bridges were built in the United States before 1850. Truss bridges became a type of bridge built from the 1870s through the 1930s. Examples of these still remain across the US, but their numbers are dropping rapidly. As metal slowly started to replace timber, wrought iron bridges in the US started being built on a scale in the 1870s. Bowstring truss bridges were a common truss design during this time, companies like the Massillon Bridge Company of Massillon, Ohio and the King Bridge Company of Cleveland, Ohio became well-known, as they marketed their designs to cities and townships
8.
Serbia
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Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
9.
Railroad switch
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A railroad switch, turnout or points is a mechanical installation enabling railway trains to be guided from one track to another, such as at a railway junction or where a spur or siding branches off. The switch consists of the pair of linked tapering rails, known as points and these points can be moved laterally into one of two positions to direct a train coming from the point blades toward the straight path or the diverging path. A train moving from the end toward the point blades is said to be executing a facing-point movement. Passage through a switch in this direction is known as a trailing-point movement, a switch generally has a straight through track and a diverging route. The handedness of the installation is described by the side that the track leaves. Right-hand switches have a path to the right of the straight track, when coming from the point blades. In many cases, such as yards, many switches can be found in a short section of track. Sometimes a switch merely divides one track into two, at others, it serves as a connection between two or more tracks, allowing a train to switch between them. A straight track is not always present, for example, both tracks may curve, one to the left and one to the right, or both tracks may curve, with differing radii, while still in the same direction. A railroad cars wheels are guided along the tracks by coning of the wheels, only in extreme cases does it rely on the flanges located on the insides of the wheels. When the wheels reach the switch, the wheels are guided along the route determined by which of the two points is connected to the track facing the switch. In the illustration, if the point is connected, the left wheel will be guided along the rail of that point. If the right point is connected, the right wheels flange will be guided along the rail of that point, and the train will continue along the straight track. Only one of the points may be connected to the track at any time. A mechanism is provided to move the points from one position to the other, historically, this would require a lever to be moved by a human operator, and some switches are still controlled this way. However, most are now operated by a remotely controlled electric motor or by pneumatic or hydraulic actuation and this both allows for remote control and for stiffer, strong switches that would be too difficult to move by hand, yet allow for higher speeds. In a trailing-point movement, the flanges on the wheels will force the points to the proper position and this is sometimes known as running through the switch. Some switches are designed to be forced to the position without damage
10.
Soundscape
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The soundscape is the component of the acoustic environment that can be perceived by humans. There is a history of the use of soundscape depending on discipline - ranging from urban design to wildlife ecology. An important distinction is to separate soundscape from the term acoustic environment. The acoustic environment is the combination of all the resources within a given area - natural sounds. The International Organization for Standardization standardized these definitions in 2014, the term soundscape was first described by Canadian composer and environmentalist, R. Murray Schafer. According to this there are three main elements of the soundscape, A soundscape is a sound or combination of sounds that forms or arises from an immersive environment. The study of soundscape is the subject of acoustic ecology, the disruption of these acoustic environments results in noise pollution. Pauline Oliveros, composer of post-World War II electronic art music, defined the term soundscape as All of the waveforms faithfully transmitted to our audio cortex by the ear, keynote sounds This is a musical term that identifies the key of a piece, not always audible. The key might stray from the original, but it will return, the keynote sounds may not always be heard consciously, but they outline the character of the people living there. They are created by nature, wind, water, forests, plains, birds, insects, in many urban areas, traffic has become the keynote sound. Sound signals These are foreground sounds, which are listened to consciously, examples would be warning devices, bells, whistles, horns, sirens, soundmark This is derived from the term landmark. A soundmark is a sound which is unique to an area, biophony Consisting of the prefix, bio and the suffix for sound, this term refers to all of the non-human, non-domestic biological soundscape sources of sound. Anthropophony Consisting of the prefix, anthro, this refers to all of the sound signatures generated by humans. In music, soundscape compositions are often a form of electronic music, composers who use soundscapes include real-time granular synthesis pioneer Barry Truax, Hildegard Westerkamp, and Luc Ferrari, whose Presque rien, numéro 1 is an early soundscape composition. The work landed on the ground of Titan in 2005 after traveling inside the spacecraft Huygens over seven years, irv Teibels Environments series consisted of 30-minute, uninterrupted environmental soundscapes and synthesized or processed versions of natural sound. Music soundscapes can also be generated by automated software methods, such as the experimental TAPESTREA application, a framework for design and soundscape composition. The soundscape is often the subject of mimicry in Timbre-centered music such as Tuvan throat singing, the process of Timbral Listening is used to interpret the timbre of the soundscape. This timbre is mimicked and reproduced using the voice or rich harmonic producing instruments, the soundscape consists of three major sources or components
11.
Token (railway signalling)
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In railway signalling, a token is a physical object which a locomotive driver is required to have or see before entering onto a particular section of single track. The token is clearly endorsed with the names of the section it belongs to, a token system is used for single lines because of the very much greater risk of serious collision in the event of irregular working by signalmen or traincrews, than on double lines. Such a system is known as one engine in steam, such schemes were used, and indeed still are used on some branches of rail networks, and on heritage railways. The main problem with such a scheme is that it is best suited to an isolated branch of single track line. That object is known as a token and is marked to indicate to which single track section it belongs. Tokens have existed in a variety of forms, staff tablet ball key The token system was developed in Britain in the 19th century. If a branch line is an end with a simple shuttle train service. The driver of any entering the branch line must be in possession of the token. For convenience in passing it from hand to hand, the token was often in the form of a staff, typically 800 mm long and 40 mm diameter, and is referred to as a train staff. Such a staff is usually literally a wooden staff with a brass plate stating the two signal boxes between which it is valid, in UK terminology, this method of working on simple branch lines was originally referred to as One Engine in Steam, and later One Train Working. That really does cause a delay because if the staff is not there. Using only a single token does not provide convenient operation when consecutive trains are to be worked in the same direction and he was given a written authority to enter the single line section, referred to as the ticket. He could then proceed, and a train could follow. In the earliest days the train could proceed after a designated time interval. However, following the Armagh rail disaster of 1889, block working became mandatory, seeing the train staff provided assurance that there could be no head-on collision. To ensure that the ticket is not issued incorrectly, a book of numbered tickets is kept in a locked box, the key to which is permanently fastened to the token, or is the token. In addition, the lock prevents the token being removed until the box is closed. Once a ticket is issued, its number is recorded in a Train Register book, and this system is known as staff and ticket
12.
Station master
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The station master is the person in charge of a railway station, particularly in the United Kingdom and many other countries outside North America. In the United Kingdom, where the term originated, it is now largely historical or colloquial, however, the term station master remains current on many heritage railways, and also in many countries outside the United Kingdom, notably the extensive Indian Railways network. Historically a male occupation, women were appointed to the position. In the United States the role is commonly termed station agent, the station master is responsible for the management of other station employees and holds responsibility for safety and the efficient running of the station. The term was historically employed across stations of all sizes, leading to variation in the precise role, at a major city terminus, with potentially hundreds of employees, the station masters duties would focus on personnel management and public relations. On the contemporary British rail network a station manager at a station has duties very similar to those described above. The more localised role of master at small country stations no longer exists. In very rural areas a station manager may be responsible for a number of stations. Historically the station master was deputised by an Assistant Station Master, in large stations this might be a full-time position. In smaller local stations the ASM title was attached to another post, such as senior booking clerk. On heritage railways the ASM role is unchanged from this historic role. The ASM post also continues in many Commonwealth nations, and other countries which have experienced British influence, in contemporary British railway operations the station manager is commonly deputised by one or more shift station managers. The number of employees at a railway station varies according to size. A historic station master would typically manage a number of booking clerks, porters, and often ancillary staff in catering, left luggage, although technically part of the engineering department, a station master might also have day-to-day management of signalmen in the stations signal box. From the late Victorian era onwards, station masters became prominent figures in local communities, invariably they would be provided with a substantial house and, in rural communities particularly, would have significant social standing. With his uniform, official housing, and public prominence, the master was respected. Some station masters achieved legendary fame in their communities, in the Beeching cuts of the 1960s many small stations were closed and the station masters house, along with other railway property, sold off. Typically, these retained their original name and in many communities the Station Masters House can still be found as a private dwelling or converted into a restaurant
13.
Signalman (rail)
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A signalman or signaller is an employee of a railway transport network who operates the points and signals from a signal box in order to control the movement of trains. Each train movement was logged, by hand, in a Train Register Book, as well as train movements, every communication between signalmen and adjacent signal boxes via bell codes was logged. The advent of technological advances gradually led to the provision of an enclosed workspace known as a signal box. The principles of British-style railway signalling have changed little since the Victorian era, modern technology has generally reduced the labour required per train movement. In many cases, a switch, button or computer command is used to alter the lie of points, although many classic mechanical signal boxes remain in use, these are gradually being replaced by modern power signalling systems on most railways. The heartlands of British-style railway signalling could be said to be the United Kingdom, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, India, the signallers main duty is to ensure trains get from A to B safely and on time. The classic Train Register Book remains in use at most older installations, with train describers, all trains are listed in a computer system in the UK in time order. This system is known as TRUST, any train can be found on here together with its schedule and route. If a train is late it is up to the signaller to ascertain in what order the trains should run, in busy locations, signalling can be very challenging and stressful, in a manner similar to air traffic control. Signallers are therefore susceptible to stress-related illness and these guidelines are ideally aimed at improving safety and reducing fatigue at work, but also the overall lifestyle of employees. In some cases, physical changes in the environment also followed these studies. The signalman is known by other corporate job titles, including Signaller, Area Controller. In the United States, a signalman is sometimes known as such. At some locations, a Station master or Porter performs signalling duties in addition to work such as selling tickets. Although the positions of Train Controller and Signalman were always distinct from the inception of the former in 1907, in many railways, modern technology has seen the positions of Signalman and Train Controller united. Irrespective, the classic Telephone Train Control system has been generally abolished, consequently, fast trains could be delayed by slower trains on the line ahead. In the face of rising costs, operating economies were particularly important to the private British railway companies in the twentieth century. The Train Controller was intended to manage these and other difficulties and this method of operating was sometimes known as the Telephone Train Control System
14.
Tourist attraction
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Factory tours, industrial heritage, creative art and crafts workshops are the object of cultural niches like industrial tourism and creative tourism. Many tourist attractions are also landmarks, tourist attractions are also created to capitalise on legends such as a supposed UFO crash site near Roswell, New Mexico and the alleged Loch Ness monster sightings in Scotland. Ghost sightings also make tourist attractions, ethnic communities may become tourist attractions, such as Chinatowns in the United States and the black British neighbourhood of Brixton in London, England. In the US, owners and marketers of attractions advertise tourist attractions on billboards along the side of highways and roadways, tourist attractions often provide free promotional brochures and flyers in information centres, fast food restaurants, hotel and motel rooms or lobbies, and rest area. Such places are known as tourist traps. Within cities such transport tourist attractions as rides by boats and buses are very popular, novelty attractions are not limited to the American Midwest, but are part of Midwestern culture. It may contain one or more tourist attractions and possibly some tourist traps, siem Reap town for example is a popular tourist destination in Cambodia, mainly owed to its proximity to Angkor temples. A tropical island resort is an island or archipelago that also depends on tourism as its source of revenue, according to the World Tourism Organization, •698 million people travelled to a foreign country in 2000, spending more US$478 billion. Lists of tourist attractions Attractions at DMOZ
15.
Zaporizhia
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Zaporizhia, or Zaporozhye is a city in southeastern Ukraine, situated on the banks of the Dnieper River. It is the center of the Zaporizhia Oblast. Administratively, it is incorporated as a city of oblast significance and serves as a center of Zaporizhia Raion. Currently the city is the sixth largest in Ukraine, until 1921 the city carried the name of Aleksandrovsk after the name of a fortress that was part of the Dnieper Defense Line. Archaeological finds in the area suggest that Scythian nomads were living there two to three years ago. The Scythians were replaced in time by Khazars, Pechenegs, Cumans, Tatars, the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks passed through Khortysia island in old times. In 1552 Dmytro Vyshnevetsky erected wood-earth fortifications on the island Mala Khortytsia in the Dnieper River near the island Khortytsia and these fortifications were a prototype of the Zaporizhian Sich. The Sich was a stronghold of the Cossacks who lived south of the rapids of the Dnieper on the border of the Polish–Lithuanian Rzeczpospolita, the modern city was established in 1770 as the fortress of Aleksandrovskaya in a vicinity the old Ukrainian village Voznesenka that existed since at least 1596. It is uncertain for whom the fortress was named some consider General Aleksander Golitsyn, the fortress was designed to protect the southern territories from Turkish threats as part of the Dnieper Defense Line. After the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire in 1783, in 1806, it became a town and was named Aleksandrovsk. In 1789, Mennonites from Prussia accepted an invitation from Catherine the Great, the colony included several rural settlements. Mennonite-owned mills and factories were built in Alexandrovsk and later expropriated by the Communist government, after the Russian Revolution many Mennonites emigrated, fled as refugees, or were deported from the area. Currently few Mennonites live in Zaporizhia, Mennonite buildings still exist in the area and in the other main Mennonite colony center, current day Molochansk. The ferry closed when the Kichkas Bridge replaced it in 1904, the original railway bridge over the Dnieper was the Kichkas Bridge, which was designed by Y. D. Construction was supervised by F. W. Lat, the bridge had a span of 336 m, and crossed the river with single arch of 190 m span. The upper tier carried a railway line, whilst the lower tier was a road bridge with pedestrian walkways either side of the bridge. It was built at the narrowest part of the Dnieper river known as Wolf Throat, construction started in 1900, and it opened for pedestrian traffic in 1902. The official opening of the bridge was 17 April 1904, though railway traffic on the bridge commenced on 22 January 1908
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Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
17.
Kongsberg
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Not to be confused with the former Prussian city of Königsberg. Kongsberg is a town and municipality in Buskerud county, Norway, the city was founded in 1624 under the name Konings Bierg by Danish-Norwegian king Christian IV as a mining community. In Norways 1749 census, Kongsberg was the most populous town in Eastern Norway and it was granted its royal charter of trade—amounting to official township—in 1802. The municipality of Kongsberg was established on 1 January 1838, the rural municipalities of Ytre Sandsvær and Øvre Sandsvær were merged into the municipality of Kongsberg on 1 January 1964. Today, Kongsberg is perhaps best known for being the home of Norways major defence contractor, Kongsberg Gruppen, two of its well-known products were the Kongsberg Colt and the Krag–Jørgensen rifle. The latter was adopted in the late 19th century as the standard rifle in Denmark, United States of America. The name Konings Bierg, a modern form Kongsberg, is based on the two elements, the genitive case of konge which means king and berg which means mountain. The coat-of-arms is from modern times and was designed by Hallvard Tretteberg and they were granted on 25 August 1972. They are based upon the old seal for the city from 1689 which shows the Roman god Janus dressed as an emperor, the sword, the colour green represents the forests, silver represents the mountains, and gold represents wealth. In the 1769 census, the mines employed about 4,000 workers, with 8,000 inhabitants in total, the town was the second largest in Norway, after Bergen. By 1835, the population had declined to 3,540, during peaceful times, the defence industry gradually evolved into many other kinds of high tech activities as well, now dominating the towns employment. In 1987, however, the state-owned Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk suffered a financial crisis as well as accusations of breaching the CoCom rules by selling sensitive technology to the Soviet bloc. As a result, the company was split into smaller units. Today, the separate firms thrive as one of Norways main high-tech industrial clusters, centering on the defence, Kongsberg is also home to the Mint of Norway, which mints Norwegian coins and also produces circulating and collectors coins for other countries such as Israel. It was established in 1686, and was renamed from the Royal Norwegian Mint in 2004 after having been sold to investors in 2003. The neighbouring municipalities of Kongsberg are Flesberg to the north, Øvre Eiker and Hof to the east, Lardal, Siljan, and Skien to the south, and Sauherad and Notodden to the west. Of these, the two first lie in Buskerud county like Kongsberg, while Hof and Lardal lie in Vestfold, the town is divided by the river Numedalslågen, which has three waterfalls in the town itself. The main highways are the E134, crossing Kongsberg east to west, the Sørland Line stops at Kongsberg station, with connection to local and regional bus lines
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Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
19.
Line 1 (Budapest Metro)
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The Metro 1 is the oldest line of the Budapest Metro system. Known in Budapest simply as the underground, while the M2, M3 and it was built from 1894 to 1896. In 2002, it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Metro 1 runs northeast from the city center on the Pest side under Andrássy út to the Városliget, or City Park. Like Metro 3, it does not serve Buda, m1, the oldest of the metro lines operating in Budapest, has been in constant operation since 1896. The original purpose of the first metro line was to transport to the Budapest City Park along the elegant Andrássy Avenue without building surface transport affecting the streetscape. The National Assembly accepted the plan in 1870 and German firm Siemens & Halske AG was commissioned for the construction. It took 2,000 workers using up-to-date machinery less than two years to complete and this section was built entirely from the surface. Completed by the deadline, it was inaugurated on May 2,1896, one original car is preserved at the Seashore Trolley Museum in Kennebunkport, Maine, United States. The line ran underneath Andrássy Avenue, from Vörösmarty Square to City Park, the original terminus was the Zoo. It had eleven stations, nine underground and two overground, the length of the line was 3.7 km at that time, trains ran every two minutes. It was able to carry as many as 35,000 people a day,1896, Gizella tér - Artézi fürdő1973, Széchenyi fürdő - Mexikói út Tremont Street Subway, Bostons first underground railway tunnel and the first one built after Budapests Line 1
20.
Budapest Metro
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The Budapest Metro is the rapid transit system in the Hungarian capital Budapest. Its iconic Line 1, completed in 1896, was declared a World Heritage Site in 2002, the first metro line was conceived as a means of carrying passengers from the city centre to the City Park without the need for surface transport on Andrássy Avenue. The Diet of Hungary approved the project in 1870. Construction began in 1894 and was carried out by the German firm Siemens & Halske AG. This original metro line followed a northeast-southwest route along Andrássy Avenue from Vörösmarty Square, in the centre of the city, to the City Park and Zoo, a distance of 3.7 kilometres. There were a total of stations on the line, with nine underground. With trains running every two minutes, the line was then capable of carrying up to 35,000 passengers per day, one of the original Budapest Metro cars has been preserved at the Seashore Trolley Museum. Line 2 was built with help of specialists and finally opened with seven stations on April 41970. It follows an east-west route, connecting the major Keleti and Déli railway stations and it has a joint station with the original line at Deák Ferenc Square. In 1973, both lines were extended—the first with one station and the second with four, the lines reached their current lengths of 4.4 kilometres and 10.3 kilometres, respectively. The Budapest Transport Company took over operation of the metro that same year, planning for Line 3 began in 1963 and construction started in 1970 with help of soviet specialists. The first section, consisting of six stations, opened in 1976 and it was extended to the south in 1980 with five additional stations, and to the north in 1981,1984, and 1990, with nine additional stations. With a length of approximately 16 kilometres and a total of 20 stations, concurrently with the opening of Line 3, the metro adopted a colour-coding scheme for easier identification. The first line was given the yellow, the second line red. Additionally, green is used to mark the railways in. In the 1980s and 1990s, Line 1 underwent major reconstruction, of its 11 stations, eight are original and three were added during reconstruction. The original appearance of the old stations has been preserved, and each station feature displays of historical photographs, there is also a Millennium Underground Museum in the Deák Ferenc Square concourse. Line 4 has a history, dating back to 1972
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Signalling control
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Currently these decentralised systems are being consolidated into wide scale signalling centres or dispatch offices. Whatever the form, signalling control provides an interface between the signal operator and the lineside signalling equipment. The technical apparatus used to control switches, signals and block systems is called interlocking, originally, all signalling was done by mechanical means. Before long, it was realised that control should be concentrated into one building, the signal box provided a dry, climate controlled space for the complex interlocking mechanics and also the signalman. The raised design of most signal boxes also provided the signalman with a view of the railway under his control. The first use of a box was by the London and Croydon Railway in 1843 to control the junction to Bricklayers Arms in London. Power operated switch points and signalling decides greatly expanded the territory that a control point could operate from several hundred yards to several miles. As the technology of electric relay logic was developed, it no longer necessary for signalmen to operate control devices with any sort of mechanical logic at all. With the jump to all logic, physical presence was no longer needed. Another advancement made possible by the replacement of mechanical control by all systems was that the signalmans user interface could be enhanced to further improve productivity. The smaller size of electric toggles and push buttons put more functionality within reach of an individual signalman, route-setting technology automated the setting of individual points and routes through busy junctions. Computerised video displays removed the physical interface altogether, replacing it with a point-and-click or touchscreen interface, finally, the use of Automatic Route Setting removed the need for any human input at all as common train movements could be fully automated according to a schedule or other scripted logic. Signal boxes also served as important communications hubs, connecting the parts of a rail line. The first signalling systems were possible by technology like the telegraph. Later, the telephone put centralised dispatchers in contact with distant signal boxes, the ultimate ability for data to be transmitted over long distances has proven the demise of most local control signal boxes. Signalmen next to the track are no longer needed to serve as the eyes, track circuits transmit train locations to distant control centres and data links allow direct manipulation of the points and signals. In any node-based control system, proper identification is critical to ensuring that messages are received by their intended recipients. As such, signalling control points are provided with names or identifiers that minimise the likelihood of confusion during communications, popular naming techniques include using nearby geographic references, line milepost numbers, sequence numbers and identification codes
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Great Central Railway (heritage railway)
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The Great Central Railway is a heritage railway in Leicestershire, named after the company that originally built this stretch of railway. The GCR is currently Britains only double track mainline heritage railway, with 5.25 miles of working track, period signalling, locomotives. It runs for 8.25 miles in total from the market town of Loughborough to a new terminus just north of Leicester. In 1897, the Great Central Railway itself was formed, becoming the last steam mainline in the United Kingdom, the entire line was built to accommodate a European standard loading gauge and all but a few stations were single island platforms. This construction scheme was devised by chairman Sir Edward Watkin, who had envisioned his railway one day running through a tunnel to France. However, this never came to fruition, indeed, the Beeching report which led to cutback and closure was published in 1963, in the report, the line was described as a duplicate of the Midland Main Line. The closure became one of Doctor Beechings largest cutbacks and it was also famous for being one of the most controversial. In 1969, local groups who opposed the closure gathered together for a meeting in a Leicester Central waiting room, work began on salvaging as much reusable material as possible for the project from the recent demolitions. British Rail retained a single track between the Loughborough and Ruddington for British Gypsum freight and access to the now-closed Ministry of Defence base. The MLPG received a lease on the station, buildings and most of the trackbed at Loughborough Central in 1970, this would become their base of operations. By the following year, negotiations into purchasing the rest of the railway had proven successful. The rest of the Loughborough yard complex was secured in 1972, in the same year, the first coaching stock arrived on site. The first open day occurred in 1973, shortly after the arrival of working motive power, passengers were offered simple wagon or coach rides run by small industrial locomotives. On 30 September 1973, LMS Stanier Class 5 4-6-0 No, to purchase what was left of the track, the MLPG was re-merged into a supporting charity, the Main line Steam Trust. The entire value of the eight miles of Up line were re-assessed by BR and swelled up to £279,000, a deal was set on 1 April 1976 that would see the remainder of the Down line ripped up if BRs cash demand was not raised. To purchase the land and track, Great Central Railway PLC issued shares, and the MLPG was transformed into the MLST, Charnwood Borough Council agreed to purchase the land from BR and lease it to the railway for 99 years. However, this still left GCR PLC the task of raising over £150,000, ultimately, the target was not met and only a single track between Loughborough and Quorn could be afforded. The double track from Rothley to Belgrave & Birstall was lifted, in the late 1980s, the intention was announced to extend the line back to Belgrave & Birstall
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Leicestershire
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Leicestershire is a landlocked county in the English Midlands. The border with most of Warwickshire is Watling Street, the county has a population of just under 1 million with over half the population living in Leicesters built-up area. Leicestershire was recorded in the Domesday Book in four wapentakes, Guthlaxton, Framland, Goscote and these later became hundreds, with the division of Goscote into West Goscote and East Goscote, and the addition of Sparkenhoe hundred. In 1087, the first recorded use of the name was as Laegrecastrescir, Leicestershires external boundaries have changed little since the Domesday Survey. These actions were reversed on 1 April 1997, when Rutland, Rutland became a distinct Ceremonial County once again, although it continues to be policed by Leicestershire Constabulary. The symbol of the county council, Leicestershire County Cricket Club, Leicestershire is considered to be the birthplace of fox hunting as it is known today. Hugo Meynell, who lived in Quorn, is known as the father of fox hunting, Melton Mowbray and Market Harborough have associations with fox hunting, as has neighbouring Rutland. A large part of the north-west of the county, around Coalville, the highest point of the county is Bardon Hill at 278 metres, which is also a Marilyn. The lowest point is about 24. 8m, north of Bottesford where the River Devon leaves Leicestershire, the population of Leicestershire is 609,578 people. The county covers an area of 2,084 km2 and its largest population centre is the city of Leicester, followed by the town of Loughborough. Other large towns include Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Coalville, Hinckley, Market Harborough, Melton Mowbray, Oadby, Wigston, some of the larger of villages are, Burbage Birstall, Broughton Astley, Castle Donington, Kibworth Beauchamp, Great Glen, Ibstock, Countesthorpe and Kegworth. One of the most rapidly expanding villages is Anstey, which has seen a large number of development schemes. The United Kingdom Census 2001 showed a resident population for Leicester of 279,921. Approximately 62,000 were aged under 16,199,000 were aged 16–74,76. 9% of Leicesters population claim they have been born in the UK, according to the 2001 UK Census. Mid-year estimates for 2006 indicate that the population of the City of Leicester stood at 289,700 making Leicester the most populous city in East Midlands, the population density is 3, 814/km2 and for every 100 females, there were 92.9 males. Of those aged 16–74 in Leicester,38. 5% had no academic qualifications,23. 0% of Leicesters residents were born outside of the United Kingdom, more than double than the English average of 9. 2%. Engineering has long been an important part of the economy of Leicestershire, John Taylor Bellfounders continues a history of bellfounding in Loughborough since the 14th century. In 1881 John Taylors cast the largest bell in Britain, Great Paul, snibston Discovery Park is built on one of three coal mines that operated in Coalville from the 1820s until 1986
24.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
25.
Children's railway
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A childrens railway is an extracurricular educational institution, where teenagers learn railway professions. This phenomenon originated in the USSR and was developed in Soviet times. The worlds first childrens railway was opened in Gorky Park, Moscow, at the breakup of the USSR,52 childrens railways existed in the country. Many childrens railways are still functioning in post-Soviet states and Eastern European countries, many exhibit railway technology not seen anymore on the main lines and can be seen as heritage railways. Even though few exceptions exist, most childrens railways built in the communist block have a gauge of at least 600 mm. There are childrens railways situated in following cities, Ridable miniature railway Backyard railroad Train ride Garden railway Childrens railways of the USSR railways. id. ru
26.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
27.
History of the Soviet Union
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The History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union reflects a period of change for both Russia and the world. The original ideology of the state was based on the works of Karl Marx. Displeased by the few changes made by the Tsar after the Russian Revolution of 1905, Russia became a hotbed of anarchism, socialism. The dominant socialist party, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, starting in 1903 a series of splits in the party between two main leaders was escalating, the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin, and the Mensheviks led by Julius Martov. Up until 1912, both continued to stay united under the name RSDLP, but significant differences between Lenin and Martov thought split the party for its final time. Not only did these groups fight each other, but also had common enemies, notably. This resulted in large territorial changes, albeit temporarily for some of these, eventually crushing all opponents, the RCP spread Soviet style rule quickly and established itself through all of Russia. Following Lenins death in 1924, Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the RCP, became Lenins successor and continued as leader of the Soviet Union into the 1950s. The history of the Soviet Union between 1927 and 1953 covers the period of the Second World War and of victory against Germany while the USSR remained under the control of Joseph Stalin. Stalins power within the party and the state was established and eventually evolved into Stalins cult of personality, Soviet secret-police and the mass-mobilization Communist party were Stalins major tools in molding the Soviet society. World War II, known as the Great Patriotic War in the Soviet Union, after World War II the Soviet Unions armies occupied Eastern Europe, where Socialist governments took power. By 1949 the Cold War had started between the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc, with the Warsaw Pact pitched against NATO in Europe, after 1945 Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. Stalin continued his rule until his death in 1953. The history of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, referred to as the Brezhnev Era and this period began with high economic growth and soaring prosperity, but ended with a much weaker Soviet Union facing social, political, and economic stagnation. The average annual income stagnated, because needed economic reforms were never carried out. Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin replaced him as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, anastas Mikoyan, and later Nikolai Podgorny, became Chairmen of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. The collective leadership first set out to stabilize the Soviet Union and calm Soviet society, in addition, they attempted to speed up economic growth, which had slowed considerably during Khrushchevs last years in power. In 1965 Kosygin initiated several reforms to decentralize the Soviet economy, after initial success in creating economic growth, hard-liners within the Party halted the reforms, fearing that they would weaken the Partys prestige and power
28.
Pioneer movement
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A pioneer movement is an organization for children operated by a communist party. Typically children enter into the organization in elementary school and continue until adolescence, the adolescents then typically join the Young Communist League. In countries ruled by Communist Parties, membership of the movement is officially optional. However, membership provides many benefits, so the vast majority of children join the movement. There were many newspapers and magazines published for Young Pioneers in millions of copies, the Pioneer movement was modeled on the Scout movement, but there are some distinct differences. Most notably, the Scout movement is independent of government control, some features, however, are reminiscent of the Scout movement. The two movements share some principles like preparedness and promotion of sports and outdoor skills, the pioneer movement also includes teaching of communist principles. Opponents of Communist states claim that this is a form of indoctrination, a member of the movement is known as a pioneer, and a kerchief or necktie — typically red, but sometimes light blue — is the traditional item of clothing worn by a pioneer. The pioneer organization is named after a famous party member that is considered a suitable role model for young communists. In the Soviet Union it was Vladimir Lenin, in East Germany, the Thälmann pioneers were taught the slogan Ernst Thälmann is my role model. We wear our red scarf with pride, Albania, which severed diplomatic relations with the USSR in 1961, also had a variant of Pioneer organization, called Pioneers of Enver, named after the communist ruler of Albania, Enver Hoxha. Cyprus Finland - Democratic Union of Finnish Pioneers The Czech Republic – Nowadays Pionýr is a non-political organisation organizing leisure time for children, hungary Laos, the Young Pioneers in Laos are under the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Youth Union. Mexico North Korea Portugal – Pioneiros de Portugal, connected to the Portuguese Communist Party, the communist parties in Russia and other countries continue to run a pioneer organization, but membership tends to be quite limited. There were also an organization called chavdarcheta – these were the youngest children, the difference between the two was the distinctive scarf, which was sky-blue in the chavdarcheta movement and red in the pioneri movement. Czechoslovak Socialist Republic – Pioneer Organization of the Socialist Youth Union and its Pioneers were linked to the Malawi Congress Party, the only political party allowed in what was at the time a one-party state. Republic of Mali – Young Pioneers /Jeunes Pionniers, Socialist youth brigades established by the US-RDA of Modibo Keïta, Republic of Niger – Young Pioneers /Jeunes Pionniers non-communist youth paramilitary group, one of several set up in post independence Africa, funded by and modeled on the Israeli Nahal. Republic of Upper Volta / Burkina Faso – Pioneers of the Revolution, the movement of Thomas Sankara
29.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
30.
Post-Soviet states
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On March 11,1990, Lithuania was the first to declare its independence, with Estonia and Latvia following suit in August 1991. All three Baltic states claimed continuity from the states that existed prior to their annexation by the Soviet Union in 1944 and were admitted to the United Nations on 17 September 1991. The remaining 12 republics all subsequently seceded,12 of the 15 states, excluding the Baltic states, initially formed the CIS and most joined CSTO, while the Baltic states focused on European Union and NATO membership. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided into the following five groupings. Each of these regions has its own set of traits, owing not only to geographic and cultural factors. In addition, there are a number of de facto independent, the dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as a result and against the backdrop of general economic stagnation, even regression. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with Gross Domestic Product dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995. This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934. The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s, by 2007,10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered and reached GDP greater than what they had in 1991. Only Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan had GDP significantly below the 1991 level, the recovery in Russia was marginal, with GDP in 2006-2007 just nudging above the 1991 level. Combined with the aftershocks of the 1998 economic crisis it led to a return of more interventionist economic policies by Vladimir Putins administration. Change in Gross Domestic Product in constant prices, 1991-2015 *Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989-1990, **The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth. List of the present Gross domestic product, The post-Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores, only organizations that are mainly composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section, organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the blocs, Belarus, Russia. It was conceived as an organization to the USSR. It currently consists of nine of the 15 former Soviet republics, with one participating state, Georgia withdrew from the CIS in August 2008. The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice, the Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are members of the CIS and participate in several regional organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the Eurasian Economic Community, Collective Security Treaty Organization, the last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO
31.
Eastern Bloc
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The Eastern Bloc was the group of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact. The terms Communist Bloc and Soviet Bloc were also used to denote groupings of states aligned with the Soviet Union, although these terms might include states outside Central and Eastern Europe. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, who viewed the Soviet Union as a socialist island, Eastern Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Bessarabia in northern Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence. Lithuania was added in a secret protocol in September 1939. During the Occupation of East Poland by the Soviet Union, the Soviets liquidated the Polish state, Soviet authorities immediately started a campaign of sovietization of the newly Soviet-annexed areas. Soviet authorities collectivized agriculture, and nationalized and redistributed private and state-owned Polish property, the international community condemned this initial annexation of the Baltic states and deemed it illegal. In June 1941, Germany broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact by invading the Soviet Union, from the time of this invasion to 1944, the areas annexed by the Soviet Union were part of Germanys Ostland. Thereafter, the Soviet Union began to push German forces westward through a series of battles on the Eastern Front, from 1943 to 1945, several conferences regarding Post-War Europe occurred that, in part, addressed the potential Soviet annexation and control of countries in Central Europe. I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask for nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he wont try to annex anything and will work with me for a world of democracy and peace. While meeting with Stalin and Roosevelt in Tehran in 1943, Churchill stated that Britain was vitally interested in restoring Poland as an independent country, Britain did not press the matter for fear that it would become a source of inter-allied friction. In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of influence in Central Europe. Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany, after resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current pro-Soviet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland. He stated that the new primary task would be to prepare elections. In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for war booty, which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations. At first, the Soviets concealed their role in other Eastern Bloc politics, as a young communist was told in East Germany, its got to look democratic, but we must have everything in our control. Moscow-trained cadres were put into crucial power positions to fulfill orders regarding sociopolitical transformation, elimination of the bourgeoisies social and financial power by expropriation of landed and industrial property was accorded absolute priority. These measures were publicly billed as reforms rather than socioeconomic transformations, the bloc system permitted the Soviet Union to exercise domestic control indirectly. Crucial departments such as responsible for personnel, general police, secret police
32.
Dresden Park Railway
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The Dresden park railway is a 381 mm minimum gauge railway in Dresden, Germany. The line opened in 1950 and was previously known as the Kindereisenbahn. As these names suggest, the line is operated by children. The railway operates within the Großer Garten, a city centre park. It is some 5.6 kilometres long and attracts approximately 250000 visitors every year, the line starts from An der Gläsernen Manufaktur station, which takes its name from the adjacent Gläserne Manufaktur, a former Volkswagen car factory. From here to Zoo station the line is double track, Zoo station takes its name from the nearby Dresden Zoo and is the headquarters of the line, with locomotive and car sheds. Beyond Zoo station, trains operate on a one-way single track loop via stations at Carolasee, Karcherallee and Palaisteich. A shorter loop is available that omits Karcherallee station. The park railway has four locomotives, of these, two are nearly identical steam locomotives built in 1925, numbered 001 and 003. There are also two electric locomotives with EA01 built in 1962 and EA02 built in 1982. The locomotives haul 35 passenger cars and a number of ancillary vehicles, trains are run by a team of, in 2009,165 children together with four full-time adult employees and some 50 seasonal and part-time staff. During the winter months, the children are trained in their tasks for the forthcoming summer, the railway was founded in 1950 as the Kindereisenbahn with only one track,1.3 kilometres long, between Zoo and Stübelplatz. The railway was planned to only last for a year, but it was kept, the line was owned by Dresden City Council, but operated by the pioneer movement. In 1951 the track was extended to 4.4 kilometres running from Zoo via Carolasee, later in the same year the station Karcherallee was opened and the line reached its current length of 5.6 kilometres. In 1968 an additional track was added between Zoo and Fučíkplatz, in 1990, after German reunification, the railway was renamed as the Parkeisenbahn. In 1993, ownership of the line was transferred to the state of Saxony, in 2000, the construction of the new Gläserne Manufaktur meant that the station at Straßburger Platz had to be relocated. The new station was opened in 2000, and subsequently renamed An der Gläsernen Manufaktur, fifteen-inch gauge railway Dresdner Parkeisenbahn web site Dresdner Parkeisenbahn web site
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Budapest
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Budapest is the capital and most populous city of Hungary, one of the largest cities in the European Union and sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. It has an area of 525 square kilometres and a population of about 1.8 million within the limits in 2016. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the Danube river with the unification of Buda and Óbuda on the west bank, the history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia. Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century and their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241–1242. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture by the 15th century, following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, the region entered a new age of prosperity, and Budapest became a global city after its unification in 1873. It also became the co-capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a power that dissolved in 1918. Budapest was the point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Republic of Councils in 1919, the Battle of Budapest in 1945. Budapest is an Alpha- global city, with strengths in arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts the Budapest Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks and it is the highest ranked Central and Eastern European city on Innovation Cities Top 100 index. Budapest attracts 4.4 million international tourists per year, making it the 25th most popular city in the world, further famous landmarks include Andrássy Avenue, St. It has around 80 geothermal springs, the worlds largest thermal water system, second largest synagogue. Budapest is home to the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, the European Police College, over 40 colleges and universities are located in Budapest, including the Eötvös Loránd University, Central European University and Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Budapest is the combination of the city names Buda and Pest, One of the first documented occurrences of the combined name Buda-Pest was in 1831 in the book Világ, written by Count István Széchenyi. The origins of the names Buda and Pest are obscure, according to chronicles from the Middle Ages, the name Buda comes from the name of its founder, Bleda, brother of the Hunnic ruler Attila. The theory that Buda was named after a person is also supported by modern scholars, an alternative explanation suggests that Buda derives from the Slavic word вода, voda, a translation of the Latin name Aquincum, which was the main Roman settlement in the region. There are also theories about the origin of the name Pest. One of the states that the word Pest comes from the Roman times. According to another theory, Pest originates from the Slavic word for cave, or oven, the first settlement on the territory of Budapest was built by Celts before 1 AD
34.
Park Railway Maltanka
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The Park Railway Maltanka is a 600 mm narrow gauge railway located in Poznań. It is 3.85 kilometres long and is owned by Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacyjne w Poznaniu Sp, the line connects Rondo Śródka and New Zoo transporting around 200.000 passengers annually. The first 600 mm narrow gauge railway, called the Harcerska Kolejka Dziecięca in Poznań, was built in 1956 and was operated by Polish Scouting Association and this 1. 5-kilometre long route connected Ogród Jordanowski and Łęgi Dębińskie. During construction of Hetmańska Str, part of second road ring of Poznań, the railway, now renamed Maltanka was re-opened on 21 July 1972 in Malta. Since then it has operated by Public Transport Company. In 1998 its name was changed to Maltańska Kolej Dziecięca, the name Maltanka comes from the Knights of Malta, who used to own the land and the old church nearby. Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacyjne w Poznaniu Sp, archived from the original on 2007-05-06. Kolejka Parkowa Maltanka video Kolejka Parkowa Maltanka video part 1 Kolejka Parkowa Maltanka video part 2 Kolejka Parkowa Maltanka video part 3 Kolejka Parkowa Maltanka video part 4
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Merstham
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Merstham /ˈmɜːrstəm/ is a village in the borough of Reigate and Banstead in Surrey, England. It is north of Redhill and is contiguous with it, part of the North Downs Way runs along the northern boundary of the village. Merstham has community associations, a medieval church, a football club. Old Merstham forms the north and north-west of modern Merstham and is the village centre. There is a day school by the railway station, the Rt Art Gallery. The art gallerys collection includes original works by Joan Miro. A larger housing estate, originally entirely public housing, was built to a layout in the eastern fields. This area has its own parade of shops, the Brook recreation ground, oakley, a small country house, is listed and has Victorian gothic architecture features. South Merstham is immediately south of both mentioned areas and is made up of mainly Victorian and Edwardian terraces and it provided a workforce for Albury Manor and nearby chalk quarrying and brickworking. Nutfield Road has a parade of shops. South Merstham is home to Connevans Limited, who, in April 2016 became holders of the Royal Warrant, watercolour is a development, constructed in 2010–11, in South Merstham, close to Mercers Park. Here there is a Tesco Express and a number of other shops. The area has settled since pre-Roman times. The village lay within the Reigate hundred, an Anglo-Saxon administrative division and its name was recorded in 947 as Mearsætham, which seems to be Anglo-Saxon Mearþ-sǣt-hām = Homestead near a trap set for martens or weasels. Merstham appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as Merstan and it was held by Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury. Its domesday assets were,5 hides,1 church,1 mill worth 2s 6d,10 ploughs,8 acres of meadow, woodland, a small section of the railway is on display at the entrance to Quality Street, Old Merstham. Unfortunately, this section has now been taken, the use of dynamite was first publicly demonstrated by Alfred Nobel in Prices Grey-lime Stone chalk quarry in July 1868. The site is now covered by the route of the M23 motorway just east of where it passes under the Shepherds Hill bridge
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Surrey
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Surrey is a county in the south east of England. It shares borders with Kent to the east, East Sussex to the south-east, West Sussex to the south, Hampshire to the west and south-west, Surrey County Council sits extraterritorially at Kingston upon Thames, administered as part of Greater London since 1965. With a resident population of 1.1 million, Surrey is the most densely populated and third most populated county in the South East region, after Kent, the London boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Wandsworth, and parts of Lewisham and Bromley were in Surrey until 1889. The boroughs of Croydon, Kingston upon Thames, Merton, Sutton and Richmond upon Thames south of the River Thames were part of Surrey until 1965, when they too were absorbed into Greater London. In the same year, the county was extended north of the Thames by the addition of Spelthorne, due to this expansion, modern Surrey also borders on the London boroughs of Hounslow and Hillingdon. It has the highest GDP per capita of any English county, Surrey is divided in two by the chalk ridge of the North Downs, running east-west. To the north of the Downs the land is mostly flat, the geology of this area is dominated by London Clay in the east, Bagshot Sands in the west and alluvial deposits along the rivers. Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt and it contains a good deal of mature woodland. Among its many notable beauty spots are Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds, Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons. Surrey is the most wooded county in England, with 22. 4% coverage compared to an average of 11. 8%. Box Hill has the oldest untouched area of woodland in the UK. Surrey also contains Englands principal concentration of lowland heath, on soils in the west of the county. Agriculture not being intensive, there are many commons and access lands, together with a network of footpaths and bridleways including the North Downs Way. Accordingly, Surrey provides much in the way of leisure activities. The highest elevation in Surrey is Leith Hill near Dorking and it is either 293,294 or 295 metres above sea level and is the second highest point in southeastern England after Walbury Hill 297 metres in West Berkshire. Surrey has a population of approximately 1.1 million people and its largest town is Guildford, with a population of 66,773, Woking comes a close second with 62,796. They are followed by Ewell with 39,994 people and Camberley with 30,155, towns of between 25,000 and 30,000 inhabitants are Ashford, Epsom, Farnham, Staines and Redhill. Guildford is the county town, although the county administration was moved to Newington in 1791
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Mountain
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A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in the form of a peak. A mountain is steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism and these forces can locally raise the surface of the earth. Mountains erode slowly through the action of rivers, weather conditions, a few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in huge mountain ranges. High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level and these colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains, different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction and recreation, the highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia, whose summit is 8,850 m above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21,171 m, there is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for defining a mountain, whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. The highest point in San Francisco, California, is called Mount Davidson, notwithstanding its height of 300 m, similarly, Mount Scott outside Lawton, Oklahoma is only 251 m from its base to its highest point. Whittows Dictionary of Physical Geography states Some authorities regard eminences above 600 metres as mountains, in addition, some definitions also include a topographical prominence requirement, typically 100 or 500 feet. For a while, the US defined a mountain as being 1,000 feet or taller, any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill. However, today, the United States Geological Survey concludes that these terms do not have technical definitions in the US, using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of Eurasia, 19% of South America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earths land mass is mountainous, there are three main types of mountains, volcanic, fold, and block. All three types are formed from plate tectonics, when portions of the Earths crust move, crumple, compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity. Volcanoes are formed when a plate is pushed below another plate, at a depth of around 100 km, melting occurs in rock above the slab, and forms magma that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it builds a volcanic mountain. Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, the magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain, magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the US
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Steep grade railway
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A steep grade railway is a railway that ascends and descends a slope that has a steep grade. Such railways can use a number of different technologies to overcome the steepness of the grade, many steep grade railways are located in mountain regions, and are hence also mountain railways. Such railways may form part of infrastructure provided for use by tourists, other steep grade railways are located in hilly urban areas. Again these may be largely tourist oriented, or may be used as part of the public transport provision. On steep grades the friction between the wheels and the rails cannot apply sufficient adhesion to the wheels so as to overcome gravity. Where the line is too steep to rely on adhesion for climbing, a now little used alternative to the rack and pinion railway is the Fell system, in which traction and/or braking wheel are applied to a central rail under pressure. Another alternative is a car in which the car runs on rails. This is used in San Franciscos famous cable cars, finally at the steepest end of the spectrum, a funicular railway may be used. Here a cable is used to haul counterbalanced trains up and down the track, the cars are permanently attached to the cable, which stops, starts and reverses as required. Cars are often built for the slope, with specially raked seating. Taken to its conclusion as the slope becomes vertical, a funicular becomes an elevator. List of steepest gradients on adhesion railways List of Fell system railways List of cog and rack railways List of cable hauled railways List of funicular railways Hillclimbing
39.
Tunnel
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A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods, a tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The central portions of a transit network are usually in tunnel. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers, utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment. Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of weapons, contraband, special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife to cross human-made barriers safely. A tunnel is relatively long and narrow, the length is much greater than twice the diameter, although similar shorter excavations can be constructed. The definition of what constitutes a tunnel can vary widely from source to source, for example, the definition of a road tunnel in the United Kingdom is defined as a subsurface highway structure enclosed for a length of 150 metres or more. In the United States, the NFPA definition of a tunnel is An underground structure with a length greater than 23 m. The place where a road, railway, canal or watercourse passes under a footpath, cycleway, or another road or railway is most commonly called a bridge or, if passing under a canal, an aqueduct. Where it is important to stress that it is passing underneath, it may be called an underpass, a longer underpass containing a road, canal or railway is normally called a tunnel, whether or not it passes under another item of infrastructure. An underpass of any length under a river is usually called a tunnel. In the US, the term means an underground rapid transit system. Rail station platforms may be connected by tunnels or footbridges. Much of the technology of tunneling evolved from mining and military engineering. The etymology of the mining, military engineering, and civil engineering reveals these deep historic connections. A major tunnel project must start with an investigation of ground conditions by collecting samples from boreholes. An informed choice can then be made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, in planning the route, the horizontal and vertical alignments can be selected to make use of the best ground and water conditions. It is common practice to locate a tunnel deeper than otherwise would be required and this may be a particular concern in large-diameter tunnels
40.
Narrow-gauge railway
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A narrow-gauge railway is a railway with a track gauge narrower than the 1,435 mm of standard gauge railways. Most existing narrow-gauge railways are between 600 mm and 1,067 mm, narrow-gauge railways also have specialized use in mines and other environments where a very small structure gauge makes a very small loading gauge necessary. Narrow-gauge railways also have general applications. Many narrow-gauge street tramways are used, particularly in Europe, where 1,000 mm metre gauge tramways are common, the earliest recorded railway is shown in the De re metallica of 1556, which shows a mine in Bohemia with a railway of about 2 ft gauge. During the 16th century, railways were mainly restricted to hand-pushed narrow-gauge lines in mines throughout Europe, during the 17th century, mine railways were extended to provide transportation above ground. These lines were industrial, connecting mines with nearby transportation points and these railways were usually built to the same narrow gauge as the mine railways from which they developed. The worlds first steam locomotive on rails, built in 1802 by Richard Trevithick for the Coalbrookdale Company, during the 1820s and 1830s, a number of industrial narrow-gauge railways in the United Kingdom used steam locomotives. In 1842, the first narrow-gauge steam locomotive outside the UK was built for the 1,100 mm gauge Antwerp-Ghent Railway in Belgium, historically, many narrow-gauge railways were built as part of specific industrial enterprises and were primarily industrial railways rather than general carriers. Some common uses for these industrial narrow-gauge railways were mining, logging, construction, tunnelling, quarrying, extensive narrow-gauge networks were constructed in many parts of the world for these purposes. For example, mountain logging operations in the 19th century often used narrow-gauge railways to transport logs from mill sites to market, significant sugarcane railways still operate in Cuba, Fiji, Java, the Philippines, and Queensland. Narrow-gauge railway equipment remains in use for the construction of tunnels. Extensive narrow-gauge railway systems served the front-line trenches of both sides in World War I and they were a short-lived military application, and after the end of the war, the surplus equipment from these created a small boom in narrow gauge railway building in Europe. Narrow-gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in populated areas where the potential demand is too low for broader gauge railways to be economically viable. This is the case in some of Australia and most of Southern Africa, the use of such railways has almost vanished due to the capabilities of modern trucks. In many countries, narrow gauge railways were built as feeder or branch lines to feed traffic to more important standard gauge lines, the choice was often not between a narrow-gauge railway and a standard gauge one, but between a narrow-gauge railway and none at all. Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore, and gravel, can be transshipped, but this still incurs time penalties
41.
Curve
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In mathematics, a curve is, generally speaking, an object similar to a line but that need not be straight. Thus, a curve is a generalization of a line, in that curvature is not necessarily zero, various disciplines within mathematics have given the term different meanings depending on the area of study, so the precise meaning depends on context. However, many of these meanings are special instances of the definition which follows, a curve is a topological space which is locally homeomorphic to a line. In everyday language, this means that a curve is a set of points which, near each of its points, looks like a line, a simple example of a curve is the parabola, shown to the right. A large number of curves have been studied in multiple mathematical fields. A closed curve is a curve that forms a path whose starting point is also its ending point—that is, closely related meanings include the graph of a function and a two-dimensional graph. Interest in curves began long before they were the subject of mathematical study and this can be seen in numerous examples of their decorative use in art and on everyday objects dating back to prehistoric times. Curves, or at least their graphical representations, are simple to create, historically, the term line was used in place of the more modern term curve. Hence the phrases straight line and right line were used to distinguish what are called lines from curved lines. For example, in Book I of Euclids Elements, a line is defined as a breadthless length, Euclids idea of a line is perhaps clarified by the statement The extremities of a line are points. Later commentators further classified according to various schemes. For example, Composite lines Incomposite lines Determinate Indeterminate The Greek geometers had studied many kinds of curves. One reason was their interest in solving problems that could not be solved using standard compass. These curves include, The conic sections, deeply studied by Apollonius of Perga The cissoid of Diocles, studied by Diocles, the conchoid of Nicomedes, studied by Nicomedes as a method to both double the cube and to trisect an angle. The Archimedean spiral, studied by Archimedes as a method to trisect an angle, the spiric sections, sections of tori studied by Perseus as sections of cones had been studied by Apollonius. A fundamental advance in the theory of curves was the advent of analytic geometry in the seventeenth century and this enabled a curve to be described using an equation rather than an elaborate geometrical construction. Previously, curves had been described as geometrical or mechanical according to how they were, or supposedly could be, conic sections were applied in astronomy by Kepler. Newton also worked on an example in the calculus of variations
42.
Mountain railway
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A mountain railway is a railway that operates in a mountain region. It may operate through the mountains, for example by following mountain valleys, or it may climb mountains, in order to provide transport to and from their summits. Mountain railways often, but by no means always, use narrow gauge to allow for tight curves in the track and reduce size and structure gauge. Where a mountain railway needs to climb steep gradients, it may use steep grade railway technology, mendoza to Los Andes, Chile, see Chile below Glenreagh Mountain Railway Mt Morgan Rack Railway - abandoned in 1955. The rebuild will be adhesion only, apsheronsk narrow-gauge railway - located in the Krasnodar Krai, gauge of 750 mm. The Culdee Fell Railway is featured in the book Mountain Engines, Map of central Peru Callao – Huancayo Map of south Peru/Bolivia Machu Picchu – Lake Titicaca – west coast pacific ocean Route Arequipa – Puno Route Cusco – Puno Route Cusco – Machu Picchu
43.
Mine railway
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A mine railway, sometimes pit railway, is a railway constructed to carry materials and workers in and out of a mine. Materials transported typically include ore, coal and overburden, with that concentration of employees and separation from dwellings, horsedrawn trams became commonly available as a commuter resource for the daily commute to work. Mine railways were used from 1804 around Coalbrookdale in such concentrations of mines and iron works. Later, George Stephenson, inventor of the world-famous Rocket and a member of a mine. Next, he petitioned Parliament to license a public railway, founding the Liverpool. Today, most mine railways are powered, in former times pit ponies, such as Shetland ponies, donkeys. In the very cramped conditions of mining tunnels, children were also often used. The mining companies even ran the estate offices, and happily sold lands to all comers so individuals gradually invested in such busy communities. There is usually no direct connection from a railway to the mines industrial siding or the public railway network. In the United States, the gauge for mine haulage is 3 ft 6 in. Original mine railways used wax-impregnated wooden rails attached to wooden sleepers, by the time of the first steam locomotive drawn trains, most rails laid were of wrought iron which was outlasting cast iron rails by 8,1. About three decades later, after Andrew Carnegie had made steel competitively cheap, steel rails were supplanting iron for the same longevity reasons, the tram cars used for mine haulage are generally called tubs. Ponies began to be used underground, often replacing child or female labour, at the peak in 1913, there were 70,000 ponies underground in Britain. As of 1984,55 ponies were still at use with the National Coal Board in Britain, chiefly at the pit in Ellington. Dandy wagons were attached to trains of full drams, to contain a horse or pony. Mining and later railway engineers designed their tramways so that trains would use gravity down the slope. The Dandy wagon allowed for easy transportation of the required horse each time, probably the last colliery horse to work underground in a British coal mine, Robbie, was retired from Pant y Gasseg, near Pontypool, in May 1999. Sometimes, stationary engines were located underground, with the boiler on the surface
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Loading gauge
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A loading gauge defines the maximum height and width for railway vehicles and their loads to ensure safe passage through bridges, tunnels and other structures. Classification systems vary between different countries and gauges may vary across a network, even if the track gauge remains constant, containerisation and a trend towards larger shipping containers has led rail companies to increase structure gauges to compete effectively with road haulage. Compliance with a loading gauge can be checked with a car which in the past were simple wooden frames or physical feelers mounted on rolling stock. The difference between the two is called the clearance, the terms dynamic envelope or kinematic envelope – which include factors such as suspension travel, overhang on curves and lateral motion on the track – are sometimes used in place of loading gauge. The height of platforms is also a consideration when considering the loading gauge of passenger trains, where the two are not directly compatible, steps may be required which will increase loading times. Where long carriages are used on a platform, gaps will occur between the platform and the carriage door, causing additional risk. Problems increase where trains of several different loading gauges and train floor heights use the same platform, the size of load that can be carried on a railway of a particular gauge is also influenced by the design of the rolling stock. Low-deck rolling stock can sometimes be used to carry taller 9 ft 6 in shipping containers on lower gauge lines although their low-deck rolling stock cannot then carry as many containers. Larger out-of-gauge loads can also sometimes be conveyed by taking one or more of the measures, operate at low speed. Cross over from a track with inadequate clearance to another track with greater clearance, prevent operation of other trains on adjacent tracks. Use refuge loops to allow trains to operate on other tracks, use of Schnabel cars that manipulate the load up and down or left and right to clear obstacles. Use gauntlet track to shift the train to side or center, for locomotives that are too heavy, ensure that fuel tanks are nearly empty. Turn off power in overhead wiring or in third rail, rapid Transit railways generally have a very small loading gauge. This reduces the cost of tunnel construction and these systems only use their own rolling stock. The loading gauge on the lines of Great Britain, most of which were built before 1900, is generally smaller than in other countries. In mainland Europe, the slightly larger Berne gauge was agreed to in 1913, as a result, British trains have noticeably and considerably smaller loading gauges and smaller interiors, despite the track being standard gauge along with much of the world. This results in increased costs for purchasing trains as they must be designed for the British network. The International Union of Railways has developed a series of loading gauges named A, B, B+
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