1.
Mount Lafayette
–
Mount Lafayette is a 5, 249-foot mountain at the northern end of the Franconia Range in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, United States. It lies in the town of Franconia in Grafton County, the mountains upper reaches are located in the alpine zone, an area where only dwarf vegetation exists due to the harsh climate. Mount Lafayette is the highest point in the Franconia Range, a line of peaks along the east side of Franconia Notch and it is the sixth highest peak in New Hampshire and the highest outside of the Presidential Range. It is the second most prominent peak in the state, on the western side, its lower slopes lie inside Franconia Notch State Park. The remainder of the lies within the White Mountain National Forest. The summit marks the border of the Pemigewasset Wilderness Area within the WMNF. A variety of lead up over 3,000 vertical feet to its exposed summit. The Greenleaf Trail begins at the lot for the Cannon Mountain tramway and ascends to the Appalachian Mountain Clubs Greenleaf Hut. The peak is at the junction of the Garfield Ridge Trail, which follows the ridge northeast to Mount Garfield, and the Franconia Ridge Trail, which leads south to Mounts Lincoln, Liberty, and Flume. Both the Garfield Ridge Trail and the Franconia Ridge Trail form part of the Appalachian Trail, a very popular hike is to make a loop combining the three most notable summits of the Franconia Range. The loop starts with the Old Bridle Path to the AMC Greenleaf Hut, from there, one takes the Greenleaf Trail to the summit of Mt. Lafayette. This loop is 8.9 miles long, with an elevation gain of about 3,900 feet. The mountain is named to honor General Lafayette, a French military hero who fought with and significantly aided the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War
2.
Mountain hut
–
A mountain hut is a building located high in the mountains, generally accessible only by foot, intended to provide food and shelter to mountaineers, climbers and hikers. Mountain huts are usually operated by an Alpine Club or some organisation dedicated to hiking or mountain recreation, Mountain huts can provide a range of services, starting with shelter and simple sleeping berths. Mountain huts usually allow anybody to access their facilities, although some require reservations, the Swiss Alpine Club has built huts since 1863. In the United States, the Appalachian Mountain Club built its first hut at Madison Spring in New Hampshire in 1888-89, the construction of refuges and shelters in the Alps date back to ancient times, when Roman roads led across the mountain passes. In the High Middle Ages, hospitales were erected along the routes, cottages. The long history of mountaineering from the 19th century onwards has led to a number of Alpine club huts as well as private huts along the mountaineering paths. These huts are categorised according to their location and facilities and they may have beds or a mattress room for overnight stays. Many climbing clubs in the UK have such huts in Snowdonia or in the Lake District, a well-known example is the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut under the northern crags of Ben Nevis in Scotland - this is a purpose-built hut, high up the mountain. In the Slovakia there is a network of mountain huts in most mountain and forest regions. In the past they were managed by the official tourist union, official mountain huts are similar to guest houses and are run by full-time managers. The Norwegian Trekking Association operates about 460 cabins mostly in the mountains and in forested areas, many cabins are unstaffed and open all year, while the staffed cabins often are just open during summer. In Poland most of mountains shelters and huts are run by PTTK - Polish Tourist Society, only few of shelters belong to private investors. Most of mountains shelters offer only common sleeping rooms and refreshments, Polish mountain huts are obliged by their own regulations to overnight each person who is not able to find any other place before sunset, though the conditions may be tough. The hut shall provide each tourist or hiker with free boiling water for hot drinks, there are many huts in the United States, in the Rocky Mountains, the Appalachian Mountains and other ranges. There are also many mountain huts throughout Maine, the Alpine Club of Canada operates what it calls the largest network of backcountry huts in North America. The New Zealand Department of Conservation manages a network of over 950 huts of all shapes and sizes, the mountains of Asia do not have a well-developed system of public mountain huts, although hiking, trekking and mountain climbing are common. In 2015, a competition was launched to design huts that could be located along trekking trails of Nepal
3.
White Mountains (New Hampshire)
–
The White Mountains are a mountain range covering about a quarter of the state of New Hampshire and a small portion of western Maine in the United States. They are part of the northern Appalachian Mountains and the most rugged mountains in New England, the range is heavily visited due to its proximity to Boston and, to a lesser extent, New York City and Montreal. Most of the area is land, including the White Mountain National Forest. Its most famous mountain is 6, 288-foot Mount Washington, which is the highest peak in the Northeastern U. S. Mount Washington is part of a line of summits, the Presidential Range, that are named after U. S. presidents and other prominent Americans. The White Mountains also include the Franconia Range, Sandwich Range, Carter-Moriah Range and Kinsman Range in New Hampshire, in all, there are 48 peaks within New Hampshire as well as one in Maine over 4,000 feet, known as the Four-thousand footers. The Whites are known for a system of alpine huts for hikers operated by the Appalachian Mountain Club, the Appalachian Trail crosses the area from southwest to northeast. It is not clear where the name White Mountains came from, there is no record of what Native Americans called the range, although pre-Colonial names for many individual peaks are known. The name and similar such as White Hills or Wine Hills are found in literature from Colonial times. According to tradition, the mountains were first sighted from shipboard off the coast near the Piscataqua estuary, the highest peaks would often be snow-capped, appearing white. An alternate theory is that the granite of the summits looked white to observers. The White Mountains are a section of the larger New England province. The magma intrusions forming the White Mountains today were created 124 to 100 million years ago as the North American Plate moved westward over the New England hotspot, widespread evidence of glaciation may be seen in the U-shaped form of various notches, or mountain passes. Glacial cirques form the heads of Tuckerman Ravine on Mt. Washington, glacial striations are visible at numerous locations, including on the exposed rocks at the summit of Pine Mountain in Gorham. The Mount Washington Auto Road and the historic Mount Washington Cog Railway ascend the ranges highest peak, heavily visited Arethusa Falls, the second tallest waterfall in New Hampshire, lies on a southwest flank of Crawford Notch. The Old Man of the Mountain, a formation on Cannon Mountain that resembled the craggy profile of a mans face, was a White Mountain landmark until it fell in May 2003. It remains the symbol of New Hampshire. The range also includes a feature dubbed The Basin, consisting of a granite bowl,20 feet in diameter, fed by a waterfall. The areas around The Basin are popular spots for swimming in the ice-cold mountain-fed water, some of the earliest maps of the White Mountains were produced as tourist maps and not topographical maps
4.
New Hampshire
–
New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, New Hampshire is the 5th smallest by land area and the 9th least populous of the 50 United States. Concord is the capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state and in northern New England, including Vermont. It has no sales tax, nor is personal income taxed at either the state or local level. The New Hampshire primary is the first primary in the U. S. presidential election cycle and its license plates carry the state motto, Live Free or Die. The states nickname, The Granite State, refers to its extensive granite formations, the state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire by Captain John Mason. New Hampshire is part of the New England region and it is bounded by Quebec, Canada, to the north and northwest, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Massachusetts to the south, and Vermont to the west. New Hampshires major regions are the Great North Woods, the White Mountains, the Lakes Region, the Seacoast, the Merrimack Valley, the Monadnock Region, and the Dartmouth-Lake Sunapee area. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any U. S. coastal state, New Hampshire was home to the rock formation called the Old Man of the Mountain, a face-like profile in Franconia Notch, until the formation disintegrated in May 2003. Major rivers include the 110-mile Merrimack River, which bisects the lower half of the state north–south and ends up in Newburyport and its tributaries include the Contoocook River, Pemigewasset River, and Winnipesaukee River. The 410-mile Connecticut River, which starts at New Hampshires Connecticut Lakes and flows south to Connecticut, only one town – Pittsburg – shares a land border with the state of Vermont. The northwesternmost headwaters of the Connecticut also define the Canada–U. S, the Piscataqua River and its several tributaries form the states only significant ocean port where they flow into the Atlantic at Portsmouth. The Salmon Falls River and the Piscataqua define the southern portion of the border with Maine, the U. S. Supreme Court dismissed the case in 2002, leaving ownership of the island with Maine. New Hampshire still claims sovereignty of the base, however, the largest of New Hampshires lakes is Lake Winnipesaukee, which covers 71 square miles in the east-central part of New Hampshire. Umbagog Lake along the Maine border, approximately 12.3 square miles, is a distant second, Squam Lake is the second largest lake entirely in New Hampshire. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any state in the United States, Hampton Beach is a popular local summer destination. It is the state with the highest percentage of area in the country. New Hampshire is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome, much of the state, in particular the White Mountains, is covered by the conifers and northern hardwoods of the New England-Acadian forests
5.
Appalachian Mountain Club
–
Appalachian Mountain Club is one of the United States oldest outdoor groups. Created in 1876 to explore and preserve the White Mountains in New Hampshire, it has expanded throughout the northeastern U. S. with 12 chapters stretching from Maine to Washington, D. C. The AMCs 150,000 members, advocates, and supporters mix outdoor recreation, particularly hiking and backpacking, additional activities include cross-country skiing, whitewater and flatwater canoeing and kayaking, sea kayaking, sailing, rock climbing and bicycle riding. The Club has about 2,700 volunteers, who lead roughly 7,000 trips, the organization publishes a number of books, guides, and trail maps. Appalachian Mountain Club was organized in 1876, incorporated in 1878, the group helped map the White Mountains and in 1888 built the first of eight High Huts in the range, modeled on Alpine shelters. It has converted a portion of the purchase to a preserve, logged a portion. The Club is considering purchasing more sporting camps in the vicinity, in September 2016, it was reported in The Boston Globe that Appalachian Mountain Club sold their Joy Street headquarters to a group of real estate investors for $15 million. The deal would turn the 22,000 square feet of space on Beacon Hill into residential units. Appalachian Mountain Clubs headquarters is located at 5 Joy Street in Boston, Appalachian Mountain Club employed 686 individuals in 2014. AMC estimated that 16,000 individuals volunteered for the organization in 2014, Appalachian Mountain Club earns over $13,000,000 per year from its outdoor program centers, educational activities, membership dues, trail activities, and advertising. Sale of products nets over $700,000 per year, Appalachian Mountain Club receives $11,000,000 per year of charitable contributions and $2,000,000 of revenue from its investments. In 2014, Appalachian Mountain Club paid two outside telemarketing firms $108,837 for fundraising services, the telemarketing firms raised $146,842 for Appalachian Mountain Club. Appalachian Mountain Club has chapters located in Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Appalachian Mountain Club owns and maintains a series of eight mountain huts in the White Mountains. Modeled after similar shelters in the Alps, the various huts hold between 36 and 90 people, hikers may reserve bunks, at most huts dinner and breakfast are included with an overnight fee. Although extremely popular, the huts are also controversial, facilitating thousands of hikers entering the back woods, Four years and an environmental impact statement were required to get the huts permits renewed by the U. S. Forest Service in 1999. A committee of Appalachian Mountain Club administers the Four Thousand Footer Club, anyone who has climbed to and from each of the 48 New Hampshire Four-thousand footers is eligible to apply for membership to the club. Members are given a patch and new inductees are invited to attend a celebration dinner. The Four Thousand Footer Club also recognizes individuals who complete the New England Four Thousand Footers, appalachia, the club journal, has been published since 1894
6.
Alps
–
The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc, Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,810 m is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4000 metres, the altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe, in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era, a mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991. By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established, Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800 Napoleon crossed one of the passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, in World War II, Adolf Hitler kept a base of operation in the Bavarian Alps throughout the war. The Alpine region has a cultural identity. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, at present, the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors. The English word Alps derives from the Latin Alpes, maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp and this may be consistent with the theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of non-Indo-European origin. According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb hill, Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, Albania was a name for the eastern Caucasus, in modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An alp refers to a mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found. The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km arc from east to west and is 200 km in width, the mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km. The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, the range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the border of Bavaria in Germany
7.
Appalachian Trail
–
The trail is about 2,200 miles long, though the exact length changes over time as parts are modified or rerouted. More than 2 million people are said to do at least one day-hike on the each year. The idea of the Appalachian Trail came about in 1921, the trail itself was completed in 1937 after more than a decade of work, although improvements and changes continue. It is maintained by 31 trail clubs and multiple partnerships, and managed by the National Park Service, United States Forest Service, the majority of the trail is in forest or wild lands, although some portions traverse towns, roads and farms. The trail conservancy claims that the Appalachian Trail is the longest hiking-only trail in the world. It passes through 14 states, Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Many books, memoirs, websites, and fan organizations are dedicated to these pursuits, other separate extensions continue the southern end of the Appalachian range in Alabama and continue south into Florida, creating what is known as the Eastern Continental Trail. The Appalachian Trail, the Continental Divide Trail, and the Pacific Crest Trail form what is known as the Triple Crown of Hiking in the United States. The trail was conceived by Benton MacKaye, a forester who wrote his original plan—called An Appalachian Trail, macKayes idea detailed a grand trail that would connect a series of farms and wilderness work/study camps for city-dwellers. The idea was adopted by the new Palisades Interstate Park Trail Conference as their main project. On October 7,1923, the first section of the trail, from Bear Mountain west through Harriman State Park to Arden, MacKaye then called for a two-day Appalachian Trail conference to be held in March 1925 in Washington, D. C. This meeting inspired the formation of the Appalachian Trail Conference, a retired judge named Arthur Perkins and his younger associate Myron Avery took up the cause. Andersons efforts helped spark renewed interest in the trail, and Avery was able to bring other states on board, upon taking over the ATC, Avery adopted the more practical goal of building a simple hiking trail. He and MacKaye clashed over the ATCs response to a commercial development along the trails path, MacKaye left the organization. Avery reigned as Chairman of the ATC from 1932 to 1952, Avery became the first to walk the trail end-to-end, though not as a thru-hike, in 1936. In August 1937, the trail was completed to Sugarloaf Mountain in Maine, the ATCs trail crews and volunteer trail-maintaining clubs have relocated or rehabilitated miles of trail since that time. The completed thru-hike was much later recorded and accepted by the Appalachian Long Distance Hikers Association, in 1948, Earl Shaffer of York, Pennsylvania, brought a great deal of attention to the project by publicizing the first claimed thru-hike. The claim was criticized for the hikes omission of significant portions due to short-cuts
8.
Thru-hiking
–
Thru-hiking is hiking a long-distance trail end-to-end within one hiking season. In United States, the term is most commonly associated with the Appalachian Trail, the Pacific Crest Trail, and the Continental Divide Trail, but also refers to other end-to-end hikes. Other examples include the Te Araroa Trail in New Zealand, the Camino de Santiago in Spain, the Lycian Way in Turkey, the Israel National Trail, and the Great Divide Trail in Canada. Thru-hiking is also called end-to-end hiking or end-to-ending on some trails, like Vermonts Long Trail or New Yorks Long Path and Northville-Placid Trail. Section hiking, on the hand, refers to hiking a trail one section at a time, without continuity. Thru-hikings origins date back many years, when long-distance foot travel as a means of transportation began to merge with hiking for its own enjoyment, one famous thru-hike involves the story of Lillian Alling, a young 27-year-old Russian immigrant living in New York City. She became homesick and decided to return to her family in Russia, lacking funds, but armed with a strong will, she chose to walk the 12,000 miles to Russia, traversing Canada and into Alaska. She was last seen preparing to cross by boat at the Bering Strait to Siberia, a thru-hiker named George W. Outerbridge completed the first section hike of the newly completed Appalachian Trail in 1939, trail promoter Myron Avery had previously section-hiked while trail blazing. Earl Shaffer became the first to have publicly thru-hiked the AT in 1948, a 1994 report claimed that a group of Boy Scouts had done so twelve years earlier, but these claims have never been adequately documented. Therefore, they are considered highly suspect in most hiking circles, a number of thru-hikers have achieved a measure of celebrity in backpacking culture. Perhaps the most famous was Emma Grandma Gatewood, who first thru-hiked the Appalachian Trail in 1955 at age 67, thru-hiking a trail is a long and difficult journey, An AT thru-hike, for example, takes five months on average, covering 2,189.2 miles. A PCT or CDT thru-hike also entails several months of planning in order to prepare gear and these two trails also take 4-6 months to complete. Thru-hikers can organize supplies for the journey far in advance, and have friends and family mail packages to predetermined stops along the way and these caches-via-mail are usually referred to as supply boxes. The most popular however, is to resupply roughly every three to five days at a village or town that is close to the trail. This cuts down on unnecessary planning and offers a degree of flexibility. The Continental Divide Trail does not have one official route, as of 2013, about 76% of the trail has been completed according to the CDT Coalition. Many people choose to forego thru-hiking, due to time constraints or lack of desire, with the rise of backpacking in the United States, thru-hiking has become a minor industry. Thousands of hikers attempt to thru-hike the AT and other National Scenic Trails every year, roughly 150 end-to-end the Long Trail, and about 180 thru-hike the Pacific Crest Trail each year
9.
Tree line
–
The tree line is the edge of the habitat at which trees are capable of growing. It is found at high elevations and in frigid environments, beyond the tree line, trees cannot tolerate the environmental conditions. The tree line should not be confused with a lower timberline or forest line, at the tree line, tree growth is often sparse and stunted, with the last trees forming densely matted bushes, known as krummholz. The tree line, like other natural lines, appears well-defined from a distance. Trees grow shorter towards the inhospitable climate until they stop growing. The climate above the line of mountains is called an alpine climate. In the northern hemisphere treelines on north-facing slopes are lower than on south-facing slopes because the increased shade on north-facing slopes means the snowpack takes longer to melt and this shortens the growing season for trees. In the southern hemisphere, the slopes have the shorter growing season. The alpine tree line boundary is seldom abrupt, it forms a transition zone between closed forest below and treeless alpine tundra above. Environmentally dwarfed shrubs commonly forms the upper limit, the decrease in air temperature due to increasing elevation causes the alpine climate. Skin effects and topography can create microclimates that alter the general cooling trend, however, the number of degree days calculated from leaf temperatures may be very similar in the two kinds of timberlines. A series of warm summers in the 1940s seems to have permitted the establishment of “significant numbers” of spruce seedlings above the treeline in the hills near Fairbanks. Survival depends on a sufficiency of new growth to support the tree, the windiness of high-elevation sites is also a potent determinant of the distribution of tree growth. However, snow accumulation in sheltered gullies in the Selkirk Mountains of southeastern British Columbia causes timberline to be 400 metres lower than on exposed intervening shoulders. In a desert, the line marks the driest places where trees can grow. These tend to be called the tree line and occur below about 5,000 ft elevation in the Desert Southwestern United States. In some mountainous areas, higher elevations above the line or on equator-facing and leeward slopes can result in low rainfall. This dries out the soil, resulting in an arid environment unsuitable for trees
10.
U.S. Forest Service
–
The United States Forest Service is an agency of the U. S. Department of Agriculture that administers the nations 154 national forests and 20 national grasslands, which encompass 193 million acres. Major divisions of the include the National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Business Operations. Managing approximately 25% of federal lands, it is the major national land agency that is outside the U. S. Department of the Interior. The concept of the National Forests was born from Theodore Roosevelt’s conservation group, Boone and Crockett Club, in 1876, Congress created the office of Special Agent in the Department of Agriculture to assess the quality and conditions of forests in the United States. Hough was appointed the head of the office, in 1881, the office was expanded into the newly formed Division of Forestry. The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 authorized withdrawing land from the domain as forest reserves. In 1901, the Division of Forestry was renamed the Bureau of Forestry, gifford Pinchot was the first United States Chief Forester in the Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt. As of 2009, the Forest Service has a budget authority of $5.5 billion. The Forest Service employs 34,250 employees in 750 locations, including 10,050 firefighters,737 law enforcement personnel, and 500 scientists. The mission of the Forest Service is To sustain the health, diversity and its motto is Caring for the land and serving people. As the lead agency in natural resource conservation, the US Forest Service provides leadership in the protection, management, and use of the nations forest, rangeland. The agencys ecosystem approach to management integrates ecological, economic, and social factors to maintain and enhance the quality of the environment to meet current, the everyday work of the Forest Service balances resource extraction, resource protection, and providing recreation.5 billion trees per year. Further, the Forest Service fought fires on 2,996,000 acres of land in 2007, the Forest Service organization includes ranger districts, national forests, regions, research stations and research work units and the Northeastern Area Office for State and Private Forestry. Each level has responsibility for a variety of functions, the Chief of the Forest Service is a career federal employee who oversees the entire agency. The Chief reports to the Under Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment in the U. S. Department of Agriculture, there are five deputy chiefs for the following areas, National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Research and Development, Business Operations, and Finance. The Forest Service Research and Development deputy area includes five stations, the Forest Products Laboratory. Station directors, like regional foresters, report to the Chief, Research stations include Northern, Pacific Northwest, Pacific Southwest, Rocky Mountain, and Southern. There are 92 research work units located at 67 sites throughout the United States, there are 80 Experimental Forests and Ranges that have been established progressively since 1908, many sites are more than 50 years old
11.
Lonesome Lake (New Hampshire)
–
Lonesome Lake is a 12. 2-acre water body located in Franconia Notch in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, south of Cannon Mountain. The lake is reachable by hiking trails from the Franconia Notch Parkway, the lake lies in the Merrimack River watershed. Its outlet, Cascade Brook, flows south over ledges and waterfalls to the Pemigewasset River near The Basin in Franconia Notch, the Pemigewasset in turn flows south to the Merrimack River, which reaches the Atlantic Ocean at Newburyport, Massachusetts. Lonesome Lake is part of Franconia Notch State Park, the Appalachian Trail passes the lake at its outlet. Additional hiking trails north to Cannon Mountain. The lake is classified as a fishery and contains brook trout. List of lakes in New Hampshire
12.
Franconia Range
–
The Franconia Range is a mountain range located in the White Mountains of the U. S. state of New Hampshire. It is the second-highest range of peaks in the White Mountains, Franconia Ridge is a prominent ridge which forms the backbone of the range, stringing together all of its major summits. The Franconia Range hosts the third largest connected area of tundra in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, only surpassed by the Presidential Range. Approximately 2.5 miles along the crest of the ridge is in the alpine zone and this area runs from the treeline just below the summit of Little Haystack all the way to the treeline north of Mount Lafayette, and affords constant 360-degree views of the White Mountains. To the east of the lies the rugged and uninhabited Pemigewasset Wilderness. While Mount Liberty and Mount Flume are almost entirely forested, their summits rise just above the treeline, the Franconia Ridge Trail, which coincides with the Appalachian Trail from Mount Lafayette to Mount Liberty, traverses the ridge over all the aforementioned mountains. A popular hike dubbed the Franconia Ridge Loop is an 8.9 miles loop which includes the majority of the portion of the ridge. This loop involves the Falling Waters Trail, the Franconia Ridge Trail, the Greenleaf Trail, the exposed nature of the ridge and the changeable weather of the White Mountains make it a more dangerous hike than it may appear. Injuries and even fatalities from falls and exposure are not uncommon, one man died after he and a companion were trapped February 11,2008, by fast-moving winter weather
13.
Donkey
–
The donkey or ass is a domesticated member of the horse family, Equidae. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African wild ass, the donkey has been used as a working animal for at least 5000 years. There are more than 40 million donkeys in the world, mostly in underdeveloped countries, working donkeys are often associated with those living at or below subsistence levels. Small numbers of donkeys are kept for breeding or as pets in developed countries, a male donkey or ass is called a jack, a female a jenny or jennet, a young donkey is a foal. Jack donkeys are used to mate with female horses to produce mules. Asses were first domesticated around 3000 BC, probably in Egypt or Mesopotamia and they continue to fill important roles in many places today. While domesticated species are increasing in numbers, the African wild ass is an endangered species, as beasts of burden and companions, asses and donkeys have worked together with humans for millennia. Traditionally, the name for the donkey is Equus asinus asinus based on the principle of priority used for scientific names of animals. This means that the scientific name for the donkey is Equus africanus asinus when it is considered a subspecies. At one time, the ass was the more common term for the donkey. The first recorded use of donkey was in either 1784 or 1785, while the word ass has cognates in most other Indo-European languages, donkey is an etymologically obscure word for which no credible cognate has been identified. From the 18th century, donkey gradually replaced ass, and jenny replaced she-ass, by the end of the 17th century, changes in pronunciation of both ass and arse had caused them to become homophones. Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on breed and management, the height at the withers ranges from 7.3 to 15.3 hands, and the weight from 80 to 480 kg. Working donkeys in the poorest countries have an expectancy of 12 to 15 years, in more prosperous countries. Donkeys are adapted to desert lands. Unlike wild and feral horses, wild donkeys in dry areas are solitary, each adult donkey establishes a home range, breeding over a large area may be dominated by one jack. Donkeys have large ears, which may pick up more distant sounds, donkeys can defend themselves by biting, striking with the front hooves or kicking with the hind legs. A jenny is normally pregnant for about 12 months, though the period varies from 11 to 14 months
14.
1938 New England hurricane
–
The 1938 New England Hurricane was one of the deadliest and most destructive tropical cyclones to impact New England. The hurricane was estimated to have killed 682 people, damaged or destroyed over 57,000 homes, even as late as 1951, damaged trees and buildings were still seen in the affected areas. It remains the most powerful and deadliest hurricane in recent New England history and it was only the third hurricane to strike New England since 1635. The storm was first analyzed by ship south of the Cape Verde Islands on September 9. Over the next ten days, it gathered strength and slowly tracked to the west-northwest. By September 20, while centered east of the Bahamas, the hurricane is estimated to have reached Category 5 intensity, in response to a deep trough over Appalachia, the hurricane veered northward, sparing the Bahamas, Florida, the Carolinas, and the Mid-Atlantic. At the same time, a pressure system was centered north of Bermuda. Thus, the hurricane was effectively squeezed to the north between the two weather systems, late on September 20, this set-up caused the storms forward speed to increase substantially, ultimately reaching 70 mph, the highest forward velocity ever recorded in the annals of hurricanes. During the early hours of September 21, the storm, centered several hundred miles to the southeast of Cape Hatteras, weakened slightly. By 8,30 am EDT, the hurricane was centered approximately 100 miles due east of Cape Hatteras and this rapid movement did not give the hurricane a sufficient amount of time to weaken over the cooler waters before it reached Long Island. During the 9,00 am EDT hour, the hurricane sped through the Virginia tidewater, between 12,00 pm and 2,00 pm EDT, the New Jersey coastline and New York City caught the western edge of the hurricane. At the same time, weather conditions began to deteriorate rapidly on Long Island as well as along the southern New England coast. The hurricane made landfall at Bellport on Long Islands Suffolk County sometime between 2,10 pm and 2,40 pm EDT as a category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 120 mph. The storm made a second landfall still as a category 3 hurricane somewhere between Bridgeport and New Haven, Connecticut, around 4,00 pm with sustained winds of 115 mph. By 5,00 pm EDT, the eye moved into western Massachusetts, and by 6,00 pm EDT, the hurricane reached Vermont. Both Westfield, Massachusetts, and Dorset, Vermont, reported calm conditions and partial clearing during passage of the eye, as the hurricane continued into northern Vermont, it began to lose tropical characteristics. Still carrying hurricane-force winds, the crossed into Quebec at approximately 10,00 pm EDT. The post-tropical remnants dissipated over northern Ontario a few days later, in 1938 United States forecasting lagged behind forecasting in Europe, where new techniques of analyzing air masses and taking into account the influence of fronts were being used
15.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
–
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is a US labor law that prohibits unjustified discrimination based on disability. The final version of the bill was signed into law on July 26,1990 and it was later amended in 2008 and signed by President George W. Bush with changes effective as of January 1,2009. ADA disabilities include both mental and physical medical conditions, a condition does not need to be severe or permanent to be a disability. Additionally, other conditions, such as gender identity disorders, are also excluded under the definition of disability. The ADA states that an entity shall not discriminate against a qualified individual with a disability. This applies to job application procedures, hiring, advancement and discharge of employees, job training, and other terms, conditions, covered entities include employers with 15 or more employees, as well as employment agencies, labor organizations, and joint labor-management committees. Prohibited discrimination may include, among other things, firing or refusing to hire someone based on a real or perceived disability, segregation, covered entities are also required to provide reasonable accommodations to job applicants and employees with disabilities. An employee or applicant who currently engages in the use of drugs is not considered qualified when a covered entity takes adverse action based on such use. There are many ways to discriminate against people based on disabilities, anyone known to have a history of mental disorders can be considered disabled. Employers with more than 15 employees must take care to all employees fairly. Even when an employee is doing a job well, she or he is not necessarily no longer disabled. The Court determined that state employees cannot sue their employer for violating ADA rules, state employees can, however, file complaints at the Department of Justice or the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, who can sue on their behalf. Title II prohibits disability discrimination by all entities at the local level, e. g. school district, municipal, city, or county. Public entities must comply with Title II regulations by the U. S. Department of Justice and these regulations cover access to all programs and services offered by the entity. Access includes physical access described in the ADA Standards for Accessible Design, Title II applies to public transportation provided by public entities through regulations by the U. S. Department of Transportation. It includes the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, along all other commuter authorities. This section requires the provision of services by public entities that provide fixed route services. ADA also sets minimum requirements for space layout in order to facilitate wheelchair securement on public transport, Title II also applies to all state and local public housing, housing assistance, and housing referrals
16.
Composting toilet
–
A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet or micro-flush toilet system that uses a predominantly aerobic process to treat human excreta by composting or managed aerobic decomposition. These toilets generally use little to no water and may be used as an alternative to flush toilets that are coupled with septic systems or city sewer systems and they have found use in situations where no suitable water supply or sewer system and sewage treatment plant is available. They are in use in many facilities and national parks in Sweden, Canada, US, UK. They are used in holiday homes in Sweden and Finland. The human excreta is usually mixed with sawdust, coconut coir or peat moss to facilitate processing, liquid absorption. Most composting toilets use slow, cold composting conditions, sometimes connected to a secondary external composting step, Composting toilets produce a compost that may be used for horticultural or agricultural soil enrichment if the local regulations allow this. A secondary stage is often needed to allow mesophilic composting to further reduce potential pathogens, the term composting toilet is used quite loosely, and its meaning may vary by country. For example, in English-speaking countries, the term composting is used. In Germany and Scandinavian countries, composting always refers to an aerobic process. This aerobic composting may take place with an increase in temperature due to microbial action, if earth worms are used then there is also no increase in temperature. They also differ from urine-diverting dry toilets where pathogen reduction is achieved through dehydration, Composting toilets target a certain degree of moisture in the composting chamber. Composting toilets usually do not divert urine, offering a waterless urinal in addition to the toilet can help keep excess amounts of urine out of the composting chamber. Composting toilets can be used to implement an ecological sanitation approach for resource recovery, however, this is not recommended as the two terms are not identical. Composting toilets have also been called sawdust toilets, which can be if the amount of aerobic composting taking place in the toilets container is very limited. The Clivus multrum is a type of composting toilet which has a large composting chamber below the toilet seat, Composting toilets can be suitable in areas such as a rural area or a park that lacks a suitable water supply, sewers and sewage treatment. They can also increase the resilience of existing sanitation systems in the face of possible natural disasters such as climate change. Composting toilets can reduce or perhaps eliminate the need for a tank system to reduce environmental footprint. These types of toilets can be used for recovery by reusing sanitized feces and urine as fertilizer
17.
Rebar
–
Rebars surface is often patterned to form a better bond with the concrete. Rebar has been used in construction since at least the 15th century, more recently, during the 18th century, rebar was used to form the carcass of the Leaning Tower of Nevyansk in Russia, built on the orders of the industrialist Akinfiy Demidov. The cast iron used for the rebar was of high quality, the carcass of the tower was connected to its cast iron tented roof, crowned with one of the first known lightning rods. More recently these techniques have been refined by embedding the steel bars in the concrete, concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in concretes behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads, rebar is also employed to confer resistance to concentrated loads by providing enough localized resistance and stiffness for a load to spread through a wider area. Rebar may also be used to other steel bars in the correct position to accommodate their loads. External steel tie bars can constrain and reinforce masonry structures, as illustrated by the Nevyansk Tower or ancient structures in Rome, masonry structures and the mortar holding them together have similar properties to concrete and also have a limited ability to carry tensile loads. Some standard masonry units like blocks and bricks are made with voids to accommodate rebar and this combination is known as reinforced masonry. Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete, if this were not so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different from the temperature of the setting. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into adjacent structural members, or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place, common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction, too little concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface, and salt penetration. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard and this phenomenon is known as oxide jacking. This is a problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges where salt is applied to roadways in winter. Even damaged bars have shown better performance than uncoated reinforcing bars, though issues from debonding of the coating from the bars. These bars are used in over 70,000 bridge decks in the USA, fiber-reinforced polymer rebar is also used in high-corrosion environments. It is available in forms, such as spirals for reinforcing columns, common rods. Most commercially available rebar is made from glass fibre reinforced thermoset resins
18.
South Twin Mountain (New Hampshire)
–
South Twin Mountain is a mountain located in Grafton County, New Hampshire. The mountain is part of the Twin Range of the White Mountains, South Twin forms the high point of a north-south ridge, with North Twin Mountain lying approximately one mile to the north and Mount Guyot two miles to the southeast. Galehead Mountain, a spur of South Twin, is to the west. The east face of South Twin drains into the Little River, thence into the Ammonoosuc and Connecticut Rivers, the northwest slopes of South Twin drain to the North Branch of the Gale River, another tributary of the Ammonoosuc River. The summit of South Twin is open and rocky, but stands of spruce, the Appalachian Trail, a 2, 170-mile National Scenic Trail from Georgia to Maine, crosses the summit of South Twin, passing from Galehead Mountain to the west towards Mount Guyot to the southeast. The North Twin Trail proceeds north along the ridge crest to the summit of North Twin, list of mountains in New Hampshire White Mountain National Forest South Twin Mountain. AMC, Hiking South Twin hikethewhites. com, South Twin
19.
Galehead Mountain
–
Galehead Mountain is a mountain located in Grafton County, New Hampshire. The mountain is part of the Twin Range of the White Mountains, Galehead is flanked to the east by South Twin Mountain, and to the west by Mount Garfield. The summit is reached by the Frost Trail which departs from Galehead Hut, there are several ways to reach the hut from ones car, the Gale River Trail from the northwest being the most direct. Galehead is so named because it is located above the headwaters of the North Branch of the Gale River, the north face of Galehead drains into the North Branch, thence via the Gale River into the Ammonoosuc and Connecticut rivers, and into Long Island Sound in Connecticut. The west face of Galehead also drains into the Franconia Branch, the Appalachian Trail, a 2, 170-mile National Scenic Trail from Georgia to Maine, crosses the northern face of Galehead,0.2 mi north — and 400 feet below — the summit. The Appalachian Mountain Clubs Galehead Hut is located in the col between Galehead and South Twin, list of mountains in New Hampshire White Mountain National Forest AMC, Galehead hikethewhites. com, Galehead
20.
Mount Washington Cog Railway
–
The Mount Washington Cog Railway is the worlds first mountain-climbing cog railway. The railway is still in operation, climbing Mount Washington in New Hampshire and it uses a Marsh rack system and one or two steam locomotives and six biodiesel powered locomotives to carry tourists to the top of the mountain. Its track is built to 4 ft 8 in gauge, which is technically a narrow gauge and it is the second steepest rack railway in the world after the Pilatus railway, with an average grade of over 25% and a maximum grade of 37. 41%. The train ascends the mountain at 2.8 miles per hour and it takes approximately 65 minutes to ascend and 40 minutes to descend although the diesel can go up in as little as 37 minutes. Most of the Mount Washington Cog Railway is in Thompson and Meserves Purchase, the railway was built by Sylvester Marsh who grew up in Campton. Marsh came up with the idea while climbing the mountain in 1852 and his plan was treated as insane. He was putting up $5,000 of his own money, Marsh obtained a charter for the road on June 25,1858, but the American Civil War prevented any action until May 1866. He developed a prototype locomotive and a demonstration section of track, then found investors. Despite the railroads incomplete state, the first paying customers started riding on August 14,1868, later designs introduced horizontal boilers, slanted so that they remain close to horizontal on the steeply graded track. In August 1869, President Ulysses S. Grant visited New England to escape the Washington heat, during his tour he rode the cog railway to the top of Mount Washington. Sylvester Marsh died in 1884 and control of the Cog passed to the Concord & Montreal Railroad, control by the Teagues began in 1931 when Col. Henry N. Teague bought the Cog. He died in 1951, and Arthur S. Teague became general manager, after he died in 1967, the ownership passed to his wife Ellen Crawford Teague who ran the Cog as the worlds first woman president of a railway. In 1983, Mrs. Teague sold the railway to a group of New Hampshire businessmen, since 1986, the Cog Railway has been controlled and owned by Wayne Presby and Joel Bedor of Littleton, New Hampshire. The Bedor and Presby families also owned the Mount Washington Hotel, in 1995, the railway appointed Charles Kenison the General Manager. These individuals were responsible for a revitalization of the railroad, with the assistance of Al LaPrade. The Cog has been in operation since 1869, with service interruptions only during the World Wars. In the summer of 2008, the Cog introduced its first diesel locomotive, in December 2016, the owner of the Cog proposed building a 35-room hotel along the line, about a mile below the summit and two miles above the station. They propose to open the facility in 2019 for the 150th anniversary of the train, the proposal quickly drew public opposition due to its location in the alpine zone of the mountain
21.
Lakes of the Clouds
–
The Lakes of the Clouds are a set of small ponds located at the 5,032 ft col between Mount Monroe and Mount Washington in the White Mountains of the U. S. state of New Hampshire. The lakes form the source of the Ammonoosuc River, a tributary of the Connecticut River, the Lakes of the Clouds Hut, a rental hut and lodge for hikers operated by the Appalachian Mountain Club, is adjacent to the lakes, facing west. Lakes of the Clouds may be reached by hiking from Marshfield Station, on the Mount Washington Cog Railway, the area is also traversed by the Crawford Path and the Dry River Trail. Presidential Range Lakes of the Clouds on TopoQuest
22.
Tarn (lake)
–
A tarn is a mountain lake or pool, formed in a cirque excavated by a glacier. It is formed when rain or river water fills the cirque. A moraine may form a dam below a tarn. The word is derived from the Old Norse word tjörn meaning pond and its more specific use as a mountain lake emerges as it is the commonly used term for all ponds in the upland areas of Northern England. Here, it retains a use, referring to any small lake or pond, regardless of its location. In Scandinavian languages, a tjern or tjärn, tärn or tjørn is a natural lake
23.
Mount Monroe
–
Mount Monroe is a 5, 372-foot-high mountain peak southwest of Mount Washington in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains in New Hampshire, United States. It is named for American President James Monroe and is the fourth highest mountain on the 4000 footers list for New Hampshire, the Appalachian Trail skirts its summit, which is the next highest peak on or near the trail north of Mount Rogers in Virginia. The Lakes of the Clouds, and its AMC hut, lie nestled at the col between Mount Monroe and neighboring Mount Washington, lying between Mount Washington and Mount Eisenhower, Mount Monroe is inaccessible by road but may be reached by several hiking trails. The most direct route to its summit from the valley below is chiefly via the Ammonoosuc Ravine Trail which starts to the northwest near the station of the Mount Washington Cog Railway. After ascending to the Lakes of the Clouds Hut, the terminus of the trail, one proceeds to Monroes summit via the Crawford Path. Very frequently hikers will visit Monroe in combination with Washington or Eisenhower, visitors traversing the Lawn are strictly limited to the trail in order to protect the many fragile flora which grow there. Mt. Monroe - FranklinSites. com Hiking Guide AMC, Hiking Mount Monroe
24.
Carter Notch
–
Carter Notch is a high mountain pass through the White Mountains of New Hampshire. It is traversed only by hiking trails, the notch is located in the Carter-Moriah Range within the White Mountain National Forest, in Beans Purchase, Coos County, New Hampshire. It is bordered to the west by Wildcat Mountain, and to the east by Carter Dome, there are two small ponds in the notch, the Carter Lakes, as well as a large boulder field named The Ramparts. The ponds drain south through the barrier formed by The Ramparts. The height of land is to the north, to the north the notch drains via Nineteenmile Brook which flows into the Peabody River. Drainage to the south is into the Wildcat River, which flows into the Saco River, located in the notch is the Appalachian Mountain Clubs Carter Notch Hut. The notch is accessible in winter by snowshoes or backcountry skis
25.
Log cabin
–
A log cabin is a dwelling constructed of logs, especially a less finished or architecturally sophisticated structure. Log cabins have an ancient history in Europe, and in America are often associated with first generation home building by settlers, construction with logs was described by Roman architect Vitruvius Pollio in his architectural treatise De Architectura. He noted that in Pontus, dwellings were constructed by laying logs horizontally overtop of each other and filling in the gaps with chips, historically log cabin construction has its roots in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Although their origin is uncertain, the first log structures were probably being built in Northern Europe by the Bronze Age. C. A. Weslager describes Europeans as having. accomplished in building several forms of log housing, having different methods of corner timbering, Log saunas or bathhouses of this type are still found in rural Finland. By stacking tree trunks one on top of another and overlapping the logs at the corners and they developed interlocking corners by notching the logs at the ends, resulting in strong structures that were easier to make weather-tight by inserting moss or other soft material into the joints. As the original coniferous forest extended over the coldest parts of the world, the insulating properties of the solid wood were a great advantage over a timber frame construction covered with animal skins, felt, boards or shingles. Over the decades, increasingly complex joints were developed to ensure more weather tight joints between the logs, but the profiles were still based on the round log. It was also common to replace individual logs damaged by dry rot as necessary, the Wood Museum in Trondheim, Norway, displays fourteen different traditional profiles, but a basic form of log construction was used all over North Europe and Asia and later imported to America. Log construction was especially suited to Scandinavia, where straight, tall tree trunks are readily available, with suitable tools, a log cabin can be erected from scratch in days by a family. As no chemical reaction is involved, such as hardening of mortar, many older towns in Northern Scandinavia have been built exclusively out of log houses, which have been decorated by board paneling and wood cuttings. Today, construction of log cabins as leisure homes is a fully developed industry in Finland. Modern log cabins often feature fiberglass insulation and are sold as prefabricated kits machined in a factory, Log cabins are mostly constructed without the use of nails and thus derive their stability from simple stacking, with only a few dowel joints for reinforcement. This is because a log cabin tends to compress slightly as it settles, nails would soon be out of alignment and torn out. In the present-day United States, settlers may have first constructed log cabins by 1638, historians believe that the first log cabins built in North America were in the Swedish colony of Nya Sverige in the Delaware River and Brandywine River valleys. Many of its colonists were actually Forest Finns, because Finland was a part of Sweden at that time. New Sweden only briefly existed before it became the Dutch colony of New Netherland, the Swedish-Finnish colonists quick and easy construction techniques not only remained, but spread. Later German and Ukrainian immigrants also used this technique, the Scots and Scots-Irish had no tradition of building with logs, but they quickly adopted the method
26.
Pemigewasset Wilderness
–
The Pemigewasset Wilderness is a 45, 000-acre federally designated Wilderness Area in the heart of New Hampshires White Mountains. It is a part of the White Mountain National Forest, the area is also noted for its ecological recovery from the logging era of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. After years of unchecked clear-cutting, the inclusion in the White Mountain National Forest. The Pemigewasset Wilderness consists of two horseshoe-shaped lobes characterized by low, wet river valleys surrounded by high mountain ridges. The western lobe is enclosed by the Franconia, Twin, and Bond ranges, from Mount Flume, the ridge dips and rises between peaks in a parabolic manner, flirting with treeline in the cols and running open and exposed at the summits. Peaks crossed at this point of the ridge after Flume include Mount Liberty, and Little Haystack Mountain, where the ridge rises out of the scrub for good. As it heads north, the ridge assumes a knife-edge character, from the summit of Lafayette, the ridge, thence known as Garfield Ridge, makes its way toward the Twin Range. As a spur ridge extends north to North Twin Mountain, the ridge makes a southward turn. Enclosing the western lobe, the Bond Range extends south from Guyot, passing over Mount Bond, the eastern lobe of the Pemigewasset Wilderness is flatter than the west and also far more poorly defined. From Mount Guyot, the eastern main ridge continues east rather than following the Bond Range to the south. Passing over Zealand Mountain and a knob known as Zeacliff Pond Peak, the ridge reaches an abrupt end at Zeacliff. From Zeacliff, the Wilderness Boundary plunges into the following the Twinway trail. Note that the boundary as implemented excludes the Appalachian Trail and the summits it passes over as well as Mount Carrigain, the East Branch of the Pemigewasset drains the eastern lobe through a number of small streams. Mounts Hancock and Carrigain are drained by Crystal, Carrigain, and Notch Brooks, while the center drains to the North Fork of the Pemigewasset and Shoal Pond Brook. The Franconia and Twin Ranges form a ring dike in the western half of the White Mountain Batholith made up of a granite porphyry backbone that emerged roughly 170 million years ago. This rock appears pink, red, green or grey, with medium-sized phenocrysts, such phenocrysts, usually quartz or feldspar, make up 20%-40% of the rock, and are embedded in a groundmass of similar composition. Enclosed by the dike and extending in to the flat floor of the wilderness is a large area of biotite. Wilderness Areas Wilderness Act Pemigewasset Wilderness - Wilderness. net Roadless Area Profiles - USDA Forest Service
27.
Mount Washington (New Hampshire)
–
Mount Washington, called Agiocochook by some Native American tribes, is the highest peak in the Northeastern United States at 6,288.2 ft and the most prominent mountain east of the Mississippi River. The mountain is notorious for its erratic weather, the mountain is located in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains, in the township of Sargents Purchase, Coös County, New Hampshire. While nearly the whole mountain is in the White Mountain National Forest, the Mount Washington Cog Railway ascends the western slope of the mountain, and the Mount Washington Auto Road climbs to the summit from the east. The mountain is popular with hikers, other common activities include glider flying, and annual cycle and running races such as the Auto Road Bicycle Hillclimb and Road Race. Before European settlers arrived in the region, the mountain was known by various peoples as Kodaak Wadjo or Agiochook or Agiocochook. The Algonquians called it Waumbik, white rocks, the first European to mention the mountain was Giovanni da Verrazzano. Viewing it from the Atlantic Ocean in 1524, he described what he saw as high interior mountains, darby Field claimed to have made the first ascent of Mt. Washington in 1642. A geology party, headed by Manasseh Cutler, named the mountain in 1784, the Crawford Path, the oldest mountain hiking trail in the United States, was laid out in 1819 as a bridle path from Crawford Notch to the summit and has been in use ever since. Ethan Allen Crawford built a house on the summit in 1821, little occurred on the summit itself until the mid-19th century, when it was developed into one of the first tourist destinations in the nation, with construction of more bridle paths and two hotels. The Summit House opened in 1852, a 64-foot-long stone hotel anchored by four heavy chains over its roof, in 1853, the Tip-Top House was erected to compete. Rebuilt of wood with 91 rooms in 1872–1873, the Summit House burned in 1908, the Tip-Top House alone survived the fire, today it is a state historic site, recently renovated for exhibits. Other Victorian era tourist attractions include a coach road —now the Mount Washington Auto Road—and the Mount Washington Cog Railway, for forty years, an intermittent daily newspaper, called Among the Clouds, was published by Henry M. Burt at the summit each summer, until 1917. CNL officials said they were directing their efforts against other hotels that use the mountains name, patent and Trademark Office seeks registration of the trademark Mount Washington for any retail service, any restaurant service, and any entertainment service. The summit station of Mount Washington has a climate or tundra climate, although it receives an extremely high amount of precipitation. Lower elevations have a subarctic climate, the weather of Mount Washington is notoriously erratic. This is partly due to the convergence of several tracks, mainly from the Atlantic to the south, the Gulf region. The vertical rise of the Presidential Range, combined with its north-south orientation, low-pressure areas are more favorable to develop along the coastline in the winter due to the relative temperature differences between the Northeastern United States and the Atlantic Ocean. With these factors combined, hurricane-force wind gusts are observed from the summit of the mountain on average of 110 days per year
28.
Cannon Mountain (New Hampshire)
–
Cannon Mountain is a 4, 080-foot peak in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. It is known for both its technical rock and ice climbing on its face and skiing at Cannon Mountain Ski Area. Until the formation collapsed on May 3,2003, it was home to the Old Man of the Mountain. Cannon has three sub-peaks with heights of 3,693,3,700, and 3,769 feet, geologically, it is an exfoliating granite dome. Part of the Kinsman Range, the mountain is located within Franconia Notch State Park, rock climbers were pioneering routes on Cannons cliffs in the 1920s. Its ski area is one of the oldest in North America, Trails had been cut on the mountain prior to 1933, but the mountain gained widespread recognition that year when the Taft Slalom was cut as the first racing trail in North America. The mountain gained lift service with the construction of the first aerial tramway in North America, a new tram was erected in 1980 with a vertical ascent of 2,022 feet and a capacity of 140 people, roughly three times larger than the original lift. The old tram base and summit-stations remain intact, and one of the old cabins serves as the entranceway to the New England Ski Museum, Cannon hosted the first Alpine Skiing World Cup races ever held in North America in 1967, with races being listed as occurring at Franconia. In 1972, the US Board on Geographic Names officially changed the name from Profile Mountain, before being called Profile Mountain, the mountain was also called Frank Mountain. On April 2,1973, the second strongest surface wind gust ever recorded in the United States of America was measured by University of Massachusetts Amherst researchers on the summit. Although wind velocity maxima were measured at 199.5 mph, this represents the physical limit of the recording instrument. Only the record value measured on nearby Mount Washington in 1934 exceeds this value in terms of American wind extrema, the summit of Cannon Mountain is home to a UHF amateur radio repeater on 449.875 MHz as well as two repeaters belonging to the ABC affiliate WMUR-TV. Cannon Mountain and its base area host a variety of year-round sports, tourists enjoy its beautiful scenery, an aerial tramway, summit restaurant, and museum on the history of skiing. A number of trails criss-cross Cannon Mountain and the surrounding region, the Mittersill-Cannon Trail, seasonally open from spring to fall, climbs to the summit area from the northwest, traversing Mittersill Peak on its climb. Both trails join the Rim Trail near the summit, which in turn climbs to the tower in a loop partially overlapped by the KRT. Lonesome Lake, on the side of the mountain, is a popular hiking destination and is the location of the Appalachian Mountain Club-maintained Lonesome Lake Hut. The Appalachian Trail passes Lonesome Lake but does not cross the summit of Cannon, the base of the cliff face can be approached via an ambiguous path up the right side of the talus field. At roughly 1,000 feet high and more than 1 mile long, according to a SummitPost description, Some of the aid lines are long and difficult enough to require a bivy, making Cannon the only Big Wall in the northeast
29.
Mountain pass
–
A mountain pass is a route through a mountain range or over a ridge. At lower elevations it may be called a hill pass, the highest vehicle-accessible pass in the world appears to be Mana Pass, located in the Himalayas on the border between India and China. Mountain passes make use of a gap, saddle or col, a topographic saddle is analogous to the mathematical concept of a saddle surface, with a saddle point marking the highest point between two valleys and the lowest point along a ridge. On a topographic map, passes are characterized by lines with an hourglass shape. Passes are often found just above the source of a river, a pass may be very short, consisting of steep slopes to the top of the pass, or may be a valley many kilometres long, whose highest point might only be identifiable by surveying. Roads have long been built – and more recently railways – through passes, some high and rugged passes may have tunnels bored underneath to allow faster traffic flow throughout the year. The top of a pass is frequently the only ground in the area. If a national border follows a mountain range, a pass over the mountains is typically on the border, and there may be a control or customs station. For instance Argentina and Chile share the worlds third-longest international border,5,300 kilometres long, the border runs north-south along the Andes mountains, with a total of 42 mountain passes. On a road over a pass, it is customary to have a roadside sign giving the name of the pass. As well as offering relatively easy travel between valleys, passes also provide a route between two mountain tops with a minimum of descent. As a result, it is common for tracks to meet at a pass, passes traditionally were places for trade routes, communications, cultural exchange, military expeditions etc. A typical example is the Brenner pass in the Alps, some mountain passes above the tree line have problems with snow drift in the winter. This might be alleviated by building the road a few meters above the ground, there are many words for pass in the English-speaking world. In the United States, pass is very common in the West, the gap is common in the southern Appalachians, notch in parts of New England. Scotland has the Gaelic term bealach, while Wales has the similar bwlch, the roads at Mana Pass at 5,610 metres and Marsimik La at 5,582 metres, on and near the China-India border respectively, appear to be worlds two highest motorable passes. Media related to Mountain passes at Wikimedia Commons
30.
Mount Madison
–
Mount Madison is a mountain in the Presidential Range of New Hampshire in the United States. It is named after the fourth U. S. President, mountains in the Presidential Range are named for U. S. presidents, with the tallest named for the first president, the second tallest for the second president, and so on. However, due to an error, Mt. Monroe, named after the fifth President. There are many hiking trails on the mountain, a stretch of the Appalachian Trail traverses just below its summit on the Osgood Trail. The Madison Spring Hut, maintained by the Appalachian Mountain Club, is nestled between Mount Madison and Mount Adams and provides rustic lodging in the summer, reservations generally need to be made far in advance. Mount Madison is the northernmost peak in the Presidentials, like most of the range, its summit is above treeline. Due to high winds and low temperatures, hypothermia is a danger even in the summer, four-thousand footers of New Hampshire Randolph Mountain Club Mt. Madison at summitpost. org Paintings of Mount Madison Hiking Mount Madison
31.
Mount Adams (New Hampshire)
–
Mount Adams, elevation 5,793 feet above sea level, is a mountain in New Hampshire, the second highest peak in the Northeast United States after its nearby neighbor, Mt. Washington. Located in the northern Presidential Range, Mount Adams was named after John Adams and it was given this name on July 31,1820. To the northeast is Mount Madison and to the southwest is Mount Jefferson, from the summit, Mount Washington can be seen directly to the south. There are two subsidiary peaks of Mt. The northern side of the ridge is located in Low and Burbanks Grant, and the end of Durand Ridge. The entire south side of the ridge is in Thompson. The Appalachian Trail traverses the col between Mount Adams and Mount Sam Adams on the Gulfside Trail, the Randolph Mountain Club maintains the trails and several huts and shelters high on Mount Adams north side, including The Perch, Crag Camp, The Log Cabin, and Gray Knob. A large network of hiking and climbing paths lead south to the huts, the Aetherius Society claims that Mount Adams is one of 19 holy mountains around the world. Mount Adams is a hiking and climbing destination for experienced. The mountain is climbed in all four seasons, although it is often climbed from late spring through early fall. The peak is known to have dangerously erratic weather, especially in winter, there is a prominent sign just prior to the most exposed section of Mount Adams urging hikers to turn around at the first sign of inclement weather. Winter hiking anywhere in the White Mountains requires specialized equipment and skills, high winds and low temperatures can combine to make winter conditions on Mount Adams approximately equal to the worst reported from Antarctica. There are numerous routes to the summit of Mount Adams. All routes are considered either Class 1 or Class 2, involve about 4 miles to 5 miles each way, one popular route on Adams year-round is the Valley Way, which connects with the Gulfside Trail and Lowes Path. The Air Line is considered the winter route on Mount Adams. The route gains about 4,500 feet in elevation over about 4.3 miles from trailhead to summit, the last 1,000 feet of this route are extremely exposed, leaving mountaineers vulnerable to the storms known to frequent mountains in the Presidential Range. Due to their proximity, Mount Adams and nearby Mount Madison are frequently climbed on the same day by mountaineers. A hike to both summits includes a trip of about 10.4 miles and cumulative elevation gain of more than 5,000 feet
32.
Mount Pierce (New Hampshire)
–
Mount Pierce is a mountain in the Presidential Range in the White Mountains of New Hampshire that is approximately 4,310 feet high. Its summit offers a view of New Hampshires mountains. The shortest trail route to the summit of Pierce is from a lot to the west of the mountain on Mount Clinton Road just off Route 302. The trail primarily follows the Crawford Path — the oldest continually used hiking trail in the United States, the Appalachian Trail and Webster Cliff Trail approach from Mount Jackson in the south and meet Crawford Path just north of the summit before continuing to the northeast. Mount Eisenhower and Mount Monroe lie on the ridge northeast of Mt. Pierce, all three of these peaks are included on the peak-bagging list of four-thousand footers in New Hampshire. AMC, Hiking Mount Pierce Summitpost. org, Mt. Pierce climbing info PeakBagger. com, Mt. Clinton Hike-NH. com, Mt. Pierce Trip Report Mt. Pierce - FranklinSites. com Hiking Guide
33.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
34.
The New York Times
–
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
35.
Hut
–
A hut is a primitive dwelling, which may be constructed of various local materials. A hut is a shape of a lower quality than a house, huts exist in practically all nomadic cultures. Some huts are transportable and can stand most conditions of weather, the designs in tropical and sub-tropical areas favour high airflow configurations built from non-conducting materials, which allow heat dissipation. The term house or home is considered by some to be more appropriate, in the Western world the word hut is often used for a wooden shed. The term has also adopted by climbers and backpackers to refer to a more solid. These vary from simple bothies – which are more than very basic shelters – to mountain huts that are far more luxurious. Apparently first in English as a military word, old Saxon hutta, Danish hytte, Swedish hytta, Frisian and Middle Dutch hutte, Dutch hut are from High German. Huts are used by shepherds when moving livestock between seasonal grazing areas such as mountainous and lowland pastures and they are also commonly used by backpackers and other travelers in rural areas. Some displaced populations of people use throughout the world during a diaspora. For example, temporary collectors in the agricultural workers at plantations in the Amazon jungle. Huts have been built for other than as a dwelling such as storage, workshops. Balok – A Siberian wilderness hut made of logs, usually communal, used by hunters, fishermen, some baloks are mobile and mounted on sleds. Bothy – Originally a one-room hut for men farm workers in the United Kingdom, burdei or bordei – a dugout or pit-house with a sod roof in Ukraine, Canada Cabana – an open shelter Chozo also spelled chozo – Spanish for hut, term also used in Mexico. Designed 1940 for barrack accommodation Lodge is a term for a hut or cabin such as a log cabin or cottage. Lodge is used to refer to a tipi, sweat lodge, and hunting, fishing, skiing, and safari lodge. Mitato – A small, dry stone hut in Greece Orri – A French dry stone, rondavel – Central and South Africa Sheiling – Originally a temporary shelter or hut for shepherds, now may be a stone building. Sod house – A pioneer house type on the American Plains where wood was scarce, construction often does not require specialized tools or knowledge. Hut is used to name commercial stores, companies, and concepts, the name implies a small, casual venue, often with a fun and friendly atmosphere
36.
Barabara
–
They lay partially underground like an earth lodge or pit-house, and most of the house was excavated from the dirt so as to withstand the high forces of wind in the Aleutian chain of islands. Barabaras are no longer used, as present-day Aleuts live in modern houses, the roof of a barabara was generally made from sod and grass layered over a frame of wood or whalebone, and contained a roof doorway for entry. Inside of the barabara was a room, and a secondary room used for parental purposes. The main room had two rows for cots, less-excavated and higher than the rest of the room, the bottom of the room had one or more holes for an inhouse. The entrance typically had a little wind envelope or Arctic entry to prevent cold wind, rain or snow from blowing into the main room, there was usually a small hole in the ceiling from which the smoke from the fire escaped. Qargi Quiggly hole Beard, D. C, new York, Charles Scribners Sons,1916. Alaskas Digital Archives, keyword search barabara
37.
Beehive house
–
A beehive house is a building made from a circle of stones topped with a domed roof. The name comes from the similarity in shape to a straw beehive, the ancient Bantu used this type of house, which was made with mud, poles, and cow dung. Early European settlers in the Karoo region of South Africa built similar structures known as corbelled houses. Beehive houses are some of the oldest known structures in Ireland and Scotland, dating from as far back as around 2000 BC and some were still being built as late as the 19th century in Apulia. Beehive tomb Clochán, Irish stone huts, often beehive shaped Dovecote also called doocot, buildings to house doves, some are beehive shaped, Musgum mud huts, huts of the Musgum people in Cameroon Nuraghe, large, round, neolithic, stone structures in Sardinia. Trullo, a southern Italian type of beehive house Media related to Beehive houses at Wikimedia Commons
38.
Bothy
–
A bothy is a basic shelter, usually left unlocked and available for anyone to use free of charge. It was also a term for basic accommodation, usually for gardeners or other workers on an estate, Bothies are to be found in remote, mountainous areas of Scotland, Northern England, Ireland and Wales. They are particularly common in the Scottish Highlands but related buildings can be found around the world, a bothy was also a semi-legal drinking den in the Isle of Lewis. These, such as Bothan Eòrapaidh, were used until recent years as gathering points for local men, the etymology of the word bothy is uncertain. Suggestions include a relation to both hut as in Irish bothán and Scottish Gaelic bothan or bothag, a corruption of the Welsh term bwthyn, also meaning small cottage, and a derivation from Norse būð, cognate with English booth with a diminutive ending. Most bothies are ruined buildings which have restored to a basic standard, providing a windproof. They vary in size from more than a large box up to two-storey cottages. They usually have designated sleeping areas, which commonly are either a room or a raised platform, thus allowing one to keep clear of cold air. No bedding, mattresses or blankets are provided, public access to bothies is either on foot, by bicycle or boat. Most bothies have a fireplace and are near a source of water. A spade may be provided to bury excrement, there are thousands of examples to draw from. A typical Scottish bothy is the Salmon Fishermans Bothy, Newtonhill, another Scottish example from the peak of the salmon fishing in the 1890s is the fishermans bothy at the mouth of the Burn of Muchalls. A further example is the Lairig Leacach Bothy in Lochaber, not far to the east of Fort William, the best-known estate bothy is the one in the Royal Gardens at Windsor Castle, which could house about 25 people. It was used by the gardeners and disabled ex-servicemen who worked on the estate. Most reasonably sized estates had a bothy, which housed single men only, in fact, if they got married, the most famous person to live in a bothy of this type was Percy Thrower when he worked in the Royal gardens. Another example of an estate bothy is the one at Horwood House, there is also one at Attingham Park which is being restored along with the walled gardens. Because they are available to all, the continued existence of bothies relies on users helping look after them. Report any damage to whoever maintains the bothy, take out all rubbish which you cant burn
39.
Burdei
–
A burdei or bordei is a type of half-dugout shelter, somewhat between a sod house and a log cabin. This style is native to the Carpathian Mountains and forest steppes of eastern Europe, in the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture burdei houses were characterized by elliptical shapes. These houses would typically have a floor that was about 1.5 meters below ground. The term used by historians, for burdei-type housing on the Lower Danube. Poluzemlianki is used by Russian researchers, the Russian term refers to a structure partially dug into the ground, often less than 1 m deep. The Grubenhaus was erected over a pit, ranging in size from four square meters to twenty-five square meters of floor area. During the 6th and 7th centuries the buildings east and south of the Carpathians, were under 15 square meters in floor surface. The experiments of the Archeological Open-Air Museum in Březno near Louny have reconstructed the living and temperature conditions in the dug houses. The building experiment consisted of two houses, which were replicas of two sunken buildings excavated on the site, one of the late sixth or early seventh century. The sixth- to seventh-century feature was large and deep. The excavation of the rectangular pit represented some fifteen cubic meters of earth, the excavation, as well as other, more complex, operations, such as binding horizontal sticks on the truss or felling and transport of trees, required a minimum of two persons. The building of the house took 860 hours, which included the felling of trees for rafters, building the actual house required 2.2 cubic meters of wood. In itself, the superstructure swallowed two cubic meters of wood, three to four cubic meters of clay were necessary for daubing the walls and reeds harvested from some 1,000 square meters, for the covering of the superstructure. Assuming sixty to seventy working hours per week and a lot more experience and skills for the early medieval builders, in countries like Romania, the burdei was built to constitute a permanent housing place and could accommodate a whole family. Thus, a Romanian burdei could have multiple rooms, typically a fire-room where the stove was installed, a cellar, and this type of shelter was created by many of the earliest Ukrainian Canadian settlers as their first home in Canada at the end of the 19th century. The first step was to back and save the sod. A poplar roof frame was created, over which the saved sod would be laid. Then a window, a door, a stove
40.
Bure (Fiji)
–
Bure is the Fijian word for a wood-and-straw hut, sometimes similar to a cabin. In its original sense, a bure is a built of anything that comes to hand. The components of a bure are either stacked together, tied together by rope, traditionally, ethnic Fijians lived in two types of houses, a vale was the family house, while mens houses were known as bures. Both of these buildings were dark and smoky inside, with no windows, vales had hearth pits where the women cooked, and the packed earth floor was covered with grass or fern leaves and then carpeted with pandanus leaf or coarse coconut leaf. History says that the Bure were been founded by Human Bodies and Sculptures, tradition lived on that a particular clan from a village were destined for this ritual. Especially in the Fijian tourism industry and its advertisements, the term bure is often synonymous with bungalow or any other detached hotel or resort structure. While a traditional bure has neither plumbing nor any amenities, and usually no electricity, a tourism bure can range from fairly basic to extremely luxurious
41.
Cleit
–
A cleit is a stone storage hut or bothy, uniquely found on the isles and stacs of St Kilda, whilst many are still to be found, they are slowly falling into disrepair. There are known to be 1,260 cleitean on Hirta, the outlying island of Boreray has the Cleitean MacPhàidein, a cleit village of three small bothies used on a regular basis during fowling expeditions from Hirta. As a result of an outbreak on Hirta in 1727. Crabs, fieldmice, Horniegolachs, creeping and crawling things seek shelter in the cleits, abandoned cottages, occasionally the entrance is found in a side wall. Examples also exist of cleitean built perpendicularly to the direction of the slope, in order to be able to withstand any downward thrust, the end facing downhill is normally built in the shape of an apse with a strong support. Entrances are very rarely placed in the end, in order not to compromise its strength. Whilst she was kidnapped by her husband James Erskine, Lord Grange in the 1730s, Rachel Chiesley, Lady Grange was forced for some time to live in a cleit at Hirta, the cleit in the Village meadows is said to resemble a giant Christmas pudding. Some authorities believe that it was rebuilt on the site of a larger blackhouse where she lived during her incarceration. In 1838 the grandson of a St Kildan who had assisted her quoted the dimensions as being 20 feet by 10 feet, which is a common size for a cleit
42.
Dugout (shelter)
–
A dugout or dug-out, also known as a pit-house, earth lodge, is a shelter for humans or domesticated animals and livestock based on a hole or depression dug into the ground. Dugouts can be recessed into the earth, with a flat roof covered by ground. They can also be semi-recessed, with a wood or sod roof standing out. These structures are one of the most ancient types of housing known to archeologists. Dugouts may also be temporary shelters constructed as an aid to specific activities, e. g. concealment, first driven underground by enemies who invaded their country, the Berbers of Matmâta found underground homes the best defense against summer heat. Burra in South Australias Mid-North region was the site of the famous Monster Mine, census data from 1851 shows that nearly 80 percent of the workers living in the dugouts were miners, with probably the majority being Cornish. Floods and the Victorian gold rush ended the large scale use of dugouts in Burra. Coober Pedy is a small town in northern South Australia,846 kilometres north of Adelaide on the Stuart Highway. Most residents live in caves excavated into the hillsides to avoid the summer temperatures. White Cliffs, New South Wales is similar, in terms of climate, housing, in north China, especially on the Loess Plateau, caves called yaodongs dug into hillsides have been the traditional dwellings from early times. The advantage of a yaodong over a house is that it needs little heating in winter. An estimated 40 million people in northern China live in a yaodong, many people live in semi-recessed dugout houses in north-western China where hot summer and cold winters prevail. In the Early Jōmon period of Japanese pre-history complex pit houses were the most commonly used method of housing at the time, the well-preserved cave towns of Crimea are Mangup-Kale, Eski-Kermen, Inkerman and Chufut-Kale. The settlement of Mangup-Kale dates back to the 3rd century AD and was fortified by Justinian I in the mid 6th century and it was inhabited and governed primarily by Crimean Goths, and became the center of their autonomous principality. The last inhabitants, a community of Karaims, abandoned the site in the 1790s. In Iceland, since time immemorial and well into the 20th century, most houses were dug down, with turf or sod walls built up and roofs made of timber. Turf was used because timber was scarce and expensive, and stone not practical before the advent of concrete, Matera has gained international fame for its ancient town, the Sassi di Matera, which is UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993. The Sassi are houses dug into the rock itself, known locally as Tufo
43.
Earth lodge
–
An earth lodge is a semi-subterranean building covered partially or completely with earth, best known from the Native American cultures of the Great Plains and Eastern Woodlands. Most earth lodges are circular in construction with a dome-like roof, earth lodges were typically constructed using the wattle and daub technique, with a thick coating of earth. The dome-like shape of the lodge was achieved by the use of angled tree trunks. During construction the workers would dig an area a few feet beneath the surface and they set posts into holes in the ground around the edges of the earth lodge, and made the tops meet in the middle. This construction technique is sturdy and can produce large buildings, in more than one family would live. Their size is limited by the length of tree trunks. Internal vertical support posts were used to give additional structural support to the roof rafters. After a strong layer of sticks was wrapped through and over the roof timbers. The structure was entirely covered in earth. The earth layer provided insulation against the extreme temperatures of the Plains, the structures consisted of a clay outer shell over an inner shell of long grasses and a woven willow ceiling. The middle of the lodge was used as a fire pit. This smoke hole was covered by a bullboat during inclement weather. Logs were gathered each spring as the ice receded and sheared them off, the most common wood used was cottonwood. Cottonwood was a wet, soft wood, this meant that lodges often required rebuilding every six to eight years, men only raised the large logs, the rest of the work was done by women. Therefore, a lodge was considered to be owned by the woman who built it, a vestibule of exposed logs marked the entrance and provided an entryway, these vestibules were often a minimum of 6 to 9 feet in length. A windbreak was built on the interior of the lodge, blocking the wind, earth lodges often also contained cache pits lined with willow and grasses, within which dried vegetables were stored. Earth lodges were built alongside tribal farm fields, alternating with tipis. A reconstructed earth lodge can be seen at the Glenwood, Iowas Lake Park, a village entirely made up of earth-lodges may be seen at New Town, North Dakota
44.
Goahti
–
A goahti, is a Sami hut or tent of three types of covering, fabric, peat moss or timber. The fabric-covered goahti looks very similar to a Sami lavvu, in its tent version the goahti is also called a curved pole lavvu, or a bread box lavvu as the shape is more elongated while the lavvu is in a circular shape. The interior construction of the poles is thus, 1) four curved poles, 2) one straight center pole, all the pole sizes can vary considerably. The four curved poles curve to about a 130° angle, two of these poles have a hole drilled into them at one end, with those ends being joined together by the long center pole that is inserted by the described poles. The other two curved poles are also joined at the end of the long pole. When this structure is set up, a stand is formed with the long pole at the top. With the four-legged structure standing up to five to eight feet in height. The goahti covering, today made usually of canvas, is laid up against the structure, there can be more than one covering that covers the structure. The differences between the goahti and the lavvu can be seen looking at the top of structures. A lavvu will have its poles coming together, while the goahti will have its poles separate, the turf version of the goahti will have the canvas replaced with wood resting on the structure covered with birch bark then peat to provide a durable construction. Traditionally, the Sami transported the whole disassembled structure by having their domesticated reindeer being used as an animal to carry or drag the poles while following their reindeer herd. Today, because of the size of the curved poles. When following their tradition, the Sami more often use the Sami lavvu for their camping structure. In the coastal areas the more resident coastal Sami used the peat goahti as a human living. Lapp Life and Customs, A Survey
45.
Hogan
–
A hogan is the primary, traditional dwelling of the Navajo people. Other traditional structures include the summer shelter, the home. Today, while some older hogans are now used as dwellings and others are maintained for ceremonial purposes. Traditional structured hogans are also considered pioneers of energy efficient homes, using packed mud against the entire wood structure, the home was kept cool by natural air ventilation and water sprinkled on the dirt ground inside. During the winter, the fireplace kept the inside warm for a period of time. This concept is called thermal mass, with government and lender requirements requiring low costs, as well as bathrooms and kitchens, the hogan as a persons home was dwindling away, save for those who could build their own. That began to change in the late 1990s with various small projects to find ways to bring the hogan back. While keeping the space of the hogan relatively untouched, and also meeting the requirements for modern home amenities. Along with assuring the survival of a heritage, this project has also created new jobs, summer school construction experience for Navajo teens, public buildings. These terms are possible Native American sources of the current term hogan, hooghan in Navajo gowąh guughą or kuughą Wigwam Earth lodge Media related to Hogans at Wikimedia Commons
46.
Humpy
–
A humpy or gunyah was a small, temporary shelter made from bark and tree branches, traditionally used by Australian Aboriginals, with a standing tree usually used as the main support. The word humpy comes from the Jagera language, other groups would have different names for the structure. Both names were adopted by white settlers, and now form part of the Australian lexicon. Small impermanent dwellings made of branches and bark were built prior to the construction of permanent buildings. It is sometimes called a lean-to, since it can rely on the tree for support, in South Australia, such a shelter is known as a wurley, possibly from the Kaurna language. Hogan Igloo Longhouse Yurt State Library of Victoria photo of Aboriginal people and humpy article on early white settlers making humpies
