1.
Halle (Saale)
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Halle is a city in the southern part of the German state Saxony-Anhalt. Halle is an economic and educational center in central-eastern Germany, the University of Halle-Wittenberg is the largest university in Saxony-Anhalt and one of the oldest universities in Germany, and a nurturing ground for the local startup ecosystem. Together with Leipzig, Halle is at the heart of the Central German Metropolitan Region, Leipzig, one of eastern Germanys other major cities, is only 35 kilometres away. Halles early history is connected with harvesting of salt, the name Halle reflects early Celtic settlement given that halen is the Brythonic word for salt. The name of the river Saale also contains the Germanic root for salt, the Latin name Hala Saxonum was also used. The town was first mentioned in AD806, according to historic documents, the city of Halle has been a member of the Hanseatic League at least since 1281. By the 1740s, Halle had established many orphanages as well as schools for the wealthy in the sober style Pietism encouraged and this Halle education was the first time the modern education system was established. The Halle Pietists were also combated poverty, the Battle of Halle was fought between French and Prussian forces on 17 October 1806. The fighting moved from the bridges on the citys west side, through the streets and market place. In 1815, Halle became part of the Prussian Province of Saxony, in Ammendorf, a large factory owned by Orgacid produced mustard gas. Near the end of World War II, there were two bombing raids carried out against the town, the first on 31 March 1945, the second a few days later. The first attack took place between the station and the citys centre, and the second bombing was in the southern district. It killed over 1,000 inhabitants and destroyed 3,600 buildings, among them, the Market Church, St. George Church, the Old Town Hall, the City Theatre, historic buildings on Bruederstrasse and on Grosse Steinstrasse, and the city cemetery. On 17 April 1945, American soldiers occupied Halle, and the red tower was set on fire by artillery, the Market Church and the Church of St. George received more hits. However, the city was spared further damage because an aerial bombardment was canceled, in July, the Americans withdrew and the city was occupied by the Red Army. After World War II, Halle served as the capital of the administrative region of Saxony-Anhalt until 1952. As a part of East Germany, it functioned as the capital of the district of Halle. When Saxony-Anhalt was re-established as a Bundesland in 1990, Magdeburg, not Halle, Halloren Chocolate Factory and visitors centre, Germanys oldest chocolate factory still in use
2.
Austin, Texas
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Austin is the capital of the U. S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County. It is the 11th-most populous city in the U. S. and it is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix, Arizona. As of the U. S. Census Bureaus July 1,2015 estimate and it is the cultural and economic center of the Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1,2016. In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River, in 1839, the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas and the republics first secretary of state. The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a city and, by the 1980s, it emerged as a center for technology. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including Amazon. com, cisco, eBay, Google, IBM, Intel, Oracle Corporation, Texas Instruments, 3M, and Whole Foods Market. Dells worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock, a suburb of Austin, residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to an influx of technology. In the late 1800s, Austin was known as the City of the Violet Crown because of the glow of light across the hills just after sunset. Even today, many Austin businesses use the term Violet Crown in their name, Austin is known as a clean-air city for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings, including restaurants and bars. The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U. S. for the year 2012, U. S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U. S. in 2017. Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of habitation since at least 9200 BC. When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area, the Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area for centuries, in 1730, three missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in area for only about seven months
3.
German Americans
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The German American ethnic group consists of Americans who have full or partial German ancestry. With an estimated size of approximately 46 million in 2014, German Americans are the largest of the groups reported by the US Census Bureau in its American Community Survey. The group accounts for about 1⁄3 of the total ethnic German population in the world, none of the German states had American colonies. In the 1670s the first significant groups of German immigrants arrived in the British colonies, settling primarily in New York, immigration continued in very large numbers during the 19th century, with eight million arrivals from Germany. Between 1820 and 1870 over seven and a half million German immigrants came to the United States — more than doubling the population of the country. By 2010, their population grew to 49.8 million immigrants, there is a German belt that extends all the way across the United States, from eastern Pennsylvania to the Oregon coast. The state of Pennsylvania has 3.5 million people of German ancestry and they were pulled by the attractions of land and religious freedom, and pushed out of Europe by shortages of land and religious or political oppression. Many arrived seeking religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Europe, the arrivals before 1850 were mostly farmers who sought out the most productive land, where their intensive farming techniques would pay off. After 1840, many came to cities, where Germania—German-speaking districts—soon emerged, German Americans established the first kindergartens in the United States, introduced the Christmas tree tradition, and introduced popular foods such as hot dogs and hamburgers to America. The great majority of people with some German ancestry have become Americanized and hardly can be distinguished, traditional Oktoberfest celebrations and the German-American Day are popular festivities. There are major events in cities with German heritage including Chicago, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, San Antonio. The Germans included many quite distinct subgroups with differing religious and cultural values and they generally opposed womens suffrage but this was used as argument in favor of suffrage when German Americans became pariahs during World War I. The first English settlers arrived at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607 and he was followed in 1608 by five glassmakers and three carpenters or house builders. The first permanent German settlement in what became the United States was Germantown, Pennsylvania, large numbers of Germans migrated from the 1680s to 1760s, with Pennsylvania the favored destination. They migrated to America for a variety of reasons, often immigrants paid for their passage by selling their labor for a period of years as indentured servants. Large sections of Pennsylvania and upstate New York attracted Germans, most were Lutheran or German Reformed, many belonged to small religious sects such as the Moravians and Mennonites. German Catholics did not arrive in number until after the War of 1812, in 1709, Protestant Germans from the Pfalz or Palatine region of Germany escaped conditions of hardship, traveling first to Rotterdam and then to London. Anne, Queen of Great Britain, helped them get to her colonies in America, the trip was long and difficult to survive because of the poor quality of food and water aboard ships and the infectious disease typhus
4.
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
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The Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, often abbreviated HfBK Dresden or simply HfBK, is a vocational university of visual arts located in Dresden, Germany. Apart from this magnificent building, the Academy owns the building for sculpture in Pfotenhauerstrasse, in 1764, the “Allgemeine Kunst-Academie der Malerey, Bildhauer-Kunst, Kupferstecher- und Baukunst” was founded by order of the Prince-Elector Frederick Christian. From 1768 to 1786 it was located in the Fürstenberg Palace and its first director was the Frenchmen Charles Hutin. After the death of Hutin in 1776, Johann Eleazar Zeissig, referred to as Schenau, the Academy was the successor institution of the first “Zeichen- und Malerschule” founded in 1680. It was one of the oldest academies of art in the German-speaking area, today it is one of the academies of art in Germany that are especially attractive for a degree in art due to their unmistakable profile and optimum general conditions. The students are provided with spacious studies and well equipped workshops, the reorganisation of the Academy started in 1990 offered the chance for innovative and organic development of an academy with a long and successful history and distinct traditions. Well-known artists from the world of art are teaching at the Academy. The different courses available for the study of painting and graphics as well as sculpture are very diverse, the rules for study allow for changes within and between the specialized courses and for using the courses in the best possible way for one’s own artistic ambitions and projects. The degree course of Bildende Kunst consists of 10 semesters and leads to the Diplom degree, the degree course Kunsttechnologie, Konservierung und Restaurierung von Kunst- und Kulturgut is one of the oldest and most renowned education courses on university level in Germany. The new postgraduate course Kunst-Therapie that was established just a few years ago does only exist a second time at one other art academy in Germany, after their academy studies, artists and art teachers are given attractive new chances for qualification in the artistic-social field. Currently Eberhard Bosslet teaches sculpture and concepts of space, one of its most illustrious teachers was Bernardo Bellotto, the painter of the world-famous town scapes of Dresden. At the beginning of the 19th century, painters such as Anton Graff, ernst Rietschel, Gottfried Semper and Ludwig Richter consolidated the reputation of the academy, which experienced a further zenith around the turn of the century. List of universities in Germany Hochschule für Bildende Künste Dresden Website of Students and Masters of the Fine Arts Department
5.
Texas Hill Country
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The Texas Hill Country is a 25-county region of Central Texas and South Texas featuring karst topography and tall rugged hills consisting of thin layers of soil atop limestone or granite. It also includes the Llano Uplift and the second largest granite dome in the United States, the Hill Country reaches into portions of the two major metropolitan areas, especially in San Antonios northern suburbs and the western half of Travis County, ending southwest of Downtown Austin. The region is the portion of the Edwards Plateau and is bound by the Balcones Fault on the east. The terrain is punctuated by a number of limestone or granite rocks and boulders and a thin layer of topsoil. The Texas Hill Country is also home to several types of vegetation, such as various yucca, prickly pear cactus, cedar scrub. Several cities were settled at the base of the Balcones Escarpment, including Austin, San Marcos, the regions economy is one of the fastest growing in the US. The deeper caverns of the area form several aquifers which serve as a source of drinking water for the residents of the area, wonder Cave in San Marcos was formed by an earthquake along the Balcones Fault. The Guadalupe, San Antonio, Frio, Medina, and Nueces rivers originate in the Hill Country and this region is a dividing line for certain species occurrence. For example, the California Fan Palm is the species of palm tree that is native to the continental United States west of the Hill Countrys Balcones Fault. The region has hot summers, particularly in July and August, winter temperatures are sometimes as much as ten degrees cooler than in other parts of Texas to the east. For example, the accordion was popularized in Tejano music in the 19th century due to exposure to German settlers. It later re-aired when this series was hosted by Dennis Farina, the region has emerged as the center of the Texas wine industry. Three American Viticultural Areas are located in the areas, Texas Hill Country AVA, Fredericksburg in the Texas Hill Country AVA, the Hill Country is also known for its tourism. In 2008, The New York Times listed the Hill Country in an article about North American vacation destinations, Hill Country has also made Texas second to Florida as the most popular retirement destination in the United States. The region has attracted Baby Boomers as they near retirement age, frederick Day, a demographer with Texas State University, said that the Hill Country life-style reminds one of the small towns of the recent past. Cost of living is pretty low, to people who have spent their work life in Houston or Dallas, the Hill Country is very attractive
6.
Adrian Ludwig Richter
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He was the most popular, and in many ways the most typical German illustrator of the middle of the 19th century. His work is as typically German and homely as are the fairy-tales of Grimm, richter visited Italy from 1823–1826, and his Thunderstorm in the Sabine Mountains at the Staedel Museum in Frankfurt is one of the rare Italian subjects from his brush. In 1828 he worked as designer for the Meissen factory, and in 1841 he became professor, the Dresden Gallery owns one of his best and most characteristic paintings, Bridal Procession in a Spring Landscape. An eye disease put a stop to the practice of his art in 1874, he was pensioned in 1877, the interest of his uneventful life centres within the circle of his art. One of his most notable protégés was Hermann Lungkwitz, among his 240 etchings are about 140 views in Saxony, others of Salzburg, Rome, and the Campagna. His individuality is most completely revealed in his 3000 or more drawingsvers
7.
Elbe
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The Elbe is one of the major rivers of Central Europe. It rises in the Krkonoše Mountains of the northern Czech Republic before traversing much of Bohemia, then Germany and its total length is 1,094 kilometres. The Elbes major tributaries include the rivers Vltava, Saale, Havel, Mulde, Schwarze Elster, the Elbe river basin, comprising the Elbe and its tributaries, has a catchment area of 148,268 square kilometres, the fourth largest in Europe. The basin spans four countries, with its largest parts in Germany, much smaller parts lie in Austria and Poland. The basin is inhabited by 24.5 million people, the Elbe rises at an elevation of about 1,400 metres in the Krkonoše on the northwest borders of the Czech Republic near Labská bouda. Of the numerous small streams whose waters compose the infant river, here the Elbe enters the vast vale named Polabí, and continues on southwards through Hradec Králové and then to Pardubice, where it turns sharply to the west. At Kolín some 43 kilometres further on, it bends gradually towards the north-west, at the village of Káraný, a little above Brandýs nad Labem, it picks up the Jizera. At Mělník its stream is more than doubled in volume by the Vltava, or Moldau, upstream from the confluence the Vltava is in fact much longer, and has a greater discharge and a larger drainage basin. Some distance lower down, at Litoměřice, the waters of the Elbe are tinted by the reddish Ohře, in its northern section both banks of the Elbe are characterised by flat, very fertile marshlands, former flood plains of the Elbe now diked. At Magdeburg there is a viaduct, the Magdeburg Water Bridge, from the sluice of Geesthacht on downstream the Elbe is subject to the tides, the tidal Elbe section is called the Low Elbe. Within the city-state the Unterelbe has a number of streams, such as Dove Elbe, Gose Elbe, Köhlbrand, Northern Elbe, Reiherstieg. Some of which have been disconnected for vessels from the stream by dikes. In 1390 the Gose Elbe was separated from the stream by a dike connecting the two then-islands of Kirchwerder and Neuengamme. The Dove Elbe was diked off in 1437/38 at Gammer Ort and these hydraulic engineering works were carried out to protect marshlands from inundation, and to improve the water supply of the Port of Hamburg. The Northern Elbe passes the Elbe Philharmonic Hall and is then crossed under by the old Elbe Tunnel, a bit more downstream the Low Elbes two main anabranches Northern Elbe and the Köhlbrand reunite south of Altona-Altstadt, a locality of Hamburg. Right after both anabranches reunited the Low Elbe is passed under by the New Elbe Tunnel, the last structural road link crossing the river before the North Sea. At the bay Mühlenberger Loch in Hamburg at kilometre 634, the Northern Elbe and the Southern Elbe used to reunite, leaving the city-state the Lower Elbe then passes between Holstein and the Elbe-Weser Triangle with Stade until it flows into the North Sea at Cuxhaven. Near its mouth it passes the entrance to the Kiel Canal at Brunsbüttel before it debouches into the North Sea, the Elbe has been navigable by commercial vessels since 1842, and provides important trade links as far inland as Prague
8.
Salzkammergut
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The Salzkammergut is a resort area located in Austria. The main river of the region is the Traun, a tributary of the Danube. The name Salzkammergut literally means Estate of the Salt Chamber and derives from the Imperial Salt Chamber and it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The towering mountain slopes are characterized by limestone and flysch rocks. The Katrinalm, a pasture, is found near Bad Ischl. Typical Salzkammergut culinary specialities include dishes such as Kaiserschmarrn, Krapfen or Lebkuchen. C and this resource formed the basis of the areas prosperity up to the middle of the 20th century, a prosperity that is reflected in the fine architecture of the town of Hallstatt. The biggest part is in the state of Upper Austria, located in the southern Gmunden, about 16%, mainly the area around Lake Altaussee, are part of the province of Styria. The smallest part is in the state of Salzburg, within the Salzburg-Umgebung District and these operation were continued by the Romans, after the area had been incorporated into the Noricum province in 15 BC. From about 530, Bavarii tribes settled the region from the west, they met with Alpine Slavs who had moved northwards through the Enns Valley and across the Dachstein Mountains. In 1278 King Rudolph I of Germany, a scion of the Sawabian House of Habsburg, the Habsburg officials resided at Wildenstein Castle near Ischl and the surrounding estates were called Kammergut, as first documented in a 1656 deed. The salt mines were immediate domains of the Habsburg King of the Romans and they were administrated by the financial aulic chamber at Vienna, represented by the salt chamber in Gmunden. Emperor Maximilian I added to the territory the estates of Mondsee Abbey in 1506, the Salzkammergut area is predominantly a tourist area and has been so for over a century. Emperor Franz Joseph I spent his holidays in Bad Ischl in the Kaiservilla. This was also where he signed the declaration of war with Serbia that started World War I, recreational facilities include swimming and water sports at the many lakes, mountaineering, cycling and horse riding holidays, winter sports and cultural events. The region owes its reputation as an area not only to its landscape and climate. There used to be a mining industry but it is today relatively minor contributor to the local economy. More important is the forest industry, industrial sites include Ebensee, Gmunden, Laakirchen and Steyrermühl. The Salzkammergut also profits from its tradition of small businesses and trade companies, the unemployment rate was approximately 4. 8% in 2005, compared to an overall figure of 7. 3% for Austria
9.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
10.
Friedrich Richard Petri
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Friedrich Richard Petri was a German-born Texas painter whose works recorded life in the original German immigrant settlements, and portrayed Native American tribes in family settings. Friedrich Richard Petri was born on July 31,1824, in Dresden, Germany to master shoemaker Heinrich Petri and his wife Juliane Dorothea Petri. At age fourteen, Petri was enrolled at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts where he would remain for years under the tutelage and guidance of Adrian Ludwig Richter. Petri won six awards and a scholarship to an education in Italy. Petri was unable to accept the offer due to physical frailty, hermann Lungkwitz, who married Petris sister Elisabeth, befriended Petri while at the Dresden academy. In 1850, the Lungkwitz and Petri families emigrated to the United States and they migrated to Wheeling, West Virginia, but decided on the destination of Texas in 1851. Their journey took them by ship to New Orleans and Indianola, in 1852, the two families bought a 320-acre farm for $400 in the settlement of Pedernales, Texas near Fredericksburg and took up farming and cattle ranching. Future Texas politician Jacob Kuechler married Petris sister Marie in 1856, like many German immigrants to the American South, the Lungkwitz and Petri families chose not to own slaves but worked their farms themselves. Petris health remained frail for the duration of his life, but he continued his pencil sketches, Petri drowned in the Pedernales River during the winter of 1857, and is buried in the family cemetery in Gillespie County, Texas. Newcomb, William Wilmon, Petri, Friedrich Richard, Carnahan, Mary S, German Artist on the Texas Frontier, Friedrich Richard Petri
11.
May Uprising in Dresden
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The May Uprising took place in Dresden, Kingdom of Saxony in 1849, it was one of the last of the series of events known as the Revolutions of 1848. In the German states, revolutions began in March 1848, starting in Berlin, to form the Assembly, near-democratic elections had taken place across the German states, the majority of the members were Saxon democrats. On 28 March 1849 the Assembly passed the first Reichsverfassung for Germany, movements sprang up across the German states to force through the new constitution but the National Assembly disintegrated. In Saxony, Frederick Augustus II had never recognised the constitution, in Württemberg the more radical elements of the National Assembly formed a rump parliament in Stuttgart, which was defeated by Prussian troops. At the same time, the people of Saxony began to react to the repression of the democratic movement — the May Uprising began, at first the Saxon town councillors attempted to persuade Frederick Augustus II to accept the constitution in public speeches. The municipal guards who should have controlled them were on their side and made an address to the King, the King was unyielding, however, and called them to order. This led to further unrest, which in turn caused the king to bring in Prussian troops, on 3 May 1849, the municipal guards were told to go home, but the town councillors organised them into defensive units to stop expected Prussian intervention. As the peoples anger grew, the government withdrew into the castle, the municipal guards were undecided whether or not to support the people, who threatened to use explosives to get the government out. In response the Saxon troops fired on the crowd, within hours the town was in chaos, with 108 barricades erected. In the early hours of 4 May 1849, the king and his ministers managed to escape, three members of the dissolved Democratic parliament now became the leaders of the revolution, Samuel Erdmann Tzschirner, Karl Gotthelf Todt and Otto Leonhard Heubner formed a provisional government. Their aim was to force the acceptance of the constitution, Tzschirner called in another member, Alexander Heinze, to organise fighting and bring in more communal guards and volunteers from outside Dresden. Reinforcements joined the revolutionaries from as far away as Chemnitz, Zwickau and Marienberg, the Saxon troops were also backed up by arriving Prussian soldiers. They planned to encircle the rebels and corner them on the Altmarkt, recent studies place the number of revolutionaries at around 3,000, compared with 5,000 government troops from Saxony and Prussia. Apart from being outnumbered, the rebels were also untrained in battle, disorganised and lacked weapons, on 9 May the majority were forced to flee. Most of the gave up, and the rest were tracked down to the Frauenkirche. The Saxon government later accused Bakunin of being the revolutionaries ringleader, Röckel also published the popular democratic newspaper Volksblätter. Richard Wagner the composer, at the time Royal Saxon Court Conductor, had been inspired by the spirit since 1848 and was befriended by Röckel. The architect Gottfried Semper was until 1849 less politically active, but had known his democratic beliefs and felt compelled to stand up for them
12.
Revolutions of 1848
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It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history. The revolutions were essentially democratic in nature, with the aim of removing the old feudal structures, the revolutionary wave began in France in February, and immediately spread to most of Europe. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation between their respective revolutionaries, the uprisings were led by shaky ad hoc coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, which did not hold together for long. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of monarchy in Denmark. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, the states that would make up the German Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. The revolutions arose from such a variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a coherent movement or set of social phenomena. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout the first half of the 19th century, both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments. Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes, a popular press extended political awareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism, nationalism and socialism began to emerge. Some historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants, large swaths of the nobility were discontented with royal absolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846, there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, additionally, an uprising by democratic forces against Prussia, planned but not actually carried out, occurred in Greater Poland. Next, the middle classes began to agitate, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, working in Brussels, had written Manifesto of the Communist Party at the request of the Communist League. Following the March insurrection in Berlin, they began agitating in Germany, the middle and working classes thus shared a desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Their participations in the revolutions, however, differed, while much of the impetus came from the middle classes, much of the cannon fodder came from the lower. The revolts first erupted in the cities, the population in French rural areas had risen rapidly, causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many in the feared and distanced themselves from the working poor. Many unskilled laborers toiled from 12 to 15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, traditional artisans felt the pressure of industrialization, having lost their guilds. Revolutionaries such as Karl Marx built up a following, the situation in the German states was similar
13.
Frederick Augustus II of Saxony
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Frederick Augustus II was King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin. He was the eldest son of Maximilian, Prince of Saxony — younger son of the Elector Frederick Christian of Saxony — by his first wife, Caroline of Bourbon, from his birth, it was clear that one day Frederick Augustus would become the ruler of Saxony. His father was the son of the Elector Frederick Christian of Saxony who left surviving male issue. When the King Frederick Augustus I died and Anton succeeded him as King, Frederick Augustus became second in line to the throne and he was an officer in the War of the Sixth Coalition. However, he had little interest in military affairs, the July Revolution of 1830 in France marked the beginning of disturbances in Saxony that autumn. The people claimed a change in the constitution and demanded a young regent of the kingdom to share the government with the King Anton, on 1 September the Prince Maximilian renounced his rights of succession in favor of his son Frederick Augustus, who was proclaimed Prince Co-Regent of Saxony. On 2 February 1832 Frederick Augustus brought Free Autonomy to the cities, also, by an edict of 17 March of that year, the farmers were freed from the corvée and hereditary submission. On 6 June 1836, King Anton died and Frederick Augustus succeeded him, as an intelligent man, he was quickly popular with the people as he had been since the time of his regency. The new king solved political questions only from a sense of duty. Mostly he preferred to leave things on the hands of his ministers. A standardized jurisdiction for Saxony created the Criminal Code of 1836, during the Revolutionary disturbances of 1848, he appointed liberal ministers in the government, lifted censorship, and remitted a liberal electoral law. On 28 April Frederick August II dissolved the Parliament, in 1849, Frederick Augustus was forced to flee to the Königstein Fortress. The May Uprising was crushed by Saxon and Prussian troops and Frederick was able to return only a few days. In 1844 Frederick Augustus, accompanied by his personal physician Carl Gustav Carus, among places they visited were Lyme Regis where he purchased from the local fossil collector and dealer, Mary Anning, an ichthyosaur skeleton for his own extensive natural history collection. During a journey in Tyrol, he had an accident in Brennbüchel in which he fell in front of a horse that stepped on his head, on 8 August 1854, he died in the Gasthof Neuner. He was buried on 16 August in the Katholische Hofkirche of Dresden, in Dresden on 24 April 1833 Frederick Augustus married secondly with the Princess Maria of Bavaria, daughter of the King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. Like his first marriage, this was childless, the musician Theodor Uhlig was an illegitimate son of Frederick Augustus. Without legitimate issue, after his death Frederick Augustus was succeeded by his younger brother, Johann
14.
Constitutional monarchy
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A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as a sovereign who reigns, in addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, the oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape, the most recent country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008. At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801, Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbournes administration, today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial. No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen, with few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the years of the French Revolution. As originally conceived, a monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of servants of the people to reflect the new. In the course of Frances July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled King of the French rather than King of France, following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germanys defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy and this eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain, nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament, other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial
15.
Wheeling, West Virginia
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Wheeling is a city in Ohio County in the U. S. state of West Virginia. Located almost entirely in Ohio County, of which it is the county seat, Wheeling was originally a settlement in the British colony of Virginia and later an important city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. Wheeling was the first state capital of West Virginia, due to its location along major transportation routes, including the Ohio River, National Road, and the B&O Railroad, Wheeling became a manufacturing center in the late nineteenth century. Wheeling is the city of the Wheeling, WV-OH Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the 2010 census, the MSA had a population of 147,950, the origins of the name Wheeling are disputed. One of the more credible explanations is that the word comes from the Lenni-Lenape phrase wih link and this supposedly referred to a white settler who was scalped and decapitated. His severed head was displayed at the confluence of Wheeling Creek, the area had been inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years. In the 17th century, the Iroquois from present-day New York state conquered the upper Ohio Valley, pushing out other tribes and maintaining the area as their hunting ground. Originally explored by the French, Wheeling still has a lead plate remnant buried by the explorer Céloron de Blainville in 1749 at the mouth of Wheeling Creek to mark their claim, later, Christopher Gist and George Washington surveyed the land, in 1751 and 1770, respectively. During the fall of 1769, Ebenezer Zane explored the Wheeling area, other families joined the settlement, including the Shepherds, the Wetzels, and the McCollochs. In 1787, the United States gave Virginia this portion of lands west of the Appalachians, by the Northwest Ordinance that year, it established the Northwest Territory to cover other lands north of the Ohio River and west to the Mississippi River. Settlers began to move into new areas along the Ohio, in 1793, Ebenezer Zane divided the town into lots, and Wheeling was officially established as a town in 1795 by legislative enactment. The town was incorporated January 16,1805, on March 11,1836, the town of Wheeling was incorporated into the city of Wheeling. By an act of the Virginia General Assembly on December 27,1797, originally dubbed Fort Fincastle in 1774, the fort was later renamed Fort Henry in honor of Virginias American governor, Patrick Henry. In 1777, Native Americans of the Shawnee, Wyandot and Mingo tribes joined to attack settlements along the upper Ohio River. They hoped an alliance with the British would drive the settlers out of their territory. Local men, later joined by recruits from Fort Shepherd and Fort Holliday, the native force burned the surrounding cabins and destroyed livestock. During the first attack of the year, Major Samuel McColloch led a force of men from Fort Vanmetre along Short Creek to assist the besieged Fort Henry
16.
Pedernales, Texas
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Pedernales, Texas was an early settlement of German immigrants in Gillespie County, and was part of the Adelsverein colonization of Texas. No trace of the settlement remains today and it is located 7 miles southwest of Fredericksburg near what is now Texas State Highway 16. The Pedernales school was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1993, in 1846, Wilhelm Victor Keidel moved to Fredericksburg, becoming Gillespie Countys first physician, and in 1848 the countys first Chief Justice. He was one of the individuals who signed the petition to create Gillespie County On December 15,1847, Keidel relocated 7 miles southwest of Fredericksburg to the banks of the Pedernales River and founded a settlement he named Pedernales. For any settlers who would relocate with him to the settlement, Keidel became the first leader of the community. Among the other residents were photographer and landscape artist Hermann Lungkwitz and his brother-in-law. After the Bettina community failed circa 1848, Jacob Kuechler and his wife Marie Petri Kuechler moved to Pedernales, by 1850 the settlement had forty-four residents of German descent. On September 11,1854, Keidel hosted a meeting to plan Live Oak School and was elected trustee, a decade later, Pedernales had its own school district, along with two stores and a cotton gin. The school supported grades 1 through 7, all taught by one teacher, the schoolhouse was of native limestone. Community activities centered on the school, and year-end exams were called schulpruefung, private tuition and the state of Texas funded the school. Enrollment dipped during World War II, and the Pedernales school was consolidated in 1949 with the Wrede School, the original school is now a private home, and nothing else remains of the settlement. The Friends of Gillespie County Country Schools
17.
Fredericksburg, Texas
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Fredericksburg is the seat of Gillespie County, in the U. S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 Census, the city had a population of 10,530, Fredericksburg was founded in 1846 and named after Prince Frederick of Prussia. Old-time German residents often referred to Fredericksburg as Fritztown, a nickname that is used in some businesses. The town is notable as the home of Texas German. Fredericksburg shares many characteristics with New Braunfels, which had been established by Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels the previous year. Fredericksburg is the birthplace of Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz and it is the sister city of Montabaur, Germany. On October 14,1970, the Fredericksburg Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in Texas, Fredericksburg is located east of the center of Gillespie County at 30°16′27″N 98°52′19″W. It is 70 miles north of San Antonio and 78 miles west of Austin. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 8.6 square miles, of which 8.6 square miles are land and 0.05 square miles. Enchanted Rock is a geographical landmark 17 miles north of Fredericksburg in Llano County, the rock is a huge, pink granite exfoliation dome that rises 425 feet above the surrounding land, has a summit elevation of 1,825 feet above sea level, and covers 640 acres. It is one of the largest batholiths in the United States, in 1994, the State of Texas opened it as Enchanted Rock State Natural Area after adding facilities. The same year, Enchanted Rock was added to the National Register of Historic Places, balanced Rock was a famous local landmark that perched atop Bear Mountain 10 mi north of Fredericksburg. The natural wonder stone pillar, about the size of a small elephant and it fell prey to vandals who dynamited it off its base in April 1986. The first known record of Cross Mountain was in 1847 by Dr. Ferdinand von Roemer, Native Americans used the location to signal each other about intrusions into their territory. The area was part of settler Dr. John Christian Dursts 10-acre allotment, durst found a timber cross on the mountain, indicating that Spanish missionaries had once used the site. Durst named the place Kreuzberg or Cross Mountain, in 1849, Father George Menzel erected a new cross. In 1946, St. Marys Catholic Church erected a metal, the mountain has been used both for the Easter Fires pageant and for Easter sunrise services. It was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark 1976, the Vereins Kirche, the Pioneer Museum Complex, Pioneer Memorial Library, and other architecture
18.
Pedernales River
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The Pedernales River is a tributary of the Colorado River, approximately 106 miles long, in central Texas in the United States. It drains an area of the Edwards Plateau, flowing west to east across the Texas Hill Country west of Austin, the name Pedernales, first used in the middle 18th century, comes from a Spanish word for the flint rocks characteristic of the riverbed. The river rises from springs in southeastern Kimble County, approximately 25 miles southeast of Junction and it flows generally east into Gillespie County, past Fredericksburg, and into Blanco County, passing north of Johnson City. It joins the Colorado from the southwest in Lake Travis, approximately 10 miles west of Austin, the river has a close association with the Texas Hill Country, tied to the history of the region and emblematic of its geography. Along its route it flows over numerous rugged limestone escarpments as it winds eastward, Johnson, who grew up in nearby Stonewall, south of the river. In 1750, Fray Benito Fernández de Santa Ana proposed a plan to the Spanish government that a mission be established among the Lipan Apache who lived along the river. In 1789, the river was the site of a skirmish between Colonel Francisco Xavier Ugalde and a group of Lipan and Mescalero Indians, the first permanent white settlement along the river was in 1846, when the town of Fredericksburg was established by German immigrants. The threat of raids from Apaches restricted settlement in the area until the 1880s, Pedernales Falls State Park is located along the river in Blanco County east of Johnson City. Like many rivers in central Texas, it is prone to water levels. A sign at the park shows a relatively tranquil river in one picture. The speed at which flash floods can arise along this river has resulted in deaths at the park. The lower river is a destination for whitewater rafting during the high-water season
19.
Enchanted Rock
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Enchanted Rock is an enormous pink granite pluton batholith located in the Llano Uplift approximately 17 miles north of Fredericksburg, Texas and 24 miles south of Llano, Texas, United States. Enchanted Rock State Natural Area, which includes Enchanted Rock and surrounding land, Enchanted Rock covers approximately 640 acres and rises approximately 425 feet above the surrounding terrain to elevation of 1,825 feet above sea level. It is the largest such pink granite monadnock in the United States, Enchanted Rock State Natural Area, a part of the Texas state park system, includes 1,644 acres. Designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1936, the prominent granite dome is visible for many miles in the surrounding basin of the Llano Uplift. The weathered dome, standing above the plain is known to geologists as a monadnock. Archaeological evidence indicates human visitation at the going back at least 11,000 years. According to the book The Enchanted Rock published in 1999 by Ira Kennedy These hunter-gatherers had flint-tipped spears, fire, with these resources, some twelve thousand years ago, the first Texans became the wellspring of Plains Indian culture. On the basis of evidence, human habitation at Enchanted Rock can be traced back at least 10,000 years. Paleo-Indian projectile points, or arrowheads, 11–12,000 years old have been found in the upstream and downstream from The Rock. The oldest authenticated projectile point found within the present day park is a Plainview point type, the rock has been the subject of numerous geological surveys and paintings. Folklore of local Tonkawa, Apache and Comanche tribes ascribes magical and spiritual powers to the rock, while attempting to hide from Anglo settlers in the area, the natives would hide on the top two tiers of the rock, where they were invisible from the ground below. The first European to visit the area was probably Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca in 1536, the Tonkawa, who inhabited the area in the 16th century, believed that ghost fires flickered at the top of the dome. In particular they heard unexplained creaking and groaning, which attribute to the rocks night-time contraction after being heated by the sun during the day. The name Enchanted Rock derives from Spanish and Anglo-Texan interpretations of such legends and related folklore, a plaque formerly embedded in Enchanted Rock near the top, but now removed to a kiosk below, reads, From its summit in 1841, Captain John C. Hays, while surrounded by Comanche Indians who cut him off from his ranging company repulsed the whole band, vernal pools, ecologically threatened depressions of flora and fauna adapted to harsh environments, contain fragile invertebrate fairy shrimp. Other wildlife includes bats, ringtails, squirrels, and fox, a wide variety of lizards, including the Texas horned lizard also make the Enchanted Rock area their home. Park activities include caving, hiking, primitive camping, rock climbing and picnicking. The Summit Trail is the most popular hiking path, the Granite Gripper is an annual rock climbing competition that acts as a fund raiser for park conservation through the Friends of Enchanted Rock
20.
Crabapple, Texas
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The school was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark number 10022 in 1994. The school was added to the National Register of Historic Places in Texas on May 6,2005, on December 15,1847, a petition was submitted to create Gillespie County. In 1848, the legislature formed Gillespie County from Bexar and Travis counties, while the signers were overwhelmingly German immigrants, names also on the petition were Castillo, Pena, Munos, and a handful of non-German Anglo names. The original schoolhouse also served as a post office from 1887–1910, balanced Rock was a famous local landmark that perched atop Bear Mountain in the Crabapple Community. The natural stone pillar, about the size of a small elephant and it fell prey to vandals who dynamited it off its base in April 1986. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Crabapple has a subtropical climate. U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Crabapple community, Texas Friends of Gillespie County Country Schools Gillespie County Historical Society
21.
New Braunfels, Texas
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New Braunfels is a city in Comal and Guadalupe counties in the U. S. state of Texas. It is the seat of Comal County and is a city of the San Antonio–New Braunfels metropolitan statistical area. The citys population was 57,740 at the 2010 census, New Braunfels was established in 1845 by Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels, Commissioner General of the Adelsverein, also known as the Noblemens Society. Prince Solms named the settlement in honor of his home of Solms-Braunfels, the Adelsverein organized hundreds of people in Germany to settle in Texas. Immigrants from Germany began arriving at Galveston in July 1844, most then traveled by ship to Indianola in December 1844, and began the overland journey to the Fisher-Miller land grant purchased by Prince Solms. Prince Solms bought two leagues of land from Rafael Garza and Maria Antonio Veramendi Garza for $1,111.00. The land was located northeast of San Antonio on El Camino Real de los Tejas and had the strong freshwater Comal Springs, known as Las Fontanas and it was about halfway between Indianola and the lower portions of the Fisher-Miller land grant. The first settlers forded the Guadalupe River on Good Friday, March 21,1845, as the spring of 1845 progressed, the settlers built the Zinkenburg, a fort named for Adelsverein civil engineer Nicolaus Zink, divided the land, and began building homes and planting crops. Prince Solms would also lay the cornerstone for the Sophienburg, a permanent fort, in 1844, Prince Solms was so disillusioned with the logistics of the colonization that he asked the Vereins to remove him as Commissioner-General and appoint a successor. When John O. Meusebach arrived, the finances were in disarray, due in part to Prince Solms lack of business experience, to a larger degree, the financial situation happened because the Adelsverein was an organization of noblemen with no practical backgrounds at running businesses. They were on the side of the world and did not witness the situation with which both Prince Solms and Meusebach were dealing. Henry Francis Fisher had not supplied transport and supplies for which the Verein advanced money to him, Meusebach found Prince Solms in Galveston trying to return to Germany, detained by authorities for unpaid bills. Meusebach made good on the debts, so Prince Solms could depart, according to Nicolaus Zink, Prince Solms had planned to establish a German feudal state by secretly bringing in immigrants and placing them in military fortresses. Meusebach, who had renounced his own title of nobility, took a different approach, Prince Solms, being an officer of the Imperial Army of Austria, had kept a uniformed military unit at the ready in Indianola. Meusebach converted the unit to a more needed work detail. A finance and business structure for the colony was put in place by Meusebach and he also provided for adequate food and shelter for the colonists. On August 11,1845, Hermann Friedrich Seele became the first teacher for the German-English school in New Braunfels, Meusebach established friendly relations with a local tribe of Waco Indians. Upon seeing his reddish-blonde hair, they called him Ma-be-quo-si-to-mu, Chief with the hair of the head
22.
Sisterdale, Texas
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Sisterdale, Texas, is an unincorporated farming and ranching community, established in 1847 and located 13 miles north of Boerne in Kendall County, in the U. S. state of Texas. The community is located in the valley of Sister Creek, the current 2010 population is 25 and the elevation is 1,280 feet. Sisterdale was settled in 1847 by German surveyor and free thinker Nicolaus Zink, originally part of Comal, Sisterdale became part of Kendall County when the latter was formed in 1862. The first child born in Sisterdale was Julius Holekamp on June 10,1849 to Fritz, one notable early colonist was Edward Degener, future Republican U. S. Degeners sons Hugo and Hilmar died during the Nueces massacre, also among the settlers was a member of the German Chambers of Deputies Julius Dresel, who was the first to plant a Sisterdale vineyard. His brother Emil Dresel and partner Jacob Gundlach later established the Rhein Farm Vineyard in Sonoma, Julius later moved to San Antonio. Upon the death of brother Emil, who bequeathed Julius his share of the Sonoma vineyard, the community received a post office in 1851, and Ottomar W. Behr was the first postmaster. Sisterdale eventually had a house, a gas station-garage, a general store, a cotton gin. The old 1885 cotton gin in Sisterdale has been restored and is home to the Sister Creek Vineyards. Sisterdale was one of the Latin Settlements, resulting from the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states and those who came were Forty-Eighters, intellectual liberal abolitionists who enjoyed conversing in Latin and believed in utopian ideals that guaranteed basic human rights to all. They reveled in passionate conversations about literature, music and philosophy, the free thinkers petitioned the Texas Congress in 1853 for a charter to operate a German-English college to be built at Sisterdale, but the petition did not come to fruition. Irene Marschall King, granddaughter of John O. 5) Free schools – including universities – supported by the state, without religious influence, one of the most tragic episodes in the history of Kendall County happened in 1862 after Texas joined the Confederacy. The Confederacy considered the free thinkers of Sisterdale and like communities to be a threat, a number of Kendall County Germans became conscientious objectors to the military draft. Confederate authorities reacted by imposing martial law on Central Texas, sixty-one conscientious objectors attempted to flee to Mexico. Confederate irregular James Duff and his Duff’s Partisan Rangers pursued them, at the Nueces River, thirty-four were killed, and some executed after being taken prisoner. In 1866, Kendall County erected the Treue der Union Monument monument dedicated to the German Texans slain at the Nueces massacre, some of the early settlers in Sisterdale migrated from the collapsed Fisher-Miller Land Grant experimental colonies of the Darmstadt Society of Forty. The Sisterdale Valley District is a 2, 893-acre historic district in Sisterdale and it included 15 contributing buildings and six other contributing structures. The historic buildings include an 1890s dance hall, fredericksburg, Texas German Texan Grapetown, Texas Crabapple, Texas Texas Hill Country Syers, Ed
23.
Round Mountain, Texas
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Round Mountain is a town in Blanco County, Texas, United States. The population was 181 at the 2010 census, Round Mountain is located in northern Blanco County at 30°26′11″N 98°21′15″W, along U. S. Route 281. It is 12 miles north of Johnson City, the county seat, downtown Austin is 46 miles to the east. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town of Round Mountain has an area of 2.3 square miles. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Round Mountain has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2000, there were 111 people,41 households, the population density was 48.3 people per square mile. There were 46 housing units at a density of 20.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 87. 39% White,9. 01% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 18. 02% of the population. 17. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.06. In the town, the population was out with 25. 2% under the age of 18,7. 2% from 18 to 24,19. 8% from 25 to 44,32. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 43 years, for every 100 females there were 85.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.6 males, the median income for a household in the town was $39,500, and the median income for a family was $44,375. Males had an income of $30,938 versus $25,833 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,220, there were no families and 2. 3% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and none of those over 64. Round Mountain from the Handbook of Texas Online
24.
Marble Falls, Texas
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Marble Falls is a city in Burnet County, Texas, United States. As of the 2016 United States Census, the city population was 7,154 and it is about 48 miles northwest of downtown Austin and 85 miles north of San Antonio. Lake Marble Falls is part of the Highland Lakes on the Colorado River and it hosts one of the largest drag boat races in the United States each August. Johnson built a home, a college and a large factory near the falls. The town grew to a population of 1,800 within ten years, Marble Falls made history in 1917 by electing Ophelia Crosby Birdie Harwood as the nations first woman mayor, three years before women were allowed to vote. When the Max Starcke Dam was completed in 1951, the falls which had given the town its name were submerged under the new Lake Marble Falls. While the towns economy struggled through the drought of the 1950s, during the last thirty years, Marble Falls has grown into the retail and entertainment center for the Highland Lakes area, and continues to attract tourists, retirees and new businesses. Marble Falls is located in southern Burnet County at 30°34′N 98°17′W, the upper layer of limestone, brownish on the exterior but a deep blue inside, was so hard and cherty it was mistaken for marble. The falls were actually three distinct formations at the head of a canyon 1.25 miles long, with a drop of some 50 feet through the limestone strata. The natural lake and waterfall were covered when the Colorado River was dammed with the completion of Max Starcke Dam in 1951, a photo of the falls as they once existed can be seen at the website for the Wallace Guest House, a local bed and breakfast. Lake Marble Falls sits between Lake Lyndon B. Johnson to the north and Lake Travis to the south, the falls for which the city is named are now underwater but are revealed every few years when the lake is lowered. Equally noteworthy is the huge igneous batholith called Granite Mountain looming on the western edge that secured Marble Falls place in Texas history. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 12.2 square miles, of which 11.6 square miles is land and 0.62 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 6,077 people,2,486 households, and 1,542 families residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 83. 1% White,3. 9% African American,0. 7% Native American,0. 8% Asian,9. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 24. 2% of the population. The average household size was 2.41 and the family size was 3.08. Marble Falls, as of December 1,2009, is the anchor of the Marble Falls, the census bureau has defined this area as including all of Burnet County and has a total population of 42,896. The micropolitan area, due to ties to nearby Austin, is a component of the Austin-Round Rock-Marble Falls
25.
San Antonio
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San Antonio, officially the City of San Antonio, is the seventh-most populated city in the United States and the second-most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population of 1,409,019. It was the fastest growing of the top 10 largest cities in the United States from 2000 to 2010, the city straddles South Texas and Central Texas and is on the southwestern corner of an urban megaregion known as the Texas Triangle. San Antonio serves as the seat of Bexar County, recent annexations have extended the citys boundaries into Medina County and, though for only a very tiny area near the city of Garden Ridge, into Comal County. Due to its placement, the city has characteristics of other urban centers in which there are sparsely populated areas. San Antonio is the center of the San Antonio–New Braunfels Metropolitan Statistical Area, growth along the Interstate 35 and Interstate 10 corridors to the north, west and east make it likely that the metropolitan area will continue to expand. San Antonio was named for Saint Anthony of Padua, whose feast day is on June 13, the city contains five 18th-century Spanish frontier missions, including The Alamo and San Antonio Missions National Historical Park, which were designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2015. Other notable attractions include the River Walk, the Tower of the Americas, the Alamo Bowl, the city is home to the five-time NBA champion San Antonio Spurs and hosts the annual San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo, one of the largest such events in the country. The U. S. Kelly Air Force Base operated out of San Antonio until 2001, the remaining portions of the base were developed as Port San Antonio, an industrial/business park and aerospace complex. San Antonio is home to six Fortune 500 companies and the South Texas Medical Center, at the time of European encounter, Payaya Indians lived near the San Antonio River Valley in the San Pedro Springs area, calling the vicinity Yanaguana, meaning refreshing waters. In 1691, a group of Spanish Catholic explorers and missionaries came upon the river and Payaya settlement on June 13 and they named the place and river San Antonio in his honor. It was years before any Spanish settlement took place, father Antonio de Olivares visited the site in 1709, and he was determined to found a mission and civilian settlement there. He directed Martin de Alarcón, the governor of Coahuila and Texas, differences between Alarcón and Olivares resulted in delays, and construction did not start until 1718. The families who clustered around the presidio and mission formed the beginnings of Villa de Béjar, on May 1, the governor transferred ownership of the Mission San Antonio de Valero to Fray Antonio de Olivares. On May 5,1718 he commissioned the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar on the west side of the San Antonio River, one-fourth league from the mission. On February 14,1719, the Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo proposed to the king of Spain that 400 families be transported from the Canary Islands, Galicia, or Havana to populate the province of Texas. By June 1730,25 families had reached Cuba, and 10 families had sent to Veracruz before orders from Spain came to stop the re-settlement. Under the leadership of Juan Leal Goraz, the group marched overland from Veracruz to the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar, due to marriages along the way, the party now included 15 families, a total of 56 persons. They joined the community established in 1718
26.
Texas General Land Office
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The Texas General Land Office is a state agency of the U. S. state of Texas, responsible for managing lands and mineral rights properties that are owned by the state. The GLO also manages and contributes to the states Permanent School Fund, the agency has its headquarters in the Stephen F. Austin State Office Building in Downtown Austin. The General Land Offices main role is to manage Texass publicly owned lands, by negotiating and enforcing leases for the use of the land, royalties and proceeds from land sales are added to the states Permanent School Fund, which helps to fund public education within the state. The agency is responsible for keeping records of land grants and titles and for issuing maps. Since 2011 the GLO has managed The Alamo in San Antonio, the management of the Alamo was transferred to the General Land Office after allegations of mismanagement were directed at the prior manager, the Daughters of the Republic of Texas. The Congress of the Republic of Texas established the General Land Office on 22 December 1836, the agencys constitutional purpose was to superintend, execute, and perform all acts touching or respecting the public lands of Texas. Since its establishment the agency has been located in Austin, although a relocation to Houston was briefly attempted during the Texas Archive War. One former home of the GLO, the Old Land Office Building, is a historic place. When Texas was annexed into the United States in 1845, it control of all of its public lands from its time as a sovereign state. As a result, Texas is the only US state to all of its own public lands. Texass public lands were enlarged by the US Submerged Lands Act of 1953. All of these lands are managed by the General Land Office, the head of the General Land Office is the Texas Land Commissioner, a statewide public official elected every four years. The current land commissioner is George P. Bush, who was elected on 4 November 2014
27.
Edmund J. Davis
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Edmund Jackson Davis was an American lawyer, soldier, and politician. He was a Southern Unionist and a general in the Union Army in the American Civil War and he also served for one term from 1870 to 1874 as the 14th Governor of Texas. Davis was born in St. Augustine, Florida, a son of William Godwin Davis and his father was a lawyer and land developer in St. Augustine, the oldest permanent settlement in the United States. In 1848, after the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Davis moved with his parents to Galveston, the next year, Davis moved to Corpus Christi, where he was admitted to the bar. He was an inspector and deputy collector of customs from 1849 to 1853, when he was appointed district attorney of the 12th Judicial District and he became a judge in that district. The 1850 census has Davis living on Grant Street in downtown Laredo, Davis, three carpenters, and a laborer were residing, apparently in a boarding house, with Tomasa Benavides and her children when the census was taken that year. He subsequently maintained a ranch in Webb County and conducted his law practice in Laredo, for a time he was a judge of the state 29th Judicial District. In early 1861, Edmund Davis supported Governor Sam Houston in their stand against secession. Davis also urged Robert E. Lee not to violate his oath of allegiance to the United States, Davis ran to become a delegate to the Secession Convention but was defeated. He thereafter refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederate States of America and was removed from his judgeship and he fled from Texas and took refuge in Union-occupied New Orleans, Louisiana. He next sailed to Washington, D. C. where President Abraham Lincoln issued him a commission with the authority to recruit the 1st Texas Cavalry Regiment. Davis recruited his regiment from Union men who had fled from Texas to Louisiana, the regiment would see considerable action during the remainder of the war. On November 10,1864, President Lincoln appointed Davis as a general of volunteers. Lincoln did not submit Daviss nomination to this grade to the U. S. Senate until December 12,1864, the U. S. Senate confirmed the appointment on February 14,1865. Davis was among those present when General Edmund Kirby Smith surrendered the Confederate forces in Texas on June 2,1865, Davis was mustered out of the volunteers on August 24,1865. Following the end of the war, Davis became a member of the 1866 Texas Constitutional Convention and he supported the rights of freed slaves and urged the division of Texas into several Republican-controlled states. In 1869, he was elected governor against Andrew Jackson Hamilton. As a Radical Republican during Reconstruction, his term in office was controversial, on July 22,1870, the Texas State Police came into being to combat crime statewide in Texas
28.
Galveston, Texas
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Galveston is a coastal resort city on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U. S. state of Texas. The community of 209.3 square miles, with a population of 50,180 in 2015, is the county seat. It is within Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land metropolitan area, the Port of Galveston was established in 1825 by the Congress of Mexico following its independence from Spain. The city was the port for the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution. During the 19th century, Galveston became a major U. S. commercial center and it was devastated by the 1900 Galveston Hurricane, whose effects included flooding and a storm surge. The natural disaster on the barrier island is still ranked as the deadliest in United States history. Much of Galvestons economy is centered in the tourism, health care, shipping, the 84-acre University of Texas Medical Branch campus with an enrollment of more than 2,500 students is a major economic force of the city. Galveston Island was originally inhabited by members of the Karankawa and Akokisa tribes who called the island Auia, the Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca and his crew were shipwrecked on the island or nearby in November 1528, calling it Isla de Malhado. They began their trek to a Spanish settlement in Mexico City. During his charting of the Gulf Coast in 1785, the Spanish explorer José de Evia named the island Villa Gálvez or Gálveztown in honor of Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez. The islands first permanent European settlements were constructed around 1816 by the pirate Louis-Michel Aury to support Mexicos rebellion against Spain, in 1817, Aury returned from an unsuccessful raid against Spain to find Galveston occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte. Lafitte organized Galveston into a kingdom he called Campeche, anointing himself the islands head of government. Lafitte remained in Galveston until 1821, when the United States Navy forced him, in 1825 the Congress of Mexico established the Port of Galveston and in 1830 erected a customs house. Galveston served as the capital of the Republic of Texas when in 1836 the interim president David G. Burnet relocated his government there. In 1836, the French-Canadian Michel Branamour Menard and several associates purchased 4,605 acres of land for $50,000 to found the town that would become the city of Galveston. As Anglo-Americans migrated to the city, they brought along or purchased enslaved African-Americans, some of whom worked domestically or on the waterfront, in 1839, the City of Galveston adopted a charter and was incorporated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas. The city was by then a port of entry and attracted many new residents in the 1840s and later among the flood of German immigrants to Texas. Together with ethnic Mexican residents, these tended to oppose slavery, support the Union during the Civil War
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Blanco County, Texas
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Blanco County is a county located on the Edwards Plateau in the U. S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, the population was 10,497 and its county seat is Johnson City. The county is named for the Blanco River which traverses the county, the State of Texas formed Blanco County in 1858 from portions of Burnet, Comal, Gillespie and Hays counties. The city of Blanco served as the county seat from 1858 to 1890,1150 AD Indigenous peoples first inhabitants, possible ancestors of the Lipan Apache. 1721 José de Azlor y Virto de Vera names the Blanco River,1826 Benjamin Milam is given a contract to settle 300 families between the Colorado and Guadalupe rivers. 1836 Comanches claim all land in Blanco County,1847 Meusebach–Comanche Treaty 1850s Samuel Ealy Johnson, Sr. grandfather of President Lyndon B. Johnson, and his brother Jesse Thomas Johnson, set up a business in Johnson City. The town is named after their nephew James Polk Johnson, the Johnson family emigrated from Alabama. 1854-1855 Captain James Hughes Callahan and Eli Clemens Hinds become Blancos first white settlers, joseph Bird establishes Birdtown, now Round Mountain. General John D. Pitts, Judge William S. Jones, Andrew M. Lindsay, James Hughes Callahan,1858, February 12 - Blanco County is formed from parts of Comal, Hays, Burnet and Gillespie, and is named for the Blanco River. County seat is also named Blanco,1860 Population of 1218, includes 98 slaves. Settlers are mostly Anglo-Saxon Protestants hailing from Tennessee and Alabama, agriculture and livestock are central to the economy. 1861 County votes against secession from the Union,1862 Legislature establishes Kendall from part of Blanco southwestern border. Legislature in turn incorporates parts of Hays and Burnet into Blanco,1885 Replacement of courthouse by limestone structure now known as “The Old Courthouse”. 1883 Blanco High School is chartered,1891 Johnson City becomes the new county seat. 1910 Cotton becomes one of the county’s most important crops. 1900-1930 County farmers diversify into peanuts, peaches, pecans, pears, plums, grapes, 1933-1942 Civilian Conservation Corps public work relief program helps improve county parks and infrastructure. 1937 Lyndon Baines Johnson launches his first campaign for Congress from the east porch of the family’s Johnson City home,1938 LBJ becomes a fierce advocate for rural electrification
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Johnson City, Texas
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Johnson City is a city in Blanco County, Texas, United States. The population was 1,656 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Blanco County. Johnson City was the hometown of President Lyndon Johnson and was founded by James Polk Johnson, nephew of Samuel Ealy Johnson, Sr. James Polk Johnson donated a 320-acre site on the Pedernales River for the founding of the town in 1879. The county seat of Blanco County was moved to Johnson City in 1890, Johnson City is located in central Blanco County at 30°16′35″N 98°24′29″W, about 1 mile south of the Pedernales River. Routes 281 and 290 join near the center of town, US281 leads north 23 miles to Marble Falls, and US290 leads west 30 miles to Fredericksburg. The two highways run south out of town together, US290 soon turns east and leads 47 miles to Austin, according to the United States Census Bureau, Johnson City has a total area of 1.7 square miles, all land. Johnson City experiences a subtropical climate, with hot summers. Temperatures range from 82 °F or 27.8 °C in the summer to 47 °F or 8.3 °C during winter, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,191 people,442 households, and 317 families residing in the city. The population density was 891.7 people per square mile, there were 490 housing units at an average density of 366.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 89. 67% White,0. 84% Native American,0. 17% Asian,8. 23% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 20. 57% of the population. 24. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.07. In the city, the population was out with 28. 0% under the age of 18,6. 5% from 18 to 24,27. 3% from 25 to 44,21. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 88.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.5 males, the median income for a household in the city was $34,148, and the median income for a family was $39,375. Males had an income of $30,529 versus $21,607 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,977, about 9. 2% of families and 12. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17. 8% of those under age 18 and 11. 8% of those age 65 or over. The Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park, operated by the National Park Service, is 12 miles west of Johnson City, Johnson City is served by the Johnson City Independent School District. The district has a school, middle school and high school
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Oakwood Cemetery (Austin, Texas)
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Oakwood Cemetery, originally called City Cemetery, is the oldest city-owned cemetery in Austin, Texas. The cemetery dates from the mid-1850s and it may have begun even earlier, as legend states that its first tenants were victims of a Comanche attack whose bodies were laid to rest on the same hill. The cemetery was renamed Oakwood in 1907 per city ordinance and it spreads over 40 acres, including an annex across Comal Street to the east, and includes sections historically dedicated to the citys black, Latino, and Jewish populations. Paupers were historically buried in unmarked graves on the south side. Graves without permanent markers were subject to reburial after a given period, the cemetery became a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1972 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985, its annex was added on October 30,2003. Despite its protected status, the cemetery has been subject to crime, vandalism, wilmer Allison - Tennis Player John Barclay Armstrong - Texas Ranger, U. S. Marshall, and rancher. Captured the notorious killer John Wesley Hardin and is enshrined in the Texas Ranger Hall of Fame in Waco and he was also the grandson of Benjamin Franklin, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America, and Deborah Read. Albert S. Hamilton - Governor of Texas Morgan C. Hamilton - U. S, west - Texas Supreme Court justice and Secretary of State of Texas Dr. Annie Webb Blanton - First woman elected to statewide office in Texas. Served as State Superintendent for Public Instruction from 1919-1922, Austin Chronicle - City of the Dead Oakwood Cemetery at Find A Grave Austin History Center, Oakwood Cemetery Database
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Find a Grave
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Find a Grave is a website that allows the public to search and add to an online database of cemetery records. It is owned by Ancestry. com, the worlds largest for-profit genealogy company, the site was created in 1995 by Salt Lake City resident Jim Tipton to support his hobby of visiting the burial sites of celebrities. He later added an online forum, Find a Grave was launched as a commercial entity in 1998, first as a trade name and then incorporated in 2000. The site later expanded to include graves of non-celebrities, in order to allow visitors to pay respect to their deceased relatives or friends. In 2013, Tipton sold Find a Grave to Ancestry. com, burial information is a wonderful source for people researching their family history. In a September 30,2013, press release, Ancestry, as of March 2017, Find a Grave contained over 159 million burial records and 75 million photos. The website contains listings of cemeteries and graves from around the world, american cemeteries are organized by state and county, and many cemetery records contain Google Maps and photographs of the cemeteries and gravesites. Individual grave records may contain dates and places of birth and death, biographical information, cemetery and plot information, photographs, Interment listings are added by individuals, genealogical societies, and other institutions such as the International Wargraves Photography Project. Contributors must register as members to submit listings, called memorials, the submitter becomes the manager of the listing but may transfer management. Only the current manager of a listing may edit it, although any member may use the features to send correction requests to the listings manager. Managers may add links to other listings of deceased spouses, parents, members may post requests for photos of a specific grave, these requests will be automatically sent to other members who have registered their location as being near that grave. Find a Grave also maintains lists of memorials of famous persons by their claim to fame, such as Medal of Honor recipients, religious figures, Find a Grave exercises editorial control over these listings. Canadian Headstones Interment. net National Cemetery Administrations Nationwide Gravesite Locator Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness Tombstone tourist Colker, web site answers grave concerns about stars. Web site attracts millions of grave-seekers, Find VIPs who R. I. P. through online cemetery. Genealogy, Find a Grave tremendous on many different levels, terre Haute, Indiana, Community Newspaper Holdings Inc. Archived from the original on May 14,2011, tip, Find a Grave has info youre dying to know. Tracking Down Relatives, Visiting Graves Virtually, media related to Images from Find A Grave at Wikimedia Commons Official website
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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