1.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
2.
Potsdam
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Potsdam is the capital and largest city of the German federal state of Brandenburg. It directly borders the German capital Berlin and is part of the Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region and it is situated on the River Havel,24 kilometres southwest of Berlins city centre. Potsdam was a residence of the Prussian kings and the German Kaiser, around the city there are a series of interconnected lakes and cultural landmarks, in particular the parks and palaces of Sanssouci, the largest World Heritage Site in Germany. The Potsdam Conference in 1945 was held at the palace Cecilienhof, the Filmstudio Babelsberg is the oldest large-scale film studio in the world. Potsdam developed into a centre of science in Germany in the 19th century, today, there are three public colleges, the University of Potsdam, and more than 30 research institutes in the city. The area was formed from a series of large moraines left after the last glacial period, today, the city is three-quarters green space, with just a quarter as urban area. There are about 20 lakes and rivers in and around Potsdam, such as the Havel, the Griebnitzsee, Templiner See, Tiefer See, Jungfernsee, Teltowkanal, Heiliger See, the highest point is the 114-metre high Kleiner Ravensberg. Potsdam is divided into seven city districts and nine new Ortsteile. The appearances of the city districts are quite different, the districts in the north and in the centre consist mainly of historical buildings, the south of the city is dominated by larger areas of newer buildings. Potsdam has an Oceanic climate, with cool, snowy winters, the average winter high temperature is 3.5 °C, with a low of −1.7 °C. Snow is common in the winter, summers are mild, with a high of 23.6 °C and a low of 12.7 °C. The name Potsdam originally seems to have been Poztupimi, a common theory is that it derives from an old West Slavonic term meaning beneath the oaks, i. e. the corrupted pod dubmi/dubimi. The area around Potsdam shows occupancy since the Bronze Age and was part of Magna Germania as described by Tacitus. After the great migrations of the Germanic peoples, Slavs moved in and it was first mentioned in a document in 993 AD as Poztupimi, when Emperor Otto III gifted the territory to the Quedlinburg Abbey, then led by his aunt Matilda. By 1317, it was mentioned as a small town and it gained its town charter in 1345. In 1573, it was still a market town of 2,000 inhabitants. Potsdam lost nearly half of its due to the Thirty Years War. After the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Potsdam became a centre of European immigration and its religious freedom attracted people from France, Russia, the Netherlands and Bohemia
3.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
4.
Charlottenburg
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Charlottenburg is an affluent locality of Berlin within the borough of Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf. Charlottenburg was an independent city to the west of Berlin until 1920 when it was incorporated into Groß-Berlin, in the course of Berlins 2001 administrative reform it was merged with the former borough of Wilmersdorf becoming a part of a new borough called Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf. Later, in 2004, the new districts were rearranged, dividing the former borough of Charlottenburg into the localities of Charlottenburg proper, Westend. Charlottenburg is located in Berlins inner city, west of the Großer Tiergarten park and its historic core, the former village green of Alt Lietzow, is situated on the southern shore of the Spree River running through the Berlin glacial valley. In the north and west, the Berlin Ringbahn and the Bundesautobahn 100 mark the border with the Charlottenburg-Nord, adjacent in the south is the territory of Wilmersdorf. Charlottenburg also borders on the district of Halensee in the southwest, as well as on Moabit, Hansaviertel and Tiergarten in the east, archaeological findings in the area date back to the Neolithic era. Although these names are of Slavic origin, the settlements are likely to have had a mixed Slavic, Lietzow is first documented in a 1239 deed. In 1315, Lietzow and Casow became the property of the Sankt Marien nunnery in nearby Spandau, as a result, the Lietzow farmstead probably was expanded to a village. In the course of the Protestant Reformation, Elector Joachim II Hector of Brandenburg confiscated the estates, while the Lietzow area has been populated continuously, Casow and Glienicke were abandoned. From old field names it is believed that Glienicke lay in the area of the present day streets Kantstraße, Fasanenstraße, Kurfürstendamm, the development of Lietzow is well documented. For more than four hundred years, members of the Berendt family were mayors, in 1695, Sophia Charlotte of Hanover received Lietzow from her husband, Elector Frederick III of Brandenburg, in exchange for her estates in Caputh and Langerwisch near Potsdam. Frederick had a residence built there for Sophie Charlotte by the architect Johann Arnold Nering between 1695 and 1699. After he had crowned himself Frederick I, King in Prussia, the Swedish master builder Johann Friedrich Eosander supervised this work. The king served as the mayor until the historic village of Lietzow was incorporated into Charlottenburg in 1720. Fredericks successor as king, Frederick William I of Prussia, rarely stayed at the palace, Frederick William even tried to revoke the towns privileges. With the coronation of his successor Frederick II inl 1740 the towns significance increased, between 1740 and 1747 Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff built the eastern New Wing as Fredericks residence. Later, Frederick II preferred the palace of Sanssouci, which he had designed himself. After the defeat of the Prussian army at Jena in 1806, napoleon took over the palace, while his troops made a camp nearby
5.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas
6.
Germans
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Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
7.
Conservation of energy
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In physics, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant—it is said to be conserved over time. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, rather, it transforms from one form to another, for instance, chemical energy can be converted to kinetic energy in the explosion of a stick of dynamite. A consequence of the law of conservation of energy is that a perpetual motion machine of the first kind cannot exist and that is to say, no system without an external energy supply can deliver an unlimited amount of energy to its surroundings. Ancient philosophers as far back as Thales of Miletus c.550 BCE had inklings of the conservation of some underlying substance of everything is made. However, there is no reason to identify this with what we know today as mass-energy. Empedocles wrote that in his system, composed of four roots, nothing comes to be or perishes, instead. In 1605, Simon Stevinus was able to solve a number of problems in statics based on the principle that perpetual motion was impossible. Essentially, he pointed out that the height a moving body rises is equal to the height from which it falls, and used this observation to infer the idea of inertia. The remarkable aspect of this observation is that the height that a moving body ascends to does not depend on the shape of the surface that the body is moving on. In 1669, Christian Huygens published his laws of collision, among the quantities he listed as being invariant before and after the collision of bodies were both the sum of their linear momentums as well as the sum of their kinetic energies. However, the difference between elastic and inelastic collision was not understood at the time and this led to the dispute among later researchers as to which of these conserved quantities was the more fundamental. In his Horologium Oscillatorium, he gave a much clearer statement regarding the height of ascent of a moving body, Huygens study of the dynamics of pendulum motion was based on a single principle, that the center of gravity of heavy objects cannot lift itself. The fact that energy is scalar, unlike linear momentum which is a vector. It was Leibniz during 1676–1689 who first attempted a mathematical formulation of the kind of energy which is connected with motion. Using Huygens work on collision, Leibniz noticed that in mechanical systems. He called this quantity the vis viva or living force of the system, the principle represents an accurate statement of the approximate conservation of kinetic energy in situations where there is no friction. Many physicists at that time, such as Newton, held that the conservation of momentum and it was later shown that both quantities are conserved simultaneously, given the proper conditions such as an elastic collision. In 1687, Isaac Newton published his Principia, which was organized around the concept of force and momentum
8.
Helmholtz equation
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In mathematics, the Helmholtz equation, named for Hermann von Helmholtz, is the partial differential equation ∇2 A + k 2 A =0 where ∇2 is the Laplacian, k is the wavenumber, and A is the amplitude. The Helmholtz equation often arises in the study of problems involving partial differential equations in both space and time. The Helmholtz equation, which represents a time-independent form of the wave equation, for example, consider the wave equation u =0. Separation of variables begins by assuming that the function u is in fact separable. Substituting this form into the equation, and then simplifying, we obtain the following equation. Notice the expression on the left-hand side depends only on r, as a result, this equation is valid in the general case if and only if both sides of the equation are equal to a constant value. Rearranging the first equation, we obtain the Helmholtz equation, ∇2 A + k 2 A = A =0 and we now have Helmholtzs equation for the spatial variable r and a second-order ordinary differential equation in time. The solution in time will be a combination of sine and cosine functions, with angular frequency of ω. Alternatively, integral transforms, such as the Laplace or Fourier transform, are used to transform a hyperbolic PDE into a form of the Helmholtz equation. Because of its relationship to the equation, the Helmholtz equation arises in problems in such areas of physics as the study of electromagnetic radiation, seismology. The solution to the spatial Helmholtz equation A =0 can be obtained for simple geometries using separation of variables, the two-dimensional analogue of the vibrating string is the vibrating membrane, with the edges clamped to be motionless. The elliptical drumhead was studied by Émile Mathieu, leading to Mathieus differential equation, the solvable shapes all correspond to shapes whose dynamical billiard table is integrable, that is, not chaotic. When the motion on a billiard table is chaotic, then no closed form solutions to the Helmholtz equation are known. The study of systems is known as quantum chaos, as the Helmholtz equation. An interesting situation happens with a shape where about half of the solutions are integrable, a simple shape where this happens is with the regular hexagon. Another simple shape where this happens is with an L shape made by reflecting a square down, if the domain is a circle of radius a, then it is appropriate to introduce polar coordinates r and θ. The Helmholtz equation takes the form A r r +1 r A r +1 r 2 A θ θ + k 2 A =0 and we may impose the boundary condition that A vanish if r = a, thus A =0. The method of separation of variables leads to solutions of the form A = R Θ
9.
Helmholtz free energy
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In thermodynamics, the Helmholtz free energy is a thermodynamic potential that measures the “useful” work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system at a constant temperature and volume. The negative of the difference in the Helmholtz energy is equal to the amount of work that the system can perform in a thermodynamic process in which volume is held constant. If the volume is not held constant, part of work will be performed as boundary work. The Helmholtz energy is used for systems held at constant volume. Since in this case no work is performed on the environment, for a system at constant temperature and volume, the Helmholtz energy is minimized at equilibrium. The Helmholtz free energy was developed by Hermann von Helmholtz, a German physician and physicist, the IUPAC recommends the letter A as well as the use of name Helmholtz energy. In physics, the letter F can also be used to denote the Helmholtz energy, as Helmholtz energy is referred to as the Helmholtz function, Helmholtz free energy. For example, in research, Helmholtz free energy is often used since explosive reactions by their nature induce pressure changes. It is also used to define fundamental equations of state of pure substances. The Helmholtz energy is the Legendre transform of the energy, U. If the system is kept at fixed volume and is in contact with a bath at some constant temperature. Conservation of energy implies, Δ U bath + Δ U + W =0 The volume of the system is kept constant and this means that the volume of the heat bath does not change either and we can conclude that the heat bath does not perform any work. This implies that the amount of heat that flows into the bath is given by. This result seems to contradict the equation dA = -S dT - P dV, as keeping T and V constant seems to imply dA =0, to allow for spontaneous processes at constant T and V, one needs to enlarge the thermodynamical state space of the system. In case of a reaction, one must allow for changes in the numbers Nj of particles of each type j. This equation is then valid for both reversible and non-reversible uPT changes. In case of a change at constant T and V without electrical work. A system kept at constant volume, temperature, and particle number is described by the canonical ensemble, the fact that the system does not have a unique energy means that the various thermodynamical quantities must be defined as expectation values
10.
Free entropy
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A thermodynamic free entropy is an entropic thermodynamic potential analogous to the free energy. Also known as a Massieu, Planck, or Massieu–Planck potentials, in statistical mechanics, free entropies frequently appear as the logarithm of a partition function. The Onsager reciprocal relations in particular, are developed in terms of entropic potentials, in mathematics, free entropy means something quite different, it is a generalization of entropy defined in the subject of free probability. A free entropy is generated by a Legendre transform of the entropy, the different potentials correspond to different constraints to which the system may be subjected. The most common examples are, where Note that the use of the terms Massieu and Planck for explicit Massieu-Planck potentials are somewhat obscure, in particular Planck potential has alternative meanings. The most standard notation for a potential is ψ, used by both Planck and Schrödinger. Free entropies where invented by French engineer Francois Massieu in 1869, and actually predate Gibbss free energy. S = S By the definition of a differential, d S = ∂ S ∂ U d U + ∂ S ∂ V d V + ∑ i =1 s ∂ S ∂ N i d N i. From the equations of state, d S =1 T d U + P T d V + ∑ i =1 s d N i. The differentials in the equation are all of extensive variables. The above differentials are not all of extensive variables, so the equation may not be directly integrated, from d Φ we see that Φ = Φ. The above differentials are not all of extensive variables, so the equation may not be directly integrated, from d Ξ we see that Ξ = Ξ. Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, new York, John Wiley & Sons
11.
Double layer (surface science)
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A double layer is a structure that appears on the surface of an object when it is exposed to a fluid. The object might be a particle, a gas bubble. The DL refers to two layers of charge surrounding the object. The first layer, the charge, comprises ions adsorbed onto the object due to chemical interactions. The second layer is composed of ions attracted to the surface charge via the coulomb force and this second layer is loosely associated with the object. It is made of ions that move in the fluid under the influence of electric attraction. It is thus called the diffuse layer, interfacial DLs are most apparent in systems with a large surface area to volume ratio, such as a colloid or porous bodies with particles or pores on the scale of micrometres to nanometres. However, DLs are important to other phenomena, such as the behaviour of electrodes. DLs play a role in many everyday substances. For instance, homogenized milk exists only because fat droplets are covered with a DL that prevents their coagulation into butter, DLs exist in practically all heterogeneous fluid-based systems, such as blood, paint, ink and ceramic and cement slurry. The DL is closely related to electrokinetic phenomena and electroacoustic phenomena, when an electronic conductor is brought in contact with a solid or liquid ionic conductor, a common boundary among the two phases appears. Hermann von Helmholtz was the first to realize that charged electrodes immersed in electrolytic solutions repel the co-ions of the charge while attracting counterions to their surfaces, two layers of opposite polarity form at the interface between electrode and electrolyte. In 1853 he showed that a double layer is essentially a molecular dielectric. Below the electrolytes decomposition voltage the stored charge is dependent on the voltage applied. Louis Georges Gouy in 1910 and David Leonard Chapman in 1913 both observed that capacitance was not a constant and that it depended on the applied potential, the Gouy-Chapman model made significant improvements by introducing a diffuse model of the DL. In this model the distribution of ions as a function of distance from the metal surface allows Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics to be applied. Thus the electric potential decreases exponentially away from the surface of the fluid bulk, the Gouy-Chapman model fails for highly charged DLs. The Stern layer accounts for ions finite size and consequently an ions closest approach to the electrode is on the order of the ionic radius
12.
Helmholtz pitch notation
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Helmholtz pitch notation is a system for naming musical notes of the Western chromatic scale. Developed by the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz, it uses a combination of upper and lower case letters, and it is one of two formal systems for naming notes in a particular octave, the other being scientific pitch notation. J. Ellis as On the Sensations of Tone, helmholzs system is widely used by musicians across Europe and is the one used in the New Grove Dictionary. The Helmholtz scale always starts on the note C and ends at B, middle C is designated c′, therefore the octave upwards from middle C is c′–b′. Each octave may also be given a name based on the German method, for example, the octave from c′–b′ is called the one-line octave. The English multiple C notation uses repeated Cs in place of the sub-prime symbol, therefore C͵ is rendered as CC. The German method replaces the prime with a bar above the letter. Primes in subscript may be replaced with digits in subscript indicating the number of primes, for example ͵͵C or C2 or 2C, scientific pitch notation is a similar system that replaces primes and sub-primes with integers. Hence C4 in scientific notation is c′ and this diagram gives examples of the lowest and highest note in each octave, giving their name in the Helmholtz system, and the German method of octave nomenclature. Scientific pitch notation Dolmetsch Music theory online, staffs, clefs & pitch notation Octaves and the Major-Minor Tonal System
13.
Helmholtz resonance
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Helmholtz resonance or wind throb is the phenomenon of air resonance in a cavity, such as when one blows across the top of an empty bottle. Helmholtz described in his 1862 book, On the Sensations of Tone, when the resonators nipple is placed inside ones ear, a specific frequency of the complex sound can be picked out and heard clearly. The proper tone of the resonator may even be sometimes heard cropping up in the whistling of the wind, the rattling of carriage wheels, a set of varied size resonators was sold to be used as discrete acoustic filters for the spectral analysis of complex sounds. This type of resonator is in use in the Fourier analyzer, when air is forced into a cavity, the pressure inside increases. When the external force pushing the air into the cavity is removed, due to the inertia of the moving air the cavity will be left at a pressure slightly lower than the outside, causing air to be drawn back in. This process repeats, with the magnitude of the pressure oscillations increasing and decreasing asymptotically after the sound starts, the port is placed in the external meatus of the ear, allowing the experimenter to hear the sound and to determine its loudness. The resonant mass of air in the chamber is set in motion through the second hole, a gastropod seashell can form a low Q Helmholtz resonator, amplifying many frequencies, resulting in the sounds of the sea. The term Helmholtz resonator is now generally applied to include bottles from which sound is generated by blowing air across the mouth of the bottle. In this case the length and diameter of the neck also contribute to the resonance frequency. By one definition a Helmholtz resonator augments the amplitude of the motion of the enclosed air in a chamber by taking energy from sound waves passing in the surrounding air. In the other definition the sound waves are generated by a stream of air flowing across the open top of an enclosed volume of air. This value is usually 1.4 for air and diatomic gases, a is the cross-sectional area of the neck, m is the mass in the neck, P0 is the static pressure in the cavity, V0 is the static volume of the cavity. From the definition of mass density, V n m =1 ρ, thus, ω H = γ P0 ρ A V0 L e q, and f H = ω H2 π, where, fH is the resonant frequency. The speed of sound in a gas is given by, v = γ P0 ρ, thus, the length of the neck appears in the denominator because the inertia of the air in the neck is proportional to the length. The volume of the cavity appears in the denominator because the constant of the air in the cavity is inversely proportional to its volume. The area of the neck matters for two reasons, increasing the area of the neck increases the inertia of the air proportionately, but also decreases the velocity at which the air rushes in and out. Depending on the shape of the hole, the relative thickness of the sheet with respect to the size of the hole and the size of the cavity. More sophisticated formulae can still be derived analytically, with physical explanations
14.
Helmholtz temperament
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A schismatic temperament is a musical tuning system that results from tempering the schisma of 32805,32768 to a unison. It is also called the temperament, Helmholtz temperament, or quasi-Pythagorean temperament. In Pythagorean tuning all notes are tuned as a number of perfect fifths, the major third above C, E, is considered four fifths above C. This causes the Pythagorean major third, E+, to differ from the just major third, E♮, C — G — D — A+ — E+ Elliss skhismic temperament instead uses the note eight fifths below C, F♭--, the Pythagorean diminished fourth or schismatic major third. Though spelled incorrectly for a third, this note is only 1.95 cents flat of E♮. As Ellis puts it, the Fifths should be perfect and the Skhisma should be disregarded. E+ ≈ F♭-- F♭-- — C♭-- — G♭-- — D♭-- — A♭- — E♭- — B♭- — F — C In his eighth-schisma Helmholtzian temperament the note eight fifths below C is also used as the third above C. To raise the Pythagorean diminished fourth 1.95 cents to a just major third each fifth must be narrowed, or tempered, thus the fifth becomes 701.71 cents instead of 701.96 cents. As Ellis puts it, the major Thirds are taken perfect, E♮ ≈ F♭-- E♮ — ≈ C♭-- — ≈ G♭-- — ≈ D♭-- — ≈ A♭- — ≈ E♭- — ≈ B♭- — ≈ F — C Compare Pythagorean vs. Skhismic. In both eighth-schisma tuning and quarter-comma meantone the octave and major third are just, but eighth-schisma has much more accurate perfect fifths. This places them well outside the span of a diatonic scale. Various equal temperaments lead to schismatic tunings which can be described in the same terms, dividing the octave by 53 provides an approximately 1/29-schisma temperament, by 65 a 1/5-schisma temperament, by 118 a 2/15-schisma temperament, and by 171 a 1/10-schisma temperament. The last named,171, produces very accurate septimal intervals, the −1/11-schisma temperament of 94, with sharp rather than flat fifths, gets to a less accurate but more available 7,4 by means of 14 fourths. Eduardo Sabat-Garibaldi also had an approximation of 7,4 by means of 14 fourths in mind when he derived his 1/9-schisma tuning, historically significant is the eighth-schisma tuning of Hermann von Helmholtz and Norwegian composer Eivind Groven. Helmholtz had a special Physharmonica with 24 tones to the octave, a 1/9-schisma tuning has also been proposed by Eduardo Sabat-Garibaldi, who together with his students uses a 53-tone to the octave guitar with this tuning. Mark Lindley and Ronald Turner-Smith argue that schismatic tuning was briefly in use during the medieval period. This was not temperament but merely 12-tone Pythagorean tuning, schismic, Tonalsoft - Encyclopedia of microtonal music theory
15.
Just intonation
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In music, just intonation or pure intonation is any musical tuning in which the frequencies of notes are related by ratios of small whole numbers. Any interval tuned in this way is called a pure or just interval, pure intervals are important in music because they correspond to the vibrational patterns found in physical objects which correlate to human perception. The two notes in any just interval are members of the harmonic series. Frequency ratios involving large integers such as 1024,729 are not generally said to be justly tuned, the Indian classical music system uses just intonation tuning as codified in the Natya Shastra. Various societies perceive pure intervals as pleasing or satisfying consonant and, conversely, however, various societies do not have these associations. Just intonation can be contrasted and compared with equal temperament, which dominates Western instruments of fixed pitch, however, except for doubling of frequencies, no other intervals are exact ratios of small integers. Each just interval differs a different amount from its analogous, equally tempered interval, justly tuned intervals can be written as either ratios, with a colon, or as fractions, with a solidus. For example, two tones, one at 300 hertz, and the other at 200 hertz are both multiples of 100 Hz and as members of the harmonic series built on 100 Hz. Thus 3,2, known as a fifth, may be defined as the musical interval between the second and third harmonics of any fundamental pitch. Just intonation An A-major scale, followed by three major triads, and then a progression of fifths in just intonation, equal temperament An A-major scale, followed by three major triads, and then a progression of fifths in equal temperament. By listening to the file, and then listening to this one, one might be able to hear the beating in this file. Equal temperament and just intonation compared A pair of major thirds, the first in each pair is in equal temperament, the second is in just intonation. Equal temperament and just intonation compared with square waveform A pair of major chords, the first is in equal temperament, the second is in just intonation. The pair of chords is repeated with a transition from equal temperament to just temperament between the two chords, in the equal temperament chords a roughness or beating can be heard at about 4 Hz and about 0.8 Hz. In the just intonation triad, this roughness is absent, the square waveform makes the difference between equal and just temperaments more obvious. Harmonic intervals come naturally to horns, vibrating strings, and in human singing voices. Pythagorean tuning, perhaps the first tuning system to be theorized in the West, is a system in all tones can be found using powers of the ratio 3,2. It is easier to think of this system as a cycle of fifths
16.
Additive synthesis
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Additive synthesis is a sound synthesis technique that creates timbre by adding sine waves together. The timbre of instruments can be considered in the light of Fourier theory to consist of multiple harmonic or inharmonic partials or overtones. Each partial is a wave of different frequency and amplitude that swells. Additive synthesis most directly generates sound by adding the output of multiple sine wave generators, alternative implementations may use pre-computed wavetables or the inverse Fast Fourier transform. These sinusoids are called harmonics, overtones, or generally, partials, in general, a Fourier series contains an infinite number of sinusoidal components, with no upper limit to the frequency of the sinusoidal functions and includes a DC component. Frequencies outside of the audible range can be omitted in additive synthesis. As a result, only a number of sinusoidal terms with frequencies that lie within the audible range are modeled in additive synthesis. A waveform or function is said to be periodic if y = y for all t, the bandwidth of r k should be significantly less than f 0. Additive synthesis can also produce sounds in which the individual overtones need not have frequencies that are integer multiples of some common fundamental frequency. While many conventional musical instruments have harmonic partials, some have inharmonic partials, inharmonic additive synthesis can be described as y = ∑ k =1 K r k cos , where f k is the constant frequency of k th partial. In the general case, the frequency of a sinusoid is the derivative of the argument of the sine or cosine function. If this frequency is represented in hertz, rather than in angular frequency form and this is the case whether the partial is harmonic or inharmonic and whether its frequency is constant or time-varying. For example, F. Richard Moore listed additive synthesis as one of the four categories of sound synthesis alongside subtractive synthesis, nonlinear synthesis. In this broad sense, pipe organs, which also have pipes producing non-sinusoidal waveforms, summation of principal components and Walsh functions have also been classified as additive synthesis. Modern-day implementations of additive synthesis are mainly digital, Additive synthesis can be implemented using a bank of sinusoidal oscillators, one for each partial. Group additive synthesis is a method to group partials into harmonic groups, an inverse Fast Fourier transform can be used to efficiently synthesize frequencies that evenly divide the transform period or frame. It is possible to analyze the components of a recorded sound giving a sum of sinusoids representation. This representation can be re-synthesized using additive synthesis, one method of decomposing a sound into time varying sinusoidal partials is short-time Fourier transform -based McAulay-Quatieri Analysis
17.
Efference copy
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An efference copy or efferent copy is an internal copy of an outflowing, movement-producing signal generated by the motor system. Together with internal models, efference copies can serve to enable the brain to predict the effects of an action, an equal term with a different history is corollary discharge. Efference copies are important in enabling motor adaptation such as to enhance gaze stability and they have a role in the perception of self and nonself electric fields in electric fish. They also underlie the phenomenon of tickling, a motor signal from the central nervous system to the periphery is called an efference, and a copy of this signal is called an efference copy. Sensory information coming from sensory receptors in the nervous system to the central nervous system is called afference. On a similar basis, nerves into the system are afferent nerves and ones out are termed efferent nerves. This efference copy, by providing the input to an internal model, is then used to generate the predicted sensory feedback that estimates the sensory consequences of a motor command. The actual sensory consequences of the command are then deployed to compare with the corollary discharge to inform the CNS about how well the expected action matched its actual external action. The inhibitory commands originate at the time as the motor command. This is unique from the copy, since the corollary discharge is actually fed into the sensory pathway to cancel out the reafferent signals generated by the movement. In 1811 Johann Georg Steinbuch referred repeatedly to the problem of efference copy, after studying medicine, Steinbuch worked for a number of years as lecturer at the University of Erlangen and thereafter as physician in Heidenheim, Ulm, and Herrenberg. Together with Justinus Kerner he gave a precise description in 1817 of the clinical symptoms of botulism. In his book Beytrag zur Physiologie der Sinne”, Steinbuch presented a very careful analysis of the recognition of objects by the grasping hand. The cerebral signals controlling the movement were called Bewegidee, according to Steinbuch’s model, only by the interaction of the Bewegidee with the afferent signal flow did object recognition become possible. When the hand, however, grasps actively, object recognition occurs within a few seconds, the first person to propose the existence of efferent copies was the German physician and physicist Hermann von Helmholtz in the middle of the 19th century. He argued that the brain needed to create a copy for the motor commands that controlled eye muscles so as to aid the brains determining the location of an object relative to the head. His argument used the experiment in which one gently presses on ones own eye, if this is done, one notices that the visual world seems to have moved as a result of this passive movement of the eyeball. In contrast, if the eyeball is actively moved by the eye muscles the world is perceived as still, the view which dispenses with peripheral organs and afferent nerves for the muscular sense has had powerful adherents
18.
Hydrodynamic stability
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In fluid dynamics, hydrodynamic stability is the field which analyses the stability and the onset of instability of fluid flows. The study of hydrodynamic stability aims to find out if a flow is stable or unstable. The foundations of hydrodynamic stability, both theoretical and experimental, were laid most notably by Helmholtz, Kelvin, Rayleigh and Reynolds during the nineteenth century and these foundations have given many useful tools to study hydrodynamic stability. These include Reynolds number, the Euler equations, and the Navier–Stokes equations, when studying flow stability it is useful to understand more simplistic systems, e. g. incompressible and inviscid fluids which can then be developed further onto more complex flows. Since the 1980s, more computational methods are being used to model, to distinguish between the different states of fluid flow one must consider how the fluid reacts to a disturbance in the initial state. These disturbances will relate to the properties of the system, such as velocity, pressure. For a fluid flow to be considered stable it must be stable with respect to every possible disturbance and this implies that there exists no mode of disturbance for which it is unstable. This means that there is at least one mode of disturbance with respect to which the flow is unstable, a key tool used to determine the stability of a flow is the Reynolds number, first put forward by George Gabriel Stokes at the start of the1850s. Associated with Osborne Reynolds who further developed the idea in the early 1880s, this dimensionless number gives the ratio of inertial terms and viscous terms. In a physical sense, this number is a ratio of the forces which are due to the momentum of the fluid, as it increases, the amplitude of a disturbance which could then lead to instability gets smaller. At high Reynolds numbers it is agreed that fluid flows will be unstable, high Reynolds number can be achieved in several ways, e. g. if μ is a small value or if ρ and u are high values. This means that instabilities will arise almost immediately and the flow will become unstable or turbulent, the essential problem is modeled by nonlinear partial differential equations and the stability of known steady and unsteady solutions are examined. The governing equations for almost all hydrodynamic stability problems are the Navier-Stokes equation and it is assumptions of this form that will help to simplify the Navier-Stokes equation into differential equations, like Eulers equation, which are easier to work with. The presence of a boundary causes some viscosity at the layer which cannot be neglected. Finding the solutions to these governing equations under different circumstances and determining their stability is the principle in determining the stability of the fluid flow itself. To determine whether the flow is stable or unstable, one employs the method of linear stability analysis. In this type of analysis, the equations and boundary conditions are linearized. This is based on the fact that the concept of stable or unstable is based on a small disturbance
19.
Keratometer
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It was invented by the German physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz in 1851, although an earlier model was developed in 1796 by Jesse Ramsden and Everard Home. A keratometer uses the relationship between size, image size, the distance between the reflective surface and the object, and the radius of the reflective surface. The Javal-Schiotz keratometer is a two position instrument which uses an image and doubling size and adjustable object size to determine the radius of curvature of the reflective surface. It uses two self illuminated mires, one a red square, the other a green staircase design, in order to get repeatable, accurate measurements, it is important that the instrument stays focused. It uses the Scheiner principle, common in devices, in which the converging reflected rays coming towards the eyepiece are viewed through two separate symmetrical apertures. The Bausch and Lomb Keratometer is a one position keratometer that gives readings in dioptric form and it differs from the Javal-Schiotz in that object size is fixed, image size is the manipulable variable. In converting the measurements obtained from the surface into a dioptric value. This is a value, which includes an allowance for the small, yet significant. This allows for a readout in both power and radius of curvature. Origins of the Keratometer and its Evolving Role in Ophthalmology, survey of Ophthalmology 2010,55, 481-497 Javal L, Schiötz H. Un opthalmomètre pratique. Annales d’oculistique, Paris,1881,86, 5-21
20.
Supercapacitor
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A supercapacitor is a high-capacity capacitor with capacitance values much higher than other capacitors that bridge the gap between electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable batteries. Smaller units are used as backup for static random-access memory. Supercapacitors do not use the solid dielectric of ordinary capacitors. The separation of charge is of the order of a few ångströms, Electrochemical pseudocapacitors use metal oxide or conducting polymer electrodes with a high amount of electrochemical pseudocapacitance additional to the double-layer capacitance. Pseudocapacitance is achieved by Faradaic electron charge-transfer with redox reactions, intercalation or electrosorption, Hybrid capacitors, such as the lithium-ion capacitor, use electrodes with differing characteristics, one exhibiting mostly electrostatic capacitance and the other mostly electrochemical capacitance. Supercapacitors are polarized by design with asymmetric electrodes, or, for symmetric electrodes, development of the double layer and pseudocapacitance models. In the early 1950s, General Electric engineers began experimenting with porous carbon electrodes, in the design of capacitors, from the design of fuel cells, activated charcoal is an electrical conductor that is an extremely porous spongy form of carbon with a high specific surface area. In 1957 H. Becker developed a Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes and he believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores as in the pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. General Electric did not immediately pursue this work, in 1966 researchers at Standard Oil of Ohio developed another version of the component as electrical energy storage apparatus, while working on experimental fuel cell designs. The nature of energy storage was not described in this patent. Even in 1970, the electrochemical capacitor patented by Donald L. Boos was registered as a capacitor with activated carbon electrodes. Early electrochemical capacitors used two aluminum foils covered with activated carbon—the electrodes—which were soaked in an electrolyte and separated by a thin porous insulator and this design gave a capacitor with a capacitance on the order of one farad, significantly higher than electrolytic capacitors of the same dimensions. This basic mechanical design remains the basis of most electrochemical capacitors, SOHIO did not commercialize their invention, licensing the technology to NEC, who finally marketed the results as supercapacitors in 1971, to provide backup power for computer memory. Between 1975 and 1980 Brian Evans Conway conducted extensive fundamental and development work on ruthenium oxide electrochemical capacitors, in 1991 he described the difference between Supercapacitor and Battery behavior in electrochemical energy storage. In 1999 he coined the term supercapacitor to explain the increased capacitance by surface redox reactions with faradaic charge transfer between electrodes and ions, the working mechanisms of pseudocapacitors are redox reactions, intercalation and electrosorption. With his research, Conway greatly expanded the knowledge of electrochemical capacitors and that changed around 1978 as Panasonic marketed its Goldcaps brand. This product became an energy source for memory backup applications. In 1987 ELNA Dynacaps entered the market, first generation EDLCs had relatively high internal resistance that limited the discharge current
21.
Copley Medal
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The Copley Medal is a scientific award given by the Royal Society, London, for outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science. It alternates between the physical and the biological sciences, the medal was created following a donation of £100 to be used for carrying out experiments by Sir Godfrey Copley, for which the interest on the amount was used for several years. A second donation of £1666 13s, 4d. was made by Sir Joseph William Copley in 1881, and the interest from that amount is used to pay for the medal. The medal in its current format is made of silver gilt, since its inception, it has been awarded to many notable scientists, including 52 winners of the Nobel Prize,17 in Physics,21 in Physiology or Medicine, and 14 in Chemistry. John Theophilus Desaguliers has won the medal the most often, winning in 1734,1736 and 1741, in 1976, Dorothy Hodgkin became the first and as of 2015 the only female recipient
22.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
23.
Physiology
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Physiology is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which operate within a living system. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology, plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology, bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically. Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, the study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates incorporated his belief called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance, earth, water, air. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour, black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the theory of disease. Claudius Galenus, known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body, unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to more precise diagnoses. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology, and for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine. Jean Fernel, a French physician, introduced the term physiology, inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory. Where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual, in more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems. In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and he later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount. The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club, the American Physiological Society is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, devoted to fostering education, scientific research, in 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on conditional reflexes that involved dogs saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli
24.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
25.
University of Bonn
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The University of Bonn is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in its present form in 1818, as the successor of earlier academic institutions. The University of Bonn offers a number of undergraduate and graduate programs in a range of subjects. Its library holds more than five million volumes, the University of Bonn has 544 professors and 32,500 students. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016 and the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2015 ranked the University of Bonn as one of the 100 best universities in the world. The universitys forerunner was the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn which was founded in 1777 by Maximilian Frederick of Königsegg-Rothenfels, in the spirit of the Enlightenment the new academy was nonsectarian. The academy had schools for theology, law, pharmacy and general studies, in 1784 Emperor Joseph II granted the academy the right to award academic degrees, turning the academy into a university. The academy was closed in 1798 after the bank of the Rhine was occupied by France during the French Revolutionary Wars. The Rhineland became a part of Prussia in 1815 as a result of the Congress of Vienna, shortly after the seizure of the Rhineland, on 5 April 1815, King Frederick William III of Prussia promised the establishment of a new university in the new Rhine province. At this time there was no university in the Rhineland, as all three universities that existed until the end of the 18th century were closed as a result of the French occupation, the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn was one of these three universities. The other two were the Roman Catholic University of Cologne and the Protestant University of Duisburg, the new Rhein University was then founded on 18 October 1818 by Frederick William III. It was the sixth Prussian University, founded after the universities in Greifswald, Berlin, Königsberg, Halle, the new university was equally shared between the two Christian denominations. This was one of the reasons why Bonn, with its tradition of a university, was chosen over Cologne. Apart from a school of Roman Catholic theology and a school of Protestant theology, inititally 35 professors and eight adjunct professors were teaching in Bonn. The university constitution was adopted in 1827, in the spirit of Wilhelm von Humboldt the constitution emphasized the autonomy of the university and the unity of teaching and research. Similar to the University of Berlin, which was founded in 1810, only one year after the inception of the Rhein University the dramatist August von Kotzebue was murdered by Karl Ludwig Sand, a student at the University of Jena. The Carlsbad Decrees, introduced on 20 September 1819 led to a crackdown on universities, the dissolution of the Burschenschaften. One victim was the author and poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, who, only after the death of Frederick William III in 1840 was he reinstated in his professorship
26.
Heidelberg University
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Heidelberg University is a public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Founded in 1386 on instruction of Pope Urban VI, Heidelberg is Germanys oldest university and it was the third university established in the Holy Roman Empire. Heidelberg has been an institution since 1899. The university consists of twelve faculties and offers programmes at undergraduate, graduate. The language of instruction is usually German, while a number of graduate degrees are offered in English. Associated with 31 Nobel Prize laureates, the university places an emphasis on research, modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology, psychiatric genetics, environmental physics, and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg faculty. Approximately 1,000 doctorates are completed every year, with more than one third of the students coming from abroad. International students from some 130 countries account for more than 20 percent of the student body. The universitys noted alumni include eleven domestic and foreign Heads of State or Heads of Government, the Great Schism of 1378 made it possible for Heidelberg, a relatively small city and capital of the Electorate of the Palatinate, to gain its own university. The Great Schism was initiated by the election of two popes after the death of Pope Gregory XI in the same year, one successor resided in Avignon and the other in Rome. Rupert I recognized the opportunity and initiated talks with the Curia, as specified in the papal charter, the university was modelled after University of Paris and included four faculties, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine. On 18 October 1386 a special Pontifical High Mass in the Heiliggeistkirche was the ceremony that established the university, on 19 October 1386 the first lecture was held, making Heidelberg the oldest university in Germany. In November 1386, Marsilius of Inghen was elected first rector of the university, the rector seal motto was semper apertus—i. e. The book of learning is always open, the university grew quickly and in March 1390,185 students were enrolled at the university. This resulted in establishing a reputation for the university and its professors. Due to the influence of Marsilius, the university initially taught the nominalism or via moderna, the transition from scholastic to humanistic culture was effected by the chancellor and bishop Johann von Dalberg in the late 15th century. Humanism was represented at Heidelberg University particularly by the founder of the older German Humanistic School Rudolph Agricola, Conrad Celtes, Jakob Wimpfeling, and Johann Reuchlin. Æneas Silvius Piccolomini was chancellor of the university in his capacity of provost of Worms, in 1482, Pope Sixtus IV permitted laymen and married men to be appointed professors in the ordinary of medicine through a papal dispensation
27.
Humboldt University of Berlin
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The Humboldt university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology, du Bois and European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University, Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. With the construction of research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum, in 1717, King Friedrich I had built a quarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the soldier king Friedrich Wilhelm, Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen. By 1829 the site became Berlin Universitys medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed, Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, also the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin, founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the University. After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime, the rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934, students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany ordered the opening of the university in January 1946, the SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing newly opened and not re-opened for political reasons. The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way and you have before you this image of the old university. What remains of that is nought but ruins, the teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the semester of 1946, the Economic. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962, the East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body, Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response
28.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
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Albert A. Michelson
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Albert Abraham Michelson was an American physicist known for his work on the measurement of the speed of light and especially for the Michelson–Morley experiment. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics and he became the first American to receive the Nobel Prize in sciences. Michelson was born in Strzelno, Province of Posen in Prussia into a Jewish family and he moved to the US with his parents in 1855, at the age of two. He grew up in the towns of Murphys Camp, California and Virginia City, Nevada. His family was Jewish by birth but non-religious, and Michelson himself was a lifelong agnostic and he spent his high school years in San Francisco in the home of his aunt, Henriette Levy, who was the mother of author Harriet Lane Levy. President Ulysses S. Grant awarded Michelson a special appointment to the U. S. Naval Academy in 1869, during his four years as a midshipman at the Academy, Michelson excelled in optics, heat, climatology and drawing. After graduating in 1873 and two years at sea, he returned to the Naval Academy in 1875 to become an instructor in physics, in 1879, he was posted to the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, to work with Simon Newcomb. In the following year he obtained leave of absence to continue his studies in Europe and he visited the Universities of Berlin and Heidelberg, and the Collège de France and École Polytechnique in Paris. In 1877, he married Margaret Hemingway, daughter of a wealthy New York stockbroker and lawyer and they had two sons and a daughter. Michelson was fascinated with the sciences, and the problem of measuring the speed of light in particular, while at Annapolis, he conducted his first experiments of the speed of light, as part of a class demonstration in 1877. After two years of studies in Europe, he resigned from the Navy in 1881, in 1883 he accepted a position as professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Ohio and concentrated on developing an improved interferometer. In 1887 he and Edward Morley carried out the famous Michelson–Morley experiment which failed to detect evidence of the existence of the luminiferous ether and he later moved on to use astronomical interferometers in the measurement of stellar diameters and in measuring the separations of binary stars. In 1899, he married Edna Stanton and they raised one son and three daughters. He also won the Copley Medal in 1907, the Henry Draper Medal in 1916, a crater on the Moon is named after him. Michelson died in Pasadena, California at the age of 78, the University of Chicago Residence Halls remembered Michelson and his achievements by dedicating Michelson House in his honor. Case Western Reserve has dedicated a Michelson House to him, clark University named a theatre after him. Michelson Laboratory at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in Ridgecrest, there is a display in the publicly accessible area of the Lab which includes facsimiles of Michelsons Nobel Prize medal, the prize document, and examples of his diffraction gratings. Michelson published his result of 299,910 ±50 km/s in 1879 before joining Newcomb in Washington DC to assist with his measurements there, thus began a long professional collaboration and friendship between the two
