1.
Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded
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Pink Friday, Roman Reloaded is the second studio album by Trinidadian-American recording artist Nicki Minaj. It was released on April 2,2012, by Young Money, Cash Money, looking to transition from her debut studio album, Pink Friday, Minaj wanted to make a follow-up record about just having fun. Stylistically, the album is divided by a first half of hip hop tracks, as its executive producer, Minaj enlisted a variety of collaborators. Upon its release, Pink Friday, Roman Reloaded received generally mixed reviews from music critics and it debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 selling 253,000 copies in its first week. In doing so, it became Minajs second number-one album in the country, internationally, the album peaked at number one in Canada and the United Kingdom, and reached the top five in Australia, Ireland, and New Zealand. The album was promoted with five singles and its lead single Starships peaked at number five on the US Billboard Hot 100. Follow-up singles Right by My Side and Beez in the Trap experienced moderate success on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs component chart, Pound the Alarm and Va Va Voom peaked at numbers fifteen and twenty-two on the Billboard Hot 100, respectively. The album was promoted through the Pink Friday Tour and the Pink Friday, Reloaded Tour, which visited North America, Asia, Europe. On November 19,2012, Pink Friday, Roman Reloaded was reissued as an expanded version subtitled The Re-Up and it contained an additional disc with seven newly recorded tracks and an exclusive behind-the-scenes DVD to supplement the standard version of the original album. Its singles The Boys, Freedom, and High School experienced moderate success on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hip Songs component chart. Following the success of Minajs debut studio album, Pink Friday, Cash Money CEO, in November 2011, Minaj announced on Twitter that the album would be released on February 14,2012, though it was later delayed to April 3,2012. The album focuses on Roman Zolanski, one of Minajs alter egos that was first featured on Pink Friday, the standard artwork was released on March 1,2012 and the deluxe artwork was revealed on March 8,2012, both through Twitter. When Minaj was asked on Twitter to describe the album in one word, in an interview following the premiere of the albums lead single, Starships, Minaj told Ryan Seacrest, Ive never had this much fun recording music in my life. My first album I was very guarded, I felt like I was making music to please everyone else. I had to be correct, but this album I am just creating music. Literally in the studio we were cracking up laughing, having fun, the music itself youre going to get every side that Ive ever shown and then a little bit extra. Ive tried to make it very, very balanced, because I dont ever want to be boxed in, so I made a very diverse album. She added that with her first album, I was a too open Nicki Minaj, when I was going to do my first album people would say, What is she going to talk about
2.
Interstate 5 in Washington
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Interstate 5 in Washington is a 276. 62-mile highway in the U. S. state of Washington that extends from its border with Oregon to its border with Canada. It is the interstate to traverse the whole north–south length of Washington. I-5 is also the only primary interstate highway in Washington. The road is the busiest in the state, an estimated 240,000 motorists use the road daily, the second busiest is I-405 at 201,000. I-5 enters Washington at the Interstate Bridge over the Columbia River between Portland and Vancouver, I-5 closely follows the alignment of old U. S. Route 99, and in some locations the US99 alignment has become I-5. The interstate passes the Vancouver branch of Washington State University, southeast of Ridgefield, the highway intersects SR502 and the second segment of SR501 before continuing north along the Columbia River to Woodland. In Woodland, I-5 intersects SR503 and starts to curve northwest towards Longview, at Longview Junction, east of Longview, I-5 intersects SR432 and continues north to Kelso. Here it intersects SR4, formerly US830, and SR431 before curving northeast towards Castle Rock, in Castle Rock, the freeway intersects SR411, and SR504, which connects I-5 with Mount St. Helens, and Spirit Lake. From Castle Rock, the highway north to Napavine and intersects SR506 and SR505 before becoming concurrent with US12. After the intersection, I-5 and US12 go into Chehalis, after leaving Chehalis, I-5/US12 enters Centralia and intersects SR507 before splitting from US12 north of the city. As the freeway continues north towards Olympia, it intersects SR121, as the freeway enters Tumwater, it passes the Olympia Airport before intersecting the northern terminus of US101. As I-5 leaves the US101 interchange, the highway curves east, the highway also goes across Capitol Lake and intersects Capitol Way, which connects the freeway to the Washington State Capitol. After leaving Olympia, I-5 goes in a direction into Lacey. After passing Nisqually, the highway enters Du Pont, where it enters Fort Lewis, after passing Camp Murray and American Lake, the freeway comes to the proposed western terminus of SR704, passes McChord Air Force Base, and enters Lakewood. In Fife, the highway intersects SR99, a portion of US99 through the Puget Sound region. Here the freeway intersects the terminus of SR18, which has been proposed to be renumbered to I-605 after being upgraded to Interstate standards. After also intersecting SR516, the highway passes Angle Lake, the Seattle-Tacoma International Airport, SR518 connects I-5 to the Seattle-Tacoma International Airport, and I-405 bypasses I-5 through Seattle. From the I-405/SR518 interchange, I-5 goes north and intersects SR599, which connects I-5 to SR99, from the interchanges, the highway passes Boeing Field and the West Seattle Bridge before having a large interchange with I-90
3.
Seattle
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Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city
4.
Lane
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In the context of traffic control, a lane is part of a roadway that is designated for use by a single line of vehicles, to control and guide drivers and reduce traffic conflicts. Most public roads have at least two lanes, one for traffic in each direction, separated by lane markings, on multilane roadways and busier two-lane roads, lanes are designated with road surface markings. Major highways often have two multi-lane roadways separated by a median, some roads and bridges that carry very low volumes of traffic are less than 15 feet wide, and are only a single lane wide. Vehicles travelling in opposite directions must slow or stop to each other. In rural areas, these are often called country lanes, in urban areas, alleys are often only one lane wide. Urban and suburban one lane roads are designated for one-way traffic. A traffic lane or travel lane is a lane for the movement of vehicles traveling from one destination to another, a through lane or thru lane is a traffic lane for through traffic. At intersections, these may be indicated by arrows on the pavement pointing straight ahead, an express lane of a road is used for faster moving traffic and has less access to exits/off ramps. In other areas, an express lane may refer to a HOV lane, a reversible lane is a lane where the direction of traffic can be changed to match the peak flow. They are used to accommodate periods of traffic flow, especially rush hour where the flow is predominantly in one direction, on roads that cannot be easily widened such as over bridges. One or more lanes are removed from the flow and added to the peak flow. An auxiliary lane is an other than a through lane. An acceleration lane or merge lane allows traffic entering a highway to accelerate to the speed of traffic before merging with it. A turn lane is set aside for slowing down and making a turn, by removing turning traffic from the through lanes, motorist safety is improved and delay is removed, but crossing distances for pedestrians are lengthened, increasing their exposure to collisions. A two-way center turn lane is a lane in the center of a roadway to allow drivers traveling in either direction to pause before turning across oncoming traffic while waiting for a gap in traffic. A passing lane is provided on busy two-lane roads to allow drivers to pass slower vehicles without having to cross the center line. A climbing lane, truck lane, or crawler lane is provided on steep mountain grades. The lane is marked only on the stretch and usually a short distance afterward
5.
Rush hour
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A rush hour is a part of the day during which traffic congestion on roads and crowding on public transport is at its highest. Normally, this happens twice every weekday—once in the morning and once in the afternoon-evening, the term is often used for a period of peak congestion that may last for more than one hour. By analogy to vehicular traffic, the term Internet rush hour has been used to describe periods of peak data network usage, resulting in delays and slower delivery of data packets. The name is sometimes a misnomer, as the period often lasts more than one hour. Rush hour may be 6–10 am and 4–8 pm, Peak traffic periods may vary from city to city, from region to region, and seasonally. The frequency of public service is usually higher in the rush hour. The resulting crowding may force many passengers to stand, and others may be unable to board, if there is inadequate capacity, this can make public transport less attractive, leading to higher car use and partly shifting the congestion to roads. Transport demand management, such as road pricing or a charge, is designed to induce people to alter their travel timing to minimize congestion. Similarly, public transport fares may be higher during peak periods, season tickets or multi-ride tickets, sold at a discount, are commonly used in rush hours by commuters, and may or may not reflect rush hour fare differentials. Staggered hours have been promoted as a means of spreading demand across a time span, for example in Rush Hour. In Australia, Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne and in New Zealand, Auckland and Christchurch are usually the most congested cities in the morning 6–9am, in Melbourne the Monash Freeway, which connects Melbournes suburban sprawl, to the city is usually heavily congested each morning and evening. In Perth, Mitchell Freeway, Kwinana Freeway and various arterial roads are usually congested between peak hours, making movement between suburbs and the city quite slow, efforts to minimise traffic congestion during peak hour vary on a state by state and city by city basis. In Melbourne, congestion is managed by means including, Inbound transit lanes on busy freeways which are limited to motorcycles, free travel on metropolitan trains before 7am. Passengers must exit the system at their station before 7am. Dedicated bus lanes on major city roads such as Hoddle Street. Introduction of dedicated lanes in the inner city area to encourage cyclists. Prohibition of parking along busy roads during peak periods to create an extra lane for traffic. In São Paulo, Brazil, each vehicle is assigned a day of the week in which it cannot travel the roads during rush hour
6.
Carpool
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Carpooling is the sharing of car journeys so that more than one person travels in a car. By having more people using one vehicle, carpooling reduces each persons travel costs such as costs, tolls. Authorities often encourage carpooling, especially during periods of high pollution or high fuel prices, in 2009, carpooling represented 43. 5% of all trips in the United States and 10% of commute trips. The majority of carpool commutes are fam-pools with family members, carpool commuting is more popular for people who work in places with more jobs nearby, and who live in places with higher residential densities. However, carpooling is significantly less likely among people who spend time at work, older workers. Drivers and passengers offer and search for journeys through one of the several mediums available, after finding a match they contact each other to arrange any details for the journey. Costs, meeting points and other details like space for luggage are agreed on and they then meet and carry out their shared car journey as planned. Carpooling is commonly implemented for commuting but is popular for longer one-off journeys. Carpooling is not always arranged for the length of a journey. Especially on long journeys, it is common for passengers to join for parts of the journey. This gives carpooling extra flexibility, and enables people to share journeys. Like other online marketplaces, they use community-based trust mechanisms, such as user-ratings, many companies and local authorities have introduced programs to promote carpooling. In an effort to reduce traffic and encourage carpooling, some governments have introduced high-occupancy vehicle lanes in which only vehicles with two or more passengers are allowed to drive, HOV lanes can create strong practical incentives for carpooling by reducing travel time and expense. In some countries it is common to find parking spaces reserved for carpoolers, in 2011, an organization called Greenxc created a campaign to encourage others to use this form of transportation in order to reduce their own carbon footprint. Several people were fined by undercover tax officers during a 2011 crackdown, Carpooling usually means to divide the travel expenses in equal parts between all the occupants of the vehicle. The driver doesn’t try to earn money, but to share with several people the cost of a trip he would do anyway, the expenses to be divided basically include the fuel and possible tolls. But if we include in the calculation the amortization of the purchase and maintenance, insurance and taxes paid by the driver. There are platforms that facilitate carpooling by connecting people seeking respectively passengers and drivers, usually there is a fare set up by the car driver and accepted by passengers, because they get an agreement before trip start
7.
Vanpool
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Vanpools are an element of the transit system that allow groups of people to share the ride similar to a carpool, but on a larger scale with concurrent savings in fuel and vehicle operating costs. The key concept is that people share the ride from home or one or more common meeting locations, a number of programs exist to help lower the cost of that shared ride to the end user. Among these are traditional funding available to agencies, public-private partnerships. A tax benefit is available under 26 U. S. C. §132 Qualified Transportation Fringe Benefit allowances and these public transportation programs seek to reduce the number of cars on the road. Additional benefits include, Speed, The van can use the HOV lanes because normally more than 2-3 people ride, riders often can have significant reductions in the cost of personal automobile insurance. Incentives from local/federal transportation authorities offset cost, in many cases, an employer may elect to subsidize the cost of the vanpool and the vehicles maintenance. In some cases, the vehicles are provided and maintained by the municipality, the vans are centrally maintained, fueled, and cleaned. The King County Metro Vanpool Program is a successful US program in the Puget Sound area, specifically in King County, another successful program is operated by Pace in Illinois. The oldest multi-employer vanpool program in the country is in Treasure Valley, the Vanpools also service the Military at Gowen Field and Mountain Home Air Force Base with multiple routes to and from Ada and Canyon County. ACHD Commuteride serves the cities, Boise, Meridian, Kuna, Garden City, Eagle and Star as well as Ada County
8.
Public transport
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Public transport modes include city buses, trolleybuses, trams and passenger trains, rapid transit and ferries. Public transport between cities is dominated by airlines, coaches, and intercity rail, high-speed rail networks are being developed in many parts of the world. Most public transport runs to a timetable, with the most frequent services running to a headway. Share taxis offer services in many parts of the world. Paratransit is sometimes used in areas of low demand and for people who need a door-to-door service, there are distinct differences in urban public transit between Asia, North America, and Europe. In Asia, mass transit operations are run by profit-driven privately owned and publicly traded mass transit. In North America, mass transit operations are run by municipal transit authorities. In Europe, mass transit operations are run by both state-owned and private companies. Public transport services can be profit-driven by use of pay-by-the-distance fares or funded by government subsidies in which flat rate fares are charged to each passenger. Services can be profitable through high ridership numbers and high farebox recovery ratios, or can be regulated. Fully subsidized, zero-fare services operate in some towns and cities, for geographical, historical and economic reasons, there are differences internationally regarding use and extent of public transport. It has 3,400 members from 92 countries, conveyances designed for public hire are as old as the first ferries, and the earliest public transport was water transport, on land people walked or rode an animal. Ferries appear in Greek mythology—corpses in ancient Greece were buried with a coin underneath their tongue to pay the ferryman Charon to take them to Hades, the omnibus was introduced to London in July 1829. The first passenger railway opened in 1806, it ran between Swansea and Mumbles in southwest Wales in the United Kingdom. In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northeast England, the usability of different types of public transport, and its overall appeal, can be measured by seven criteria, although they overlap somewhat. These are speed, comfort, safety, cost, proximity, speed is calculated from total journey time including transfers. Proximity means how far passengers have to walk or otherwise travel before they can begin the public transport leg of their journey, timeliness is how long they have to wait for the vehicle. Directness records how far a journey using public transport deviates from the shortest route, an airline provides scheduled service with aircraft between airports
9.
Green vehicle
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As part of their contribution to sustainable transport, these vehicles reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, and contribute to energy independence by reducing oil imports. An environmental analysis extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions, a life-cycle assessment involves production and post-use considerations. A cradle-to-cradle design is more important than a focus on a factor such as energy efficiency. Using biofuels instead of petroleum fuels, proper maintenance of a vehicle such as engine tune-ups, oil changes, and maintaining proper tire pressure can also help. Removing unnecessary items from a vehicle weight and improves fuel economy as well. Green vehicles include vehicles types that function fully or partly on energy sources other than fossil fuel or less carbon intensive than gasoline or diesel. Another option is the use of alternative fuel composition in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that offers automated, on-demand, non-stop transportation on a network of specially built guideways. Examples of vehicles with reduced petroleum consumption include electric cars, plug-in hybrids, Electric cars are typically more efficient than fuel cell-powered vehicles on a Tank-to-wheel basis. They have better fuel economy than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles but are hampered by range or maximum distance attainable before discharging the battery, the electric car batteries are their main cost. They provide a 0% to 99. 9% reduction in CO2 emissions compared to an ICE vehicle, Hybrid cars may be partly fossil fuel powered and partly electric or hydrogen-powered. Most combine an internal combustion engine with an engine, though other variations too exist. The internal combustion engine is either a gasoline or Diesel engine. They are more expensive to purchase but cost redemption is achieved in a period of about 5 years due to fuel economy. Compressed air cars, stirling-powered vehicles, Liquid nitrogen vehicles are less polluting than electrical vehicles, as the vehicle. Solar car races are held on a basis in order to promote green vehicles. These sleek driver-only vehicles can travel long distances at highway speeds using only the electricity generated instantaneously from the sun, a conventional vehicle can become a greener vehicle by mixing in renewable fuels or using less carbon intensive fossil fuel. Typical gasoline-powered cars can tolerate up to 10% ethanol, Brazil manufactured cars that run on neat ethanol, though there were discontinued. Another available option is a vehicle which allows any blend of gasoline and ethanol, up to 85% in North America and Europe
10.
High-occupancy toll lane
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Unlike toll roads, drivers have an option to use general purpose lanes, on which a fee is not charged. Express toll lanes, which are common, operate along similar lines. The concept developed from high-occupancy vehicle lane systems in order to use of the available capacity. Most implementations are currently in the USA, the first practical implementation was Californias formerly private toll 91 Express Lanes, in Orange County, California, in 1995, followed in 1996 by Interstate 15 north of San Diego. According to the Texas A&M Transportation Institute, by 2012 there were 294 corridor-miles of HOT/Express lanes in operation in the United States and 163 corridor-miles under construction, some systems are reversible, operating in one direction during the morning commute and in the reverse direction during the evening commute. It is typically collected using and electronic toll systems, automatic number plate recognition or at manned toll booths. Exempt vehicles typically include those with at least two, three or four occupants, those that use approved alternative fuels, motorcycles, transit vehicles and emergency vehicles. California Highway Patrol officers have in-vehicle devices which display the declared occupancy of a vehicle, other transportation officials in California took note of this, subsequently leading to the Bay Area officials of Alameda County to adopt a similar system for the planned Interstate 580. However, the long-term benefits—the decrease in delay to able motorists, to offset costs of construction, many transportation agencies lease public roads to a private institution. As a result, construction may be partially or fully funded by the private institution, supporters of HOT lanes counter with the fact that because they encourage the use of public transit and ride sharing, they reduce demand and provide a benefit for all. They also counter concerns about heavy impact against the poor by pointing to the fact that the rich have many ways to ease their commute. Metro ExpressLanes Virginia HOT lanes Road space rationing Transportation demand management List of toll roads in the United States HOT for Transit, transits Experience of High-Occupancy Toll Lanes. National Centre for Transit Research at the University of South Florida, various HOT lane articles on website dedicated to road pricing Impacts of Increasing Vehicle-Occupancy Requirements on HOV/HOT Lanes. Review of Road Pricing to Reduce Congestion, - includes evaluation of 21 HOT lane projects in the U. S. High Occupancy Toll lane Performance Under Alternative Pricing Policies, a Lukewarm Report Card for High-Occupancy Toll Lanes. An evaluation of a high occupnacy toll lane demonstrator project in San Diego
11.
Traffic congestion
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Traffic congestion is a condition on transport networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. The most common example is the use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the stream, this results in some congestion. As demand approaches the capacity of a road, extreme traffic congestion sets in, when vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a traffic jam or traffic snarl-up. Traffic congestion can lead to becoming frustrated and engaging in road rage. Mathematically, congestion is usually looked at as the number of vehicles that pass through a point in a window of time, Congestion flow lends itself to principles of fluid dynamics. Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for greater than the available street capacity. About half of U. S. traffic congestion is recurring, Traffic research still cannot fully predict under which conditions a traffic jam may suddenly occur. It has been found that individual incidents may cause ripple effects which then spread out and create a traffic jam when, otherwise. Some traffic engineers have attempted to apply the rules of fluid dynamics to traffic flow, Traffic scientists liken such a situation to the sudden freezing of supercooled fluid. However, unlike a fluid, traffic flow is affected by signals or other events at junctions that periodically affect the smooth flow of traffic. Alternative mathematical theories exist, such as Boris Kerners three-phase traffic theory, because of the poor correlation of theoretical models to actual observed traffic flows, transportation planners and highway engineers attempt to forecast traffic flow using empirical models. These models are typically calibrated by measuring actual traffic flows on the links in the network. That discovery enabled the team to solve traffic-jam equations that were first theorized in the 1950s, congested roads can be seen as an example of the tragedy of the commons. Privatization of highways and road pricing have both proposed as measures that may reduce congestion through economic incentives and disincentives. Congestion can also happen due to non-recurring highway incidents, such as a crash or roadworks, economist Anthony Downs argues that rush hour traffic congestion is inevitable because of the benefits of having a relatively standard work day. In a capitalist economy, goods can be allocated either by pricing or by queueing and they determined that the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled increases in direct proportion to the available lane-kilometers of roadways. The implication is that new roads and widening existing ones only results in additional traffic that continues to rise until peak congestion returns to the previous level
12.
Air pollution
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Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earths atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies or death in humans, it may cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops. Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution, indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the worlds worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute Worlds Worst Polluted Places report. According to the 2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide, an air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made, pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly, rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant, some pollutants may be both primary and secondary, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. Substances emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include, Carbon dioxide - Debate continues over whether carbon dioxide should be classified as an atmospheric pollutant, because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as the leading pollutant and the worst climate pollution. Against this it is argued that carbon dioxide is a component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life. This question of terminology has practical effects, for example as determining whether the U. S. Clean Air Act is deemed to regulate CO2 emissions, CO2 increase in earths atmosphere has been accelerating. Sulfur oxides - particularly sulfur dioxide, a compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide, further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. Nitrogen oxides - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion and they can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a compound with the formula NO2
13.
Henry G. Shirley Memorial Highway
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The Henry G. Shirley Memorial Highway consists of a 17. 3-mile portion of Interstates 95 and 395 in the U. S. Shirley Highway was the first limited-access freeway in Virginia, begun in 1941, the road was completed from Woodbridge, Virginia, to the 14th Street Bridge over the Potomac River between Virginia and Washington, D. C. in 1952. The first section in Arlington, from the Pentagon south to State Route 7 and this section was completed with four lanes in October 1944. Due to wartime constraints, the new highway had an unusual at-grade railroad crossing instead of a bridge over the Washington and this location was the site of a fatal collision between a train and a dump truck on June 26,1952. The remaining portions of the Shirley Highway south to Woodbridge were completed in 1952, the new Shirley Highway included the Mixing Bowl interchange complex near the newly completed Pentagon, which was completed in 1944. At this location, the State Route 27 freeway merges with the Shirley Highway, the original interchange had a merge section each way, about 1/3 mile long, with a third mixing lane where the vehicles would weave when they wanted to change to the other freeway. It was rebuilt in the 1960s, after rebuilding, it was the largest interchange complex in the world. From 1965 to 1975, the Shirley Highway was reconstructed to Interstate Highway System standards, as portions were completed, they were designated as Interstate 95. Original plans called for I-95 to cut straight through Washington, D. C. however, community opposition halted this plan in 1977, diverting planned funding to construction of the Washington Metro subway system. The remaining portion of the Shirley Highway north of Springfield was redesignated Interstate 395, the roots of the Springfield Interchange began with the Shirley Highway. This jumble of highways in Springfield, Virginia, where I-395, I-95, and it is colloquially referred to as the Mixing Bowl, but highway officials still use that terminology to refer to the interchange complex at the Pentagon. Kurumi Roads website Roads to the Future website Virginia Department of Transportation website Historic American Engineering Record No, vA-122, Henry G. Shirley Memorial Highway Overpasses, Spanning Shirley Highway, Arlington, Arlington County, VA
14.
Northern Virginia
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With 2.8 million residents, it is the most populous region of Virginia and the Washington metropolitan area. Communities in the form the Virginia portion of the Washington metropolitan area. Notable features of the include the Pentagon and the Central Intelligence Agency, and the many companies which serve them. The areas attractions include various monuments and Colonial and Civil War-era sites such as Mount Vernon and Arlington National Cemetery and it is the most affluent region in the nation. g. Eastern United States vs. western Massachusetts, the name Northern Virginia does not seem to have been used in the early history of the area. The Fairfax line, surveyed in 1746, ran from the first spring of the Potomac to the first spring of the Rappahannock, at the head of the Conway River. The Northern Neck was composed of 5,282,000 acres, at some point, these eastern counties came to be called separately simply the Northern Neck, and, for the remaining area west of them, the term was no longer used. One of the most prominent early mentions of Northern Virginia as a title was the naming of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia during the American Civil War. The most common definition of Northern Virginia includes those counties and independent cities on the Virginia side of the Washington-Baltimore-Northern Virginia Combined Statistical Area. Most narrowly defined, Northern Virginia consists of the counties of Arlington and Fairfax, as well as the independent cities of Alexandria, Falls Church, businesses, governments and non-profit agencies may define the area considered Northern Virginia differently for various purposes. Eight of his supporters were named, among them Thomas Culpeper. On February 25,1673, a new charter was given to Thomas Lord Culpeper, Lord Culpeper was named the Royal Governor of Virginia from 1677–1683. Culpeper County was later named for him when it was formed in 1749, however, in 1682 rioting in the colony forced him to return, but by the time he arrived, the riots were already quelled. After apparently misappropriating £9,500 from the treasury of the colony, he returned to England, during this tumultuous time, Culpepers erratic behavior meant that he had to rely increasingly on his cousin and Virginia agent, Col. Nicholas Spencer. Spencer succeeded Culpeper as acting Governor upon Lord Culpepers departure from the colony, for many years, Lord Culpepers descendants allowed men in Virginia to manage the properties. The lands of Lord Fairfax were defined as that between the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers, and were called the Northern Neck. In 1746 a back line was surveyed and established between the headwaters of the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers, defining the west end of the grants. According to documents held by the Handley Regional Library of the Winchester–Frederick County Historical Society, Lord Fairfax was a lifelong bachelor, and became one of the more well-known persons of the late colonial era
15.
Interstate 95 in Virginia
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Within the Commonwealth of Virginia, Interstate 95 runs 179 miles between its borders with Maryland and North Carolina. I-95 is concurrent with I-64 for 3 miles in Richmond, although I-95 was originally planned as a highway through Washington, D. C. it was rerouted along the eastern portion of the Capital Beltway. I-95 continues into Washington, D. C. then Maryland, Interstate 95 continues the pattern of being a four-lane highway from North Carolina. The welcome center forbids trucks, but truck stops at the first two interchanges provides a place for truckers to stay before reaching Emporia. North of here, I-95 and US301 are often intertwined with other as they encounter interchanges with Virginia Secondary State Routes. In the Owens-Stony Creek area in Sussex County, the not only runs parallel to US301 but shares bridges with I-95. This pattern ends at Exit 33 at the corner of a popular truck stop. Crossing the Sussex-Prince George County Line, the first site along I-95 is another rest area also serves as the Petersburg Area Tourist Information Center. A series of roads connect the interchanges with US460, US301. Immediately after the interchange with Interstate 85, remnants of the toll booths for the Richmond–Petersburg Turnpike can be found. North of Petersburg, I-95 crosses the Appomattox River and enters the City of Colonial Heights, Pocahontas Parkway and an extraordinarily high Vietnam Veterans Memorial Bridge over I-95 and the James River just south of the Richmond City Limits. As I-95 itself crosses the James River, Main Street Station can be seen on the bank. The first interchange after it crosses the James River is the tolled State Route 195, i-64/95 curves to the northwest to cross under US 1/301, only to turn back north briefly, and curve northwest again, as it approaches VA161. This pattern ends when I-64 turns west at the interchange as the northern terminus of I-195. From here I-95 curves back to the northeast and has two interchanges with US1, and later US301 separately, the latter of which has separate carriageways on both side of I-95, another interchange with Interstate 295 exists in Glen Allen. However, I-295 does not terminate there, and the south-to-eastbound and west-to-northbound off-ramps between the two can be accessed in the medians of both roads, throughout much of central Virginia, I-95 climbs a series of hills, and contains wide tree-lined medians. Near mile marker 100 in Doswell, signs for the Kings Dominion amusement park are blended in with standard destination signs, US17 overlaps I-95 from Massaponax at exit 126 to Falmouth at exit 133. The wide tree-line divider resumes north of here, at Exit 143 in Aquia, the northbound off and on ramps connect directly to US1, even though the interchange is specifically for VSR610
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Reversible lane
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A reversible lane is a lane in which traffic may travel in either direction, depending on certain conditions. Typically, it is meant to improve traffic flow during rush hours, by having traffic lights. Reversible lanes are commonly found in tunnels and on bridges. The presence of lane controls allows authorities to close or reverse lanes when unusual circumstances require use of fewer or more lanes to maintain flow of traffic. Some more recent implementations of reversible lanes use a movable barrier to establish a separation between allowed and disallowed lanes of travel. Other systems use retractable cones or bollards which are built into the road, the two center lanes of the six-lane Golden Gate Bridge are reversible, they are southbound during morning rush hour and northbound at evening rush hour. Prior to the installation of a median barrier in January 2015. Many urban freeways have entirely separate carriageways to hold reversible lanes, generally, traffic flows in one direction or another in such a configuration, the carriageways are not split into two-lane roadways during non-rush periods. Typically, this sort of express lane will have fewer interchanges than the primary lanes, and many such roadways only provide onramps for inbound traffic, historically, the term suicide lane has also referred to a lane in the center of a highway meant for passing in both directions. Neither direction has the right-of-way, and both directions are permitted to use the lane for passing. In a similar layout, three lanes are striped with two in one direction and one in the other, but traffic in the direction with one lane is allowed to cross the centerline to pass, 2+1 roads have replaced some of these in Europe and North America. While this is also called a suicide lane, it is actually far safer. These roads are common in suburban areas and less common in rural areas. Many were divided highways before the median was demolished or otherwise filled with the turn lane, many four-lane streets with a center double yellow line are being phased out in favor of five-lane streets with center turn lanes, because the center lane allows for less disruption of traffic flow. For routes with moderate traffic, other movements involve downgrading four-lane undivided streets to three-lane streets with a center lane. This center lane can be used by vehicles like police cars, ambulance. U. S. Route 13 near the Greenville, NC city limits is an instance of a posted warning sign that states do not pass in center lane. Chain Bridge in Washington, D. C. Bailey Bridge, in Coquitlam, michigan State Highway 20, Mount Pleasant to Midland Trans-national The Peace Bridge between the U. S. and Canada, connecting Fort Erie, Ontario to Buffalo, New York
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Interstate 495 (Capital Beltway)
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Interstate 495 is a 64-mile Interstate Highway that surrounds Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States of America, and the citys inner suburbs in adjacent Maryland and Virginia. I-495 is widely known as the Capital Beltway, the DC Beltway or simply the Beltway, especially when the context of Washington and it is the basis of the phrase Inside the Beltway, used when referring to issues dealing with American government and politics. I-95 utilizes the southern and eastern half of the Capital Beltway to circumnavigate Washington, the Beltway passes through Prince Georges County and Montgomery County in Maryland, and Fairfax County and the independent city of Alexandria in Virginia. Except for the westernmost part of Woodrow Wilson Bridge south of downtown Washington, the two directions of travel, clockwise and counterclockwise, have become known respectively as the Inner Loop and the Outer Loop. The route descriptions below follow the direction of the Outer Loop, starting at the Woodrow Wilson Bridge over the Potomac River, south of Washington. Most Beltway interchanges provide access to Washington, with I-95 and I-295 from the south, I-66 from the west, and US50 from both the west and the east among the most frequently used. Originally, the entire Beltway was simply I-495, and I-95 was planned to serve downtown Washington, D. C. from the south and north, intersecting the Beltway in Virginia and in Maryland. However, environmental litigation stopped completion of this plan, and the portion of I-95 inside the Beltway from the south northward into downtown Washington was redesignated I-395 in 1977. The small built portion from the north was converted into a park-and-ride lot, I-95 was then rerouted along the eastern side of the Beltway, with the I-495 designation left only along the western side. In 1989, the I-495 designation was returned to the portion as well. The Beltway, four lanes in each direction, travels over the Woodrow Wilson Bridge over the tidal Potomac River between Alexandria, Virginia, and Prince Georges County, Maryland. The Federal Highway Administration recognizes 0.11 miles of the bridge as crossing the tip of the southernmost corner of the District of Columbia, however, signage for these boundary crossings is lacking. The Beltway enters Maryland during its Potomac River crossing over the Woodrow Wilson Bridge, west of Forest Heights, the highway next intersects MD210, a major north–south route from southern D. C. to Indian Head in Charles County, Maryland. Heading northeastward, the Beltway interchanges with local highways, including MD5 and MD4 on either side of Andrews Air Force Base. Past the MD4 interchange, the Beltway turns north through Glenarden, the Beltway then interchanges with US 50/unsigned I-595, a major highway from downtown Washington eastward to Annapolis, Maryland, and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge to Marylands Eastern Shore. Both US50 and MD450 provide access to the New Carrollton Metro, MARC commuter rail, and Amtrak stations, turning northwest, the Beltway then enters Greenbelt Park, intersecting the Baltimore-Washington Parkway in the northeastern edge of the park. Just after the B-W Parkway, I-95/I-495 passes an interchange with MD201, now turned fully west, the Beltway runs through the northern edge of College Park, interchanging with the access roadway for the Greenbelt Metro and MARC commuter rail stations, then US1. Beyond the US1 interchange, I-95 separates from I-495 at the College Park Interchange, I-495 continues west, alone, on the Capital Beltway, while I-95 turns northeast towards Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York City, and Boston
18.
Bus lane
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A bus lane or bus-only lane is a lane restricted to buses, often on certain days and times, and generally used to speed up public transport that would be otherwise held up by traffic congestion. Bus lanes are a key component of a high-quality bus rapid transit network, improving bus travel speeds and reliability by reducing delay caused by other traffic. A dedicated bus lane may occupy only part of a roadway which also has lanes serving general automotive traffic, the worlds first designated bus lane was created in Chicago in 1940. The first bus lanes in Europe were established in 1963 in the German city of Hamburg, when the system was closed. Other large German cities soon followed, and the implementation of bus lanes was officially sanctioned in the German highway code in 1970, many experts from other countries studied the German example and implemented similar solutions. On 15 January 1964 the first bus lane in France was designated along the quai du Louvre in Paris, on 26 February 1968 the first bus lane in London was put into service on Vauxhall Bridge. The first contraflow bus lane in the UK was introduced in Kings Road, the initial reason was to save the expense of rerouting the trolleybus, which was due to be scrapped on 3 November of that year. However the experiment proved so successful that it was permanent for use by motor buses. By 1972 there were over 140 kilometres of bus lanes in 100 cities within OECD member countries. The El Monte Busway between El Monte and Downtown Los Angeles was the first dedicated busway in the US, constructed in 1974. Bus lanes may be located in different locations on a street, such as on the sides of a street near the curb, or down the center. They may be long, continuous networks, or short segments used to allow buses to bypass bottlenecks or reduce route complexity, Bus lanes may be demarcated in several ways. Descriptive text such as BUS LANE may be marked prominently on the surface, particularly at the beginning. Some cities use a pavement marking to indicate an exclusive bus lane. The road surface may have a color, usually red. Road signs may communicate when a bus lane is in effect, Bus lanes may also be physically separated from other traffic using bollards, curbs, or other raised elements. In some cities, buses are allowed to use reserved tram tracks, usually laid in the middle of the road, Bus lanes may have separate sets of dedicated traffic signals, to allow transit signal priority at intersections. Peak-only bus lanes are enforced only at times of the day, usually during rush hour
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Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
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Dumfries, Virginia
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Dumfries, officially the Town of Dumfries, is a town in Prince William County, Virginia. The population was 4,961 at the 2010 United States Census, Dumfries is located at 38°34′4″N 77°19′29″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 1.6 square miles. The town is situated 78 miles north of the state capital and it is 25 miles/40 km south of central Washington, D. C. Dumfries history began as early as 1690 when Richard Gibson erected a gristmill on Quantico Creek, a customhouse and warehouse followed in 1731, and many others cropped up along the estuary by 1732. The Town of Dumfries was formally established on 60 acres of land at the head of the harbor of Quantico Creek and he named the town after his birthplace, Dumfries, Scotland. After much political maneuvering, the General Assembly established Dumfries as the first of seven townships in the county, Dumfries received its charter on May 11,1749, making it the oldest continuously chartered town in Virginia. Thus the foundations for the establishment of a town, which in 1749 received its charter from the Colonial government in Williamsburg, Virginia. The elements of the seal are contained within the pattern formed by the frame of a hawser rope or cable. Within these frames are found items which are consistent with a town of maritime background and they are overlaid on a chart of the Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac River, with Dumfries indicated at the head of Quantico Creek. The navigational aids of the sextant and compass rose complete the maritime motif, the two water fowl relate to the wetlands of Quantico Creek. The dock with fishnet, pilings, ships block and line further the theme of a port of call. The thistle indicates the Scottish founders of the town, with the name of Dumfries, taken by John Graham, the supporters of the shield are, on the left, a Piscataway brave, of the Powhatan Confederacy, the predominant tribe along the Potomac, in this area. On the right, a Colonial militiaman of 1775, when Colonel Henry Lee was company Commander. The shield in its upper quadrant, displays a sailing vessel of the period, and below the leaf, the first commodity, overlaid with shafts of wheat. When Dumfries became the leading port in Colonial America receiving tobacco from the upland, it rivaled New York, Philadelphia. Dumfries peaked in size and importance in 1763, for about 15 years Dumfries was a thriving port when several factors brought about its demise, the Revolutionary War, erosion and siltation, and the shift in the main shipping commodity. The Dumfries Cemetery contains burials of some of the Dumfries pioneers, alexander Henderson built a house known as the Henderson House which still stands on a hill in Dumfries, as well as owning various land in Prince William Forest Park
21.
Contraflow lane
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In transport engineering nomenclature, a counterflow lane or contraflow lane is a lane in which traffic flows in the opposite direction of the surrounding lanes. Contraflow lanes are used for bicycles or bus rapid transit on what are otherwise one-way streets. Thus, the functions as two-way for buses, but one-way for all other vehicles. Contraflow lanes can also be used to extend the capacity of separated limited-access roads when there are physical constraints, for example, part of the southbound HOV lane on I-5 between Seattle and Tacoma is a contraflow lane on what is otherwise the northbound side of the highway. In certain situations, reversible lanes will be contraflow for a portion of the day, the Lincoln Tunnel XBL to the Lincoln Tunnel is a contraflow exclusive bus lane for buses during the morning peak period. The XBL lane is fed by the New Jersey Turnpike at Exits 16E and 17, the XBL serves over 1,800 buses, which transport more than 65,000 persons, each morning and is a major component of the morning inbound commutation crossing the Hudson River. When lanes on motorways are closed for repair and maintenance, a contraflow lane may be set up on the side of the central reservation. Government buses use a contraflow lane on Macquarie St in Hobart. Authorised buses, emergency vehicles and taxis use a contraflow lane on Petrie Tce, Brisbane, Queensland, tram lanes are an extension to this system found in cities with curbside streetcar networks. For example, tram lanes in Zagreb can be used only by trams, buses, contraflow is a common part of decent cycling infrastructure and is often seen on one-way streets. Another example is the same as the above but there is only one lane, the contraflow lane. This solution would be suited to very narrow roads or ones with light traffic. In this case, a cycle lane is often marked in paint, with dotted white lines and ideograms of a bicycle, either all the way along the street if busy. Contraflow cycling is often assumed to be associated with higher accidents risks, contraflow lane reversal Reversible lane Single track road
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New Jersey Route 495
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Route 495 is mostly a six-lane freeway with a reversible bus lane used during the morning rush hour. The bus lane, which runs the length of the freeway. The first portion of the present-day Route 495, at the entrance to the Lincoln Tunnel, was constructed in 1937 when the Lincoln Tunnel opened, in 1939, it was extended west to Route 3 and it became an eastern extension of that route. In 1952, the portion of the route west of Route 3 was opened when the New Jersey Turnpike was completed, in 1959, the road was incorporated into the Interstate Highway System and was designated as part of Interstate 495. Route 495 officially begins at the Exit 16E off-ramp of the lanes of the New Jersey Turnpike near the boundary of Secaucus. The main roadway heads east through North Bergen as a freeway with three lanes in the eastbound and westbound directions, maintained by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority. The route has an interchange with Route 3, with access to eastbound Route 3 and U. S. Route 1/9 for traffic in the eastbound direction and to westbound Route 3 in the westbound direction. Past U. S. Route 1/9, the freeway has an interchange with County Route 501, East of this junction, Route 495 enters Union City and heads through developed residential areas, passing under numerous streets. There is an exit and westbound entrance for Park Avenue, which provides access to Weehawken and Hoboken. It enters Weehawken and comes to an exit and eastbound entrance for Park Avenue. The route has an exit for County Route 677 and another exit for Boulevard East with a westbound exit. After interchanging with Boulevard East, the features an eastbound toll plaza. Since 1970, the lane of the three westbound lanes is converted during the morning rush hour to a reversible bus lane, known as the XBL. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey is responsible for operation of the XBL, including its opening and closing, removal of disabled vehicles. This bus lane is the busiest in the United States, Route 495 is a busy route that carries approximately 74,571 vehicles at its western terminus and approximately 119,432 vehicles by the time it reaches the Lincoln Tunnel. Each of the lanes in the Lincoln Tunnels center tube is reversible. New Jersey-bound traffic normally uses both lanes of the tube and Manhattan-bound traffic normally uses both lanes of the south tube. The road was built as an approach to the Lincoln Tunnel, with the first section opening December 22,1937 and this section ran only from the tunnel portal south through the toll booths to a plaza with Park Avenue and Hudson County Boulevard East
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Hudson County, New Jersey
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Hudson County, a county in the U. S. state of New Jersey, lies west of the lower Hudson River, which was named for Henry Hudson, the sea captain who explored the area in 1609. Hudson County is the fourth-most populous county in the state, there are 12 municipalities in Hudson County, listed with area in square miles and 2010 Census data for population and housing. North Hudson and West Hudson each comprise municipalities in their distinct areas, according to the 2010 Census, the county had a total area of 62.31 square miles, including 46.19 square miles of land and 16.12 square miles of water. Based on land area, it is the smallest of New Jerseys 21 counties, less than half the size of the next smallest, Hudson is located in the heart of New York metropolitan area in northeastern New Jersey. The topography is marked by the New Jersey Palisades in the north with cliffs overlooking the Hudson to the east and less severe cuesta, or slope and they gradually level off to the southern peninsula, which is coastal and flat. The western region, around the Hackensack and Passaic is part of the New Jersey Meadowlands, much of the land along the countys extensive shoreline and littoral zone was created by land reclamation. The highest point, at 260 feet above sea level, is in West New York, North Bergen is the city with the second most hills per square mile in the United States behind San Francisco. Ellis Island and Liberty Island, opposite Liberty State Park, lie entirely within Hudson Countys waters, Liberty Island is wholly part of New York. Largely created through land reclamation, Ellis Island covers a area of 27.5 acres, with the 2. 74-acre natural island. Shooters Island, in the Kill van Kull, is shared with New York. Robbins Reef Light sits atop a reef which runs parallel the Bayonne and these boundaries and the topography-including many hills and inlets-create very distinct neighborhoods. Kennedy Boulevard runs the length of the peninsula. Numerous cuts for rail and vehicular traffic cross Bergen Hill, given its proximity to Manhattan, it is sometimes referred to as New York Citys sixth borough. At the time of European contact in the 17th century, Hudson County was the territory of the Lenape, namely the bands known as the Hackensack, the Tappan, the Raritan, and the Manhattan. They were a seasonally migrational people who practiced small-scale agriculture augmented by hunting and gathering which likely, given the topography of the area and these groups had early and frequent trading contact with Europeans. The west bank of the North River and the cliffs, hills, in 1630, Michael Pauw received a land patent, or patroonship and purchased the land between the Hudson and Hackensack Rivers, giving it the Latin-ized form of his name, Pavonia. He failed to settle the area and was forced to return his holdings to the Dutch West India Company, homesteads were established at Communipaw, Harsimus, Paulus Hook and Hoebuck. A series of raids and reprisals across the province lasted two years, and ended in an uneasy truce, other homesteads were established at Constable Hook, Awiehaken, and other lands at Achter Col on Bergen Neck
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Federal Highway Administration
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The Federal Highway Administration is a division of the United States Department of Transportation that specializes in highway transportation. The agencys major activities are grouped into two programs, the Federal-aid Highway Program and the Federal Lands Highway Program and its role had previously been performed by the Office of Road Inquiry, Office of Public Roads and the Bureau of Public Roads. The organization has several organizations and a complicated history. The Office of Road Inquiry was founded in 1893, in 1905 that organizations name was changed to the Office of Public Roads which became a division of the United States Department of Agriculture. The name was changed again to the Bureau of Public Roads in 1915 and it was then shifted to the Federal Works Agency which was abolished in 1949 when its name reverted to Bureau of Public Roads under the Department of Commerce. With the coming of the bicycle in the 1890s, interest grew regarding the improvement of streets, the traditional method of putting the burden on maintaining roads on local landowners was increasingly inadequate. New York State took the lead in 1898, and by 1916 the old system had been discarded everywhere area, demands grew for local and state government to take charge. With the coming of the automobile after 1910, urgent efforts were made to upgrade, the American Association for Highway Improvement was organized in 1910. Funding came from automobile registration, and taxes on motor fuels, in 1916, federal-aid was first made available to improve post-roads, and promote general commerce. Congress appropriated $75 million over a period, with the Secretary of Agriculture in charge through the Bureau of Public Roads. There were 2.4 million miles of rural dirt rural roads in 1914,100,000 miles had been improved with grading and gravel, the rapidly increasing speed of automobiles, and especially trucks, made maintenance and repair high-priority item. Concrete was first used in 1893, and expanded until it became the dominant surfacing material in the 1930s, from 1917 through 1941,261,000 miles of highways were built with federal aid, and cost $5.31 billion. Federal funds totaled $3.17 billion, and state-local funds were $2.14 billion, the FHWA was created on October 15,1966. In 1967 the functions of the Bureau of Public Roads were transferred to the new organization and it was one of three original bureaus along with the Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety and the National Highway Safety Bureau. The FHWA’s role in the Federal-aid Highway Program is to oversee federal funds used for constructing and maintaining the National Highway System and this funding mostly comes from the federal gasoline tax and mostly goes to state departments of transportation. FHWA oversees projects using these funds to ensure that requirements for project eligibility. The FHWA also publishes the “Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices”, the MUTCD specifies such things as the size, color and height of traffic signs, traffic signals and road surface markings. The Federal Highway Administration is overseen by an Administrator appointed by the President of the United States by, the Administrator works under the direction of the Secretary of Transportation and Deputy Secretary of Transportation
25.
Lincoln Tunnel XBL
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Bus rapid transit in New Jersey comprises limited-stop bus service, exclusive bus lanes and bus bypass shoulders. In 2011, NJT announced that it would equip its bus fleet with devices for real-time locating. The Federal Transit Administration defines bus rapid transit is a mode of transportation that can combine the quality of rail transit. Roadways can have signal synchronization, queue jumping, changeable message signs, specific BRT branding and specialized vehicles for faster boarding and alighting can be used. New Jersey is the most densely populated state in the United States, New Jersey Transit, created in the 1970s to take over Conrail commuter rail service, assumed control of several floundering bus companies in the 1980s, including the largest, Transport of New Jersey. The government agency has grown to be third largest provider of commuter rail, light-rail. Additionally, numerous privately operated bus companies provide regional and local service within the state and to New York. The Northeast Corridor runs diagonally across New Jersey between New York City and Philadelphia, cities to which many residents regularly travel, real-time locating is a vehicle tracking or fleet tracking system using Global Positioning System technology. In February 2011, NJT authorized a $22 million contract with Clever Devices LTD to install devices on 1,040 buses serving NJT-operated routes, in November 2011, it authorized another $6 million for Clever Devices to equip NJT contracted bus routes with the devices. Completion of the installation is projected for 2013, more than 1,100 new buses coming on line during the period are pre-equipped, thus making the entire fleet real-time capable. Real-time customer use was begun with a pilot involving the Trenton and Princeton areas on routes numbered 600 in December 2012. The MyBus Now service allows those with phones and computers to access NJTs website to see in-transit buses. Commuters can also text MyBus with the stop and route number to get the time of the next bus. The service was expanded in 2013 to more than 150 NJT routes for Atlantic City, Camden, Philadelphia and it will be expanded to buses traveling to the Port Authority Bus Terminal and the George Washington Bridge Bus Station in early 2014. NJT sells monthly passes, 10-trip discount tickets and single-fare tickets, cash payment, with many routes being exact-fare lines, is also possible. Except for departures from the Port Authority Bus Terminal, where since 2011 tickets or passes are required, in April 2015 NJT announced that using mobile phone apps to purchase tickets and passes system-wide would be completed. SmartLink is a card used by the Port Authority Trans Hudson, the rapid transit rail system linking Newark, Jersey City, Hoboken. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which operates the system introduced the card in 2007, in 2006, estimates for New Jersey Transit to implement use of the card were $100 million
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California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
27.
El Monte Busway
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Together with the Harbor Transitway it forms a key part of the Metro Silver Line bus rapid transit line which is one of Metro Transitway lines. The busway is also served by three Metro Express routes and several Foothill Transit bus services which all of the routes only run on weekday peak periods. The Metrolink San Bernardino Line runs parallel to the El Monte Busway for almost its entire length, the busway, which opened in 1973 for buses only was extended to three-person carpools in 1976. The Metro Silver Line was introduced on December 13,2009, along with the Harbor Transitway, the busway was upgraded to high-occupancy toll lanes as part of the Metro ExpressLanes project in February 2013. When the busway opened in 1973 it was exclusively for the use of buses and it was made available to private cars with three or more occupants for three months during the 1974 Southern California Rapid Transit District strike which lasted 68 days. Carpools with three or more occupants were then permitted to use the busway during peak hours starting in 1976, a one-mile extension into central Los Angeles opened in 1989. Construction of the Harbor Transitway shared-use bus corridor in the median of Interstate 110 was approved in 1987 and was completed in 1995, a lack of funding meant that a service of this type was not introduced until December 2009. State bill 63 lowered the carpool occupancy requirement from three occupants to two on 1 January 2000. Over this time speeds on the busway dropped from 65 mph to 20 mph, accident rates on the busway increased significantly from zero in the six months before the experiment to five during the experiment. On weekends and at times, the two occupant rule remains. This bill was supported by Hilda Solis who had proposed the original bill, motorcycles, clean fueled vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and buses are allowed on the busway at all times. The busway was however still congested during peak hours and heavily congested just before, frequencies for the Metro Silver Line have improved as a result of the increased ridership demands. The El Monte Station was rebuilt to double its capacity to 40,000 passengers as part of the Metro ExpressLanes project, work began in September 2010 and was completed in October 2012. In January 2015, the Cal State L. A. and LAC + USC Medical Center stations were closed for one month to replace stairways. Vehicles with 2 occupants will charged a fee during peak hours. Vehicles with 3 or more people will be able to use the lanes without charge at all times, Bus service operates from Downtown Los Angeles to various points in the San Gabriel Valley and Pomona Valley, as well as the San Bernardino County cities of Chino and Montclair. Foothill Transit Line 481 continues to Koreatown to the Wilshire/Western station of the Metro Purple Line, the Metro Silver Line is the only bus line to operate on both the Harbor and El Monte Busways. Bus services are provided with a mix of Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, Foothill Transits Silver Streak operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week, all other Foothill Transit routes operate weekdays only in the peak direction
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Interstate 10 in California
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In the greater Los Angeles area, it is known as the Santa Monica Freeway and the San Bernardino Freeway, linked by a short concurrency on Interstate 5 at the East Los Angeles Interchange. Interstate 10 also has designated as either the Rosa Parks Freeway or the Redlands Freeway. The California Streets and Highways Code defines Route 10 from Route 1 in Santa Monica to Route 5 near Seventh Street in Los Angeles. Route 101 near Mission Road in Los Angeles to the Arizona state line at the Colorado River via the vicinity of Monterey Park, Pomona, Colton, Indio, and Chiriaco Summit and via Blythe. This short section of Route 10 between Route 5 and Route 101, which was defined as Route 110 until 1968, is signed overhead for I-10 eastbound. This I-5/I-10 cosigning is consistent with the Federal Highway Administrations Interstate Highway route logs that such an overlap exists for the segment of I-10 in California, I-10 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System. However, it is not actually a scenic highway as designated by Caltrans, the Santa Monica Freeway is Route 10 from Route 1 to Route 5, as named by the State Highway Commission on April 25,1957. The section between the Harbor and San Diego freeways is also signed as the Rosa Parks Freeway, after the African American civil rights activist, the I-10 freeway is signed as the Christopher Columbus Transcontinental Highway in Santa Monica. Interstate 10 begins in the city of Santa Monica when State Route 1 turns into a freeway, SR1 exits onto Lincoln Boulevard and heads south while I-10 continues east. Soon after it enters the city of Los Angeles, I-10 has a interchange with Interstate 405. On the western edge of downtown, I-10 has an interchange with Interstate 110 to the south, I-10 then travels along the southern edge of downtown to the East Los Angeles Interchange. At the East Los Angeles Interchange, State Route 60 diverges east towards Riverside, I-10 then turns north, running concurrently with Interstate 5 for a few miles. Then, Interstate 10 heads east and merges with the traffic from the spur to US101 onto the San Bernardino Freeway, the freeway is 14 lanes wide from the Harbor Freeway interchange to the Arlington Avenue off-ramp. Most of these lanes are full at peak travel times, the remainder of the freeway varies between eight and 10 lanes in width. The whole freeway opened in 1965, with a dedication held in 1966. All three freeway-to-freeway interchanges along its length are notorious for their congestion, and are ranked among the top 10 most congested spots in the United States. Due to the traffic volume, car accidents are so common that Caltrans has constructed special Accident Investigation Sites separated from the freeway by fences. These enable the California Highway Patrol to quickly clear accidents from the traffic lanes
29.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
30.
Metro ExpressLanes
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The Metro ExpressLanes project is a transport project in Los Angeles that debuted in 2012 to improve traffic flow and provide enhanced travel options on I-10 and I-110 in Los Angeles County. It includes a range of developments on the Harbor Transitway. The existing high-occupancy lanes on these transitways were converted to high occupancy toll lanes, in addition, new vanpool vehicles and buses will be purchased. The project was delivered by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, the California Department of Transportation, the budget was $290 million and construction, which began in 2011, was completed in February 2013. Some transit improvements for the Metro Silver Line are still being worked on, express Park Official website Los Angeles County Congestion Reduction Demonstration National Evaluation Plan —
31.
Federal Transit Administration
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The Federal Transit Administration is an agency within the United States Department of Transportation that provides financial and technical assistance to local public transportation systems. The FTA is one of ten modal administrations within the DOT, until 1991, it was known as the Urban Mass Transportation Administration. Public transportation includes buses, subways, light rail, commuter rail, monorail, passenger boats, trolleys, inclined railways. The federal government, through the FTA, provides assistance to develop new transit systems and improve, maintain. The FTA oversees grants to state and local providers, primarily through its ten regional offices. In 1962, President John F. Kennedy sent a major transportation message to the U. S. Congress and it called for the establishment of a program of federal capital assistance for mass transportation. Said President Kennedy, To conserve and enhance values in existing urban areas is essential, but at least as important are steps to promote economic efficiency and livability in areas of future development. The agency was charged with providing assistance for mass transit projects. In 1991, the agency was renamed the Federal Transit Administration, the current Acting Administrator is Carolyn Flowers, having assumed the post in April 2016. The last confirmed FTA Administrator, from May 2009 to January 2014, was Peter M. Rogoff, below is a list of past administrators. Official website American Recovery & Reinvestment Act Federal Transit Administration in the Federal Register
32.
1973 oil crisis
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The 1973 oil crisis began in October 1973 when the members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries proclaimed an oil embargo. The embargo occurred in response to United States support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War, by the end of the embargo in March 1974, the price of oil had risen from US$3 per barrel to nearly $12 globally, US prices were significantly higher. The embargo caused an oil crisis, or shock, with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and it was later called the first oil shock, followed by the 1979 oil crisis, termed the second oil shock. The embargo was a response to American involvement in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, six days after Egypt and Syria launched a surprise military campaign against Israel, the US supplied Israel with arms. In response to this, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries announced an oil embargo against Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the crisis had a major impact on international relations and created a rift within NATO. Some European nations and Japan sought to disassociate themselves from United States foreign policy in the Middle East to avoid being targeted by the boycott, Arab oil producers linked any future policy changes to peace between the belligerents. To address this, the Nixon Administration began multilateral negotiations with the combatants and they arranged for Israel to pull back from the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. By January 18,1974, US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had negotiated an Israeli troop withdrawal from parts of the Sinai Peninsula, the promise of a negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was enough to convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March 1974. The embargo occurred at a time of rising petroleum consumption by industrialized countries and coincided with an increase in oil imports by the worlds largest oil consumer. In the aftermath, targeted countries initiated a variety of policies to contain their future dependency. The 1973 oil price shock, with the accompanying 1973–74 stock market crash, was regarded as the first discrete event since the Great Depression to have a persistent effect on the US economy, the embargos success demonstrated Saudi Arabias diplomatic and economic power. It was the largest oil exporter and a politically and religiously conservative kingdom, in 1970, US oil production started to decline, exacerbating the embargos impact. Following this, Nixon named James E. Akins as US Ambassador to Saudi Arabia to audit US production capacity, the confidential results were alarming—no spare capacity was available and production could only decrease. The oil embargo had little effect on supply, according to Akins. OPEC was organized to resist pressure by the Seven Sisters to reduce oil prices, at first, OPEC operated as an informal bargaining unit for resource-rich third-world countries. OPEC confined its activities to gaining a share of the profits generated by oil companies. In the early 1970s it began to exert economic and political strength, on August 15,1971, the United States unilaterally pulled out of the Bretton Woods Accord. The US abandoned the Gold Exchange Standard whereby the value of the dollar had been pegged to the price of gold and all other currencies were pegged to the dollar, shortly thereafter, Britain followed, floating the pound sterling
33.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
34.
National Maximum Speed Law
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The National Maximum Speed Law in the United States was a provision of the Federal 1974 Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act that prohibited speed limits higher than 55 miles per hour. It was drafted in response to oil price spikes and supply disruptions during the 1973 oil crisis, while Federal officials hoped gasoline consumption would fall by 2. 2%, actual savings were estimated at between 0. 5% and 1%. The law was disregarded by motorists, and some states opposed the law. Actions ranged from proposing deals for an exemption to de-emphasizing speed limit enforcement, the NMSL was modified in 1987 and 1988 to allow up to 65 mph limits on certain limited access, rural roads. Congress repealed the NMSL in 1995, fully returning speed limit setting authority to the states, the laws safety benefit is disputed as research found conflicting results. Historically, the power to set speed limits belonged to the states, immediately before the National Maximum Speed Law became effective, speed limits were as high as 75 mph. Montana and Nevada generally posted no speed limits on highways, limiting drivers to only whatever was safe for conditions, in late November 1973, Texas Governor Dolph Briscoe recommended adoption of a 55 mph statewide limit. The legality of the measure was questioned, and two Texas legislators threatened to sue to block the limit. 2% drop from annualized 1973 gasoline consumption levels. Nixon partly based this on a belief that cars achieve maximum efficiency between 40 and 50 mph and that trucks and buses were most efficient at 55 mph. The California Trucking Association, the then-largest trucking association in the United States, the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act was a bill in the U. S. Congress that enacted the National Maximum Speed Law. States had to agree to the if they desired to receive federal funding for highway repair. The legislation required 55 mph speed limits on all four-lane divided highways unless the road had a lower limit before November 1,1973, in some cases, like the New York Thruway, the 50 mph speed limit had to be raised to comply with the law. The law capped speed limits at 55 mph on all other roads, a survey by the Associated Press found that, as of Wednesday, January 2,1974,12 states already had maximum speed limits of 55 mph. 9 states had maximum speed limits of 50 mph and this includes some states that voluntarily lowered their limits in advance of the federal requirement. On May 12,1974, the United States Senate defeated a proposal by Senator Robert Dole to raise the limit to 60 mph. The limits effect on safety is unclear. This decrease in fatalities from automobile accidents makes figuring out the impact of the law difficult. According to the National Research Council, there was a decrease in fatalities of about 4000 lives in the first year after the law took effect
35.
Clean Air Act (United States)
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The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level. It is one of the United States first and most influential environmental laws. As with many other major U. S. federal environmental statutes, it is administered by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, in coordination with state, local and its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C. F. R. The 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first U. S federal legislation that pertained to air pollution, the first federal legislation to actually pertain to controlling air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963. The 1963 act accomplished this by establishing a program within the U. S. Public Health Service and authorizing research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution, the 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques. Major amendments to the law, requiring regulatory controls for air pollution, the 1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate, requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary pollution sources and mobile sources. It also significantly expanded federal enforcement, the 1990 amendments addressed acid rain, ozone depletion, and toxic air pollution, established a national permits program for stationary sources, and increased enforcement authority. Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. Bush, the Clean Air Act was the first major environmental law in the United States to include a provision for citizen suits. Numerous state and local governments have enacted legislation, either implementing federal programs or filling in locally important gaps in federal programs. This section of the act declares that protecting and enhancing the nations air quality promotes public health, the law encourages prevention of regional air pollution and control programs. It also provides technical and financial assistance for air pollution prevention at both state and local governments, additional subchapters cover of cooperation, research, investigation, training and other activities. Grants for air pollution planning and control programs, and interstate air quality agencies, the act mandates air quality control regions, designated as attainment vs non-attainment. Non-attainment areas do not meet standards for primary or secondary ambient air quality. Attainment areas meet these standards, while unclassifiable areas cannot be classified on the basis of the information that is available, Air quality criteria, national primary and secondary ambient air quality standards, state implementation plans and performance standards for new stationary sources are also covered in Part A. The list of air pollutants established by the act includes acetaldehyde, benzene, chloroform, phenols. The list also includes mineral fiber emissions from manufacturing or processing glass, the list periodically can be modified. The remaining subchapters cover smokestack heights, state plan adequacy, and estimating emissions of carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, measures to prevent unemployment or other economic disruption include using local coal or coal derivatives to comply with implementation requirements
36.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
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Secondary standards are designed to protect public welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects of a pollutant. A district meeting a standard is known as an attainment area for that standard. The standards are listed in 40 C. F. R, ^a Each standard has its own criteria for how many times it may be exceeded, in some cases using a three-year average. ^b As of June 15,2005, the 1-hour ozone standard no longer applies to areas designated with respect to the 8-hour ozone standard. Source, USEPA An air quality control region is an area, designated by the federal government, where communities share a common air pollution problem
37.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states
38.
Los Angeles Basin
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The Los Angeles Basin is a sedimentary basin located in southern California, in a region known as the Peninsular Ranges. The basin is connected to an anomalous group of east-west trending chain of basin collectively known as the California Transverse Ranges. The present basin is a lowland area, whose floor is marked by elongate low ridges. Along with the Los Angeles Basin, the Santa Barbara Channel, the Ventura Basin, the San Fernando Valley, on the north, northeast, and east, the lowland basin is bound by the Santa Monica Mountains mountains and Puente, Elysian, Repetto hills. To the southeast, the basin is bordered by the Santa Ana mountains, the western boundary of the basin is marked by the Continental Borderland and is part of the onshore portion. The California borderland is characterized by north-west trending offshore ridges and basins, the Los Angeles Basin is notable for its great structural relief and complexity in relation to its geologic youth and small size for its prolific oil production. Yerkes et al. identify 5 major stages of the evolution that begins in the Upper Cretaceous. This basin can be classified as an irregular pull-apart basin accompanied by rotational tectonics during the post-early Miocene, before the formation of the basin, the area that encompasses the Los Angeles basin began above ground. A rapid transgression and regression of the moved the area to a shallow marine environment. Tectonic instability coupled with volcanic activity in rapidly subsiding areas during the Middle Miocene set the stage for the modern basin, the basin formed in a submarine environment and was later brought back above sea level when the rate of subsidence slowed. There is much discussion in the literature about the geologic time boundaries when each basin forming event took place, while exact ages may not be clear, Yerkes et al. Large-scale movement along the Newport–Inglewood zone juxtaposed the two bedrock units along the east and west margins, during this phase, the basin was above sea level. The hallmarks of this phase were successive shoreline transgression and regression cycles, Deposition of older marine and non-marine sediments began to fill the basin. Towards the end of phase, the shoreline began to retreat. After the deposition of the units, there was a large emergence. Emergence did not occur at the rate or in all sections of the basin. During this time, the basin was covered by a marine embayment, rivers sourced in the highlands brought large amounts of detritus to the northeastern edge of the basin. During this period, the Topanga formation was also being deposited, clastic sedimentary rocks from the highland areas moved down the submarine slopes and infilled the basin floor
39.
Los Angeles County, California
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Los Angeles County, officially the County of Los Angeles, is the most populous county in both the United States and the state of California, the countrys most populous state. Its population is larger than that of 42 individual U. S. states and it has 88 incorporated cities and many unincorporated areas and at 4,083 square miles, it is larger than the combined areas of the U. S. states of Delaware and Rhode Island. The county is home to more than one-quarter of California residents and is one of the most ethnically diverse counties in the U. S and its county seat, the City of Los Angeles, is also its most populous city at about four million. Los Angeles County is one of the counties of California. The county originally included parts of what are now Kern, San Bernardino, Riverside, as the population increased, sections were split off to organize San Bernardino County in 1853, Kern County in 1866, and Orange County in 1889. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 4,751 square miles, Los Angeles County borders 70 miles of coast on the Pacific Ocean and encompasses mountain ranges, valleys, forests, islands, lakes, rivers, and desert. The western extent of the Mojave Desert begins in the Antelope Valley, most of the population of Los Angeles County is located in the south and southwest, with major population centers in the Los Angeles Basin, San Fernando Valley and San Gabriel Valley. Other population centers are found in the Santa Clarita Valley, Pomona Valley, Crescenta Valley, the county is divided west-to-east by the San Gabriel Mountains, which are part of the Transverse Ranges of southern California, and are contained mostly within the Angeles National Forest. Los Angeles County includes San Clemente Island and Santa Catalina Island, non-Hispanic whites numbered 2,728,321, or 28% of the population. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race numbered 4,687,889, 36% of Los Angeles Countys population was of Mexican ancestry,3. 7% Salvadoran, and 2. 2% Guatemalan heritage. The largest Asian groups of the 1,346,865 Asians in Los Angeles County are 4. 0% Chinese,3. 3% Filipino,2. 2% Korean,1. 0% Japanese,0. 9% Vietnamese,0. 8% Indian, and 0. 3% Cambodian. The racial makeup of the county is 48. 7% White,11. 0% African American,0. 8% Native American,10. 0% Asian,0. 3% Pacific Islander,23. 5% from other races, and 4. 9% from two or more races. 44. 6% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race, the largest European-American ancestry groups are German, Irish, English and Italian. 45. 9% of the population reported speaking only English at home,37. 9% spoke Spanish,2. 22% Tagalog,2. 0% Chinese,1. 9% Korean,1. 87% Armenian,0. 5% Arabic, and 0. 2% Hindi. At the census of 2000, there were 9,519,338 people,3,133,774 households, the population density was 2,344 people per square mile. There were 3,270,909 housing units at a density of 806 per square mile. 25% of all households were made up of individuals and 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.98 and the average family size was 3.61. In the county, the population was out with 28% under the age of 18, 10% from 18 to 24, 33% from 25 to 44, 19% from 45 to 64
40.
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act
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The Act presented an overall intermodal approach to highway and transit funding with collaborative planning requirements, giving significant additional powers to metropolitan planning organizations. Signed into law on December 18,1991 by President George H. W. Bush, ISTEA also provided funds for non-motorized commuter trails, the first trail to be so funded was the Cedar Lake Regional trail that was built in 1995 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. ISTEA defined a number of High Priority Corridors, to be part of the National Highway System, after various amendments from other laws, this is a list of the Corridors, The legislation also called for the designation of up to five high-speed rail corridors. The options were studied for months, and announced in October 1992. The first four were announced by United States Secretary of Transportation Andrew Card, October 15,1992, The Midwest high-speed rail corridor with three links from Chicago, Illinois to Detroit, Michigan, St. Louis, Missouri, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin. October 16,1992, The Florida high-speed rail corridor linking Miami with Orlando, October 19,1992, The California high-speed rail corridor linking San Diego and Los Angeles with the San Francisco Bay Area and Sacramento via the San Joaquin Valley. October 20,1992, The Southeast high-speed rail corridor connecting Charlotte, North Carolina, Richmond, Virginia, October 20,1992, The Pacific Northwest high-speed rail corridor linking Eugene and Portland, Oregon with Seattle, Washington and Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. H. R.2950 - corridors are in section 1105 A Guide to Metropolitan Transportation Planning Under ISTEA - How the Pieces Fit Together FHWA - NHS High Priority Corridors, Federal Highway Administration - United States Department of Transportation. Archived from the original on 10 April 2007
41.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
42.
Washington (state)
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It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, the Washington Territory was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The area was part of a region called the Columbia District after the Columbia River. The area was renamed Washington in order to avoid confusion with the District of Columbia, Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president. To distinguish it from the U. S. capital, which is named for George Washington, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State, or, in more formal contexts. Washingtonians and other residents of the Pacific Northwest refer to the state simply as Washington, calling the nations capital Washington, D. C. or, often, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
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Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
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Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
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Interstate 110 and State Route 110 (California)
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Route 110, consisting of State Route 110 and Interstate 110, locally referred to as the one ten, is a state highway in the Los Angeles area of the U. S. state of California, built to freeway standards. The entire Route 110 connects San Pedro and the Port of Los Angeles with Downtown Los Angeles, i-110 is one of two 3-digit interstate designations to appear on opposite coasts, with I-280 in California and New Jersey being the other. This route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, in addition, the Harbor Transitway, a grade-separated bus and high-occupancy vehicle corridor in the median of the 110, runs between State Route 91 and the south side of Downtown Los Angeles. The Harbor Freeway, along with the Long Beach Freeway, are the means for freight from the port of Los Angeles to rail yards. Its interchange with the Santa Monica Freeway is notoriously busy and congested, SR110 continues north on the Arroyo Seco Parkway to Pasadena. The Harbor Freeway is noted for its elaborate high-occupancy toll lane feature, with the HOT lanes elevated above the rest of traffic in many areas, myers, Inc. as HOV lanes and converted to HOT lanes in 2012. In the 1924 Major Street Traffic Plan for Los Angeles, a widening of Figueroa Street to San Pedro as a road to the Port of Los Angeles was proposed. Progress was slow, and in 1933 the state legislature added the entire length to the highway system as Route 165. The entire length of Route 165 became Sign Route 11 in 1934, the state completed the Arroyo Seco Parkway which had been added to the state highway system in 1935 as Route 205, in early 1941, providing a faster route between SR11 at Avenue 26 and Pasadena. US66 was moved to the new route, while SR11 remained on Figueroa Street and Linda Vista Avenue, construction of a freeway to San Pedro was much slower, despite having been in the earliest plans for an integrated system. The Harbor Freeway gradually pushed south, opening to Olympic Boulevard on March 23,1954, on March 27,1956, the highway was extended to 42nd Street, and on April 24,1957 it reached temporary ramps at 88th Place. There it connected with a section that had been open since June 19,1956, along with the Vincent Thomas Bridge to Terminal Island, the final piece in San Pedro opened on July 9,1970, completing the Harbor Freeway to its present length. In December 1978, the Harbor Freeway was approved as an Interstate Highway by the FHWA, in 1981, the SR11 designation was renumbered as Interstate 110 on the Harbor Freeway, and State Route 110 on the Pasadena Freeway. He performed his modifications in broad daylight, disguised as a Caltrans worker, in that district, Caltrans has three sign crews, each thinking one of the other two crews did the installation. After nine months, at Ankroms request, the Los Angeles Downtown News broke the story. Prior to Ankroms work, the only signage directing motorists to the 5 North off-ramp came at a quarter-mile before the exit, the signs were inspected by Caltrans to ensure they would not fall off onto the road below. Ankrom was never charged, despite statements from officials that his actions were illegal, ankrom referred to his sign project as Guerilla Public Service. These new signs include Ankroms original improvements, instead, the recent push has been to restore and preserve the Pasadena Freeway as a historic landmark
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California State Route 91
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State Route 91 is a major east–west freeway located entirely within Southern California and serving several regions of the Greater Los Angeles metropolitan area. Specifically, it runs from Vermont Avenue in Gardena, just west of the junction with the Harbor Freeway, east to Riverside at the junction with the Pomona. The route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, SR91 inherited its route number from the mostly decommissioned US91, which passed through the Inland Empire in a northeasterly direction on its way to Las Vegas, Salt Lake City, and points beyond. Those segments of US91 are now parallel to, or have been replaced altogether by, I-15. SR91 officially used to head west all the way to the Pacific Coast Highway in Hermosa Beach, but this segment was relinquished to local governments in 2003, the area from post mile 10.4 to 11.1 is signed as the Juanita Millender-McDonald Highway. From the Harbor Freeway to its intersection with the Long Beach Freeway in northern Long Beach, between the Long Beach Freeway and its intersection with the Santa Ana Freeway at the Fullerton-Anaheim border, it is named the Artesia Freeway. From the Santa Ana Freeway to its terminus at the intersection of the Pomona, Moreno Valley. The Gardena Freeway is a freeway in southern Los Angeles County. It is the westernmost freeway portion of State Route 91, thereafter, SR91 is known as the Artesia Freeway. Until 1991, the Gardena Freeway was known as the Redondo Beach Freeway, in 1997, the California government dedicated the portion of 91 between Alameda Rd and Central Ave to former assemblyman Willard H. Murray Jr. The Artesia Freeway is a freeway in southeastern Los Angeles County and it is signed as State Route 91 for its entire length. It runs east–west from its terminus at the Long Beach Freeway in northern Long Beach to its eastern terminus at the Santa Ana Freeway at the Fullerton-Anaheim border. During the 1984 Summer Olympics, a 25 km stretch of the highway was home to the mens road team time trial event. As the only freeway to link Los Angeles, Orange, and Riverside counties, past the I-215/CA-60/CA-91 junction, the Riverside Freeway continues as I-215. The Riverside Freeway first opened in 1963 signed as U. S. Route 91 and U. S. Route 395, the 91 Express Lanes is a ten-mile high-occupancy toll road / full tollway combination contained entirely within the median of the Riverside Freeway in Orange County, California. They run from the Costa Mesa Freeway interchange in Anaheim to the Riverside County line, the 91 Express Lanes consist of two primary lanes in each direction, separated from the regular, main lanes of the Riverside Freeway with reflective yellow,3 high, plastic lane markers. Access to the 91 Express Lanes are provided only at its east and west ends, all tolls are collected using an open road tolling system, with each vehicle required to carry a FasTrak transponder, there are no toll booths to receive cash. The 91 Express Lanes use a variable pricing system based on the time of day, the road is not truly congestion priced because toll rates come from a preset schedule instead of being based on actual congestion
