1.
Gillingham, Kent
–
Gillingham /ˈdʒɪlɪŋəm/ is a town in the county of Kent in South East England. For local government purposes it is also in the authority of Medway. The town includes the settlements of Brompton, Hempstead, Wigmore, Parkwood, Rainham, Rainham Mark, Gillingham means a homestead of Gyllas family, from Old English ham and ingas, and was first recorded in the 10th century as Gyllingeham. Also referred to in old texts as Jillyingham Water, hence the pronunciation being Gillingham, Gillingham became an urban district under the Local Government Act 1894, gaining municipal borough status in 1903. John Robert Featherby was the first mayor of the Borough of Gillingham, in 1928 Rainham was added to the Gillingham Borough. Under the Local Government Act 1972 it became a non-metropolitan district and it merged with the other Medway Towns in 1998 under the 1990s UK local government reform, to become part of the Medway unitary authority. The Municipal Buildings in Canterbury Street were built as offices for Gillingham Borough Council. They were opened by the Lord Mayor of London, Sir George Broadbridge, the Lord Mayor was received at Gillingham Railway Station by a guard of honour of boys of HMS Arethusa. Before the Second World War, air raid sirens were placed on the Municipal Buildings, in about 1953, Gillingham Borough Control was built underground, beneath part of the car park. Medway Council then moved into the former Lloyds of London headquarters at Chatham Gun Wharf, and they were sold off in 2008 under a contract which turned them into a residential care home. The town grew along the road from Brompton on the great lines, as such it was a linear development. Close by was the road along the line, linking The Strand. Later, communiites developed along the top road- Watling street – turnpike linking Chatham with Dover, all these communities merged into the town that is called today Gillingham. Gillingham experiences a climate similar to almost all of the United Kingdom. Due to its southerly, sheltered, marine position near the European continent the climate is among the warmest in the whole of England, the name Gillingham is recorded in the Domesday book of 1086. It is said to have named after a warlord, Gyllingas—from the old English gyllan. He was a man in Kent history as he led his warriors into battle screaming and shouting. At the time of the Norman Conquest, Gillingham was a small hamlet, Gillingham itself, at the time, was a small hamlet, built around the parish church and surrounded by large farm-holdings, of which St
2.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
3.
Street or road name
–
A street or road name or odonym is an identifying name given to a street. The street name usually forms part of the address, buildings are often given numbers along the street to further help identify them. Names are often given in a form, an individual name known as the specific. Examples are Main Road, Fleet Street and Park Avenue, the type of street stated, however, can sometimes be misleading, a street named Park Avenue need not have the characteristics of an avenue in the generic sense. Some street names have only one element, such as Broadway, The Mall, a street name can also include a direction especially in cities with a grid-numbering system. Examples include E Roosevelt Boulevard and 14th Street NW and these directions are often used to differentiate two sections of a street. Other qualifiers may be used for purpose as well. Examples, upper/lower, old/new, or adding extension, Main Street and High Street are common names for the major street in the middle of a shopping area in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively. The most common name in the US is 2nd or Second. The etymology of a name is sometimes very obvious. In the United States, most streets are named after numbers, landscapes, trees, Some streets, such as Elm Street in East Machias, Maine, have been renamed due to features changing. Elm Streets new name, Jacksonville Road, was chosen because it leads to the village of Jacksonville and its former name was chosen because of elm trees, it was renamed when all of the trees along the street succumbed to Dutch elm disease. The Shambles, derived from the Anglo-Saxon term fleshammels, is a street name which still exists in various cities. The best-known example is in York, the unusual etymologies of quite a few street names in the United Kingdom are documented in Rude Britain, complete with photographs of local signage. In the past, many streets were named for the type of commerce or industry found there and this rarely happens in modern times, but many such older names are still common. Examples are Londons Haymarket, Barcelonas Carrer de Moles, where the used to have their shops. Some streets are named for landmarks that were in the street, or nearby, such names are often retained after the landmark disappears. Barcelonas La Rambla is officially a series of streets, only the convent of Santa Monica survives as a building, and it has been converted to a museum
4.
Business
–
A business is an organizational entity involved in the provision of goods and services to consumers. Businesses may also be social non-profit enterprises or state-owned public enterprises operated by governments with specific social, a business owned by multiple private individuals may form as an incorporated company or jointly organise as a partnership. Countries have different laws that may ascribe different rights to the business entities. The word business can refer to an organization or to an entire market sector or to the sum of all economic activity. Compound forms such as agribusiness represent subsets of the broader meaning. Businesses aim to maximize sales to have their income exceed their expenditures, resulting in a profit, the owner operates the business alone and may hire employees. A sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, partnership, A partnership is a business owned by two or more people. In most forms of partnerships, each partner has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business, the three most prevalent types of for-profit partnerships are, general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships. Corporation, The owners of a corporation have limited liability and the business has a legal personality from its owners. Corporations can be either government-owned or privately owned and they can organize either for profit or as nonprofit organizations. A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, a privately owned, for-profit corporation can be either privately held by a small group of individuals, or publicly held, with publicly traded shares listed on a stock exchange. Cooperative, Often referred to as a co-op, a cooperative is a limited-liability business that can organize as for-profit or not-for-profit, a cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority. Cooperatives are typically classified as either consumer cooperatives or worker cooperatives, cooperatives are fundamental to the ideology of economic democracy. In contrast, unincorporated businesses or persons working on their own are not as protected. Franchises, A franchise is a system in which entrepreneurs purchase the rights to open, franchising in the United States is widespread and is a major economic powerhouse. One out of retail businesses in the United States are franchised and 8 million people are employed in a franchised business. Real estate businesses sell, invest, construct and develop properties – including land, residential homes, retailers, wholesalers, and distributors act as middlemen and get goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumers, they make their profits by marking up their prices. Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers, transportation businesses such as railways, airlines, shipping companies that deliver goods and individuals to their destinations for a fee
5.
Town
–
A town is a human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size definition for what constitutes a town varies considerably in different parts of the world, the word town shares an origin with the German word Zaun, the Dutch word tuin, and the Old Norse tun. The German word Zaun comes closest to the meaning of the word. An early borrowing from Celtic *dunom, in English and Dutch, the meaning of the word took on the sense of the space which these fences enclosed. In England, a town was a community that could not afford or was not allowed to build walls or other larger fortifications. In the Netherlands, this space was a garden, more specifically those of the wealthy, in Old Norse tun means a place between farmhouses, and is still used in a similar meaning in modern Norwegian. If there was any distinction between toun and burgh as claimed by some, it did not last in practice as burghs, for example, Edina Burgh or Edinburgh was built around a fort and eventually came to have a defensive wall. In some cases, town is a name for city or village. Sometimes, the town is short for township. A places population size is not a determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, as in India at least until recent times, in the United Kingdom, there are historical cities that are far smaller than the larger towns. Some forms of settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural. Towns often exist as governmental units, with legally defined borders. In the United States these are referred to as incorporated towns, in other cases the town lacks its own governance and is said to be unincorporated. Note that the existence of a town may be legally set forth through other means. In the case of planned communities, the town exists legally in the form of covenants on the properties within the town. Australian geographer Thomas Griffith Taylor proposed a classification of towns based on their age, although there is no official use of the term for any settlement. In Albanian qytezë means small city or new city, while in ancient times small residential center within the walls of a castle
6.
City
–
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
7.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
8.
Commonwealth of Nations
–
The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 52 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth dates back to the century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the states as free. The symbol of free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth, the other Commonwealth members have different heads of state,31 members are republics and five are monarchies with a different monarch. Member states have no obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their values of democracy, free speech, human rights. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games, the Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050 km2, 20% of the worlds land area, and spans all six inhabited continents. She declared, So, it marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. As long ago as 1884, however, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, had described the changing British Empire—as some of its colonies became more independent—as a Commonwealth of Nations. Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, the Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively, after World War II ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, there remain the 14 British overseas territories still held by the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word British was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature, burma and Aden are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Hoped for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four minute mile in 1954, however, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt morale of Britain and the Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a role of the British Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britains withdrawal from Greece in 1947 painfully demonstrated, Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military alliance in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada
9.
Retail
–
Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Retailing involves the process of selling goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand is identified through a supply chain, Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation. In the digital age, a number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels. Digital technologies are changing the way that consumers pay for goods. Retailing support services may include the provision of credit, delivery services. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products, sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing, sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing, it not always result in a purchase. Retail shops occur in a range of types and in many different contexts - from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only, forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing and mail order. Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means to cut off, clip, pare and it was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a sale in small quantities in 1433. Like in French, the retail in both Dutch and German also refers to the sale of small quantities of items. Also see History of merchants, History of the market place, open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria. These markets typically occupied a place in the towns centre, surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling, merchants or peddlers, the Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit, the Phoenicians extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed an alphabet which was much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt
10.
City centre
–
A city centre is the commercial, cultural and often the historical, political and geographic heart of a city. The term city centre is not usually used in American English, rather, in North America, the city centre is the area of a city where commerce, entertainment, shopping and political power are concentrated. The term is used in many English-speaking countries and has direct equivalents in many other languages. However, noticeably, in the United States, the downtown is commonly used to denote a city centre. In Australia, the term Central Business District is widely used to refer to the city centre, in many cities, the Central Business District is within the city centre, but the concept city centre differs from the CBD. The concept of the CBD revolves solely around economic and financial power, a clear example is Paris, La Défense is the central business district of Paris, but it is not the city centre. In most larger and/or older cities, the CBD and the city centre will only partially overlap, a city centre is often the first settled part of a city, which can make it the most historical part of a city. However, in some Australian cities, the city centre and the CBD are geographically separately identified, in Sydney and Brisbane, for example, the term CBD is the preferred term for the city centre. In Adelaide, by contrast, the city centre is preferred. The term CBD is not often used in Canberra, its city centre is usually identified as the district called City or Civic, in Dutch, the terms binnenstad, centrum, stadscentrum or stadskern are used to describe the city centre. Amsterdam is an example of the city centre and the central business district not being the same area. The city centre of Amsterdam is Centrum, the heart of the city. Because of the bombardment of Rotterdam during World War II, with the loss of its core, the city centre. In Chinese, the centre of a city is called the city centre or urban core. In many cities, it is the city centre and the cultural and commercial centre. Historically, the CBD often occupied one portion of the city centre, in recent years, larger cities have often developed CBDs or financial districts that occupy a part of the city centre or are outside the historical city centre completely
11.
Linear settlement
–
In geography, a linear settlement is a settlement or group of buildings that is formed in a long line. Many follow a route, such as a road, river, or canal though some form due to physical restrictions, such as coastlines, mountains, hills or valleys, as in the case of Victoria. Linear settlements may have no centre, such as a road junction or green. Linear settlements have a long and narrow shape, in the case of settlements built along a route, the route probably predated the settlement, and then the settlement grew up at some way station or feature, growing along the transport route. Often, it is only a street with houses on either side of the road. Mileham, Norfolk, England is an example of this. Later development may add side turnings and districts away from the main street. Places such as Southport, England developed in this way, a linear settlement is in contrast with ribbon development, which is the outward spread of an existing town along a main street. A linear village or a village is a village that is also a linear settlement. Reihendorf Linear city Outlane - a linear village
12.
Main Street
–
Main Street is a generic phrase used to denote a primary retail street of a village, town or small city in many parts of the world. It is usually a point for shops and retailers in the central business district. The term is used in Ireland, Scotland, the United States, Canada. In most of the United Kingdom the common description is High Street though Fore Street or Front Street is commonplace in some regions, in Jamaica the term is Front Street. The Main Street of America branding was used to promote U. S. Route 66 in its heyday, in the general sense, the term Main Street refers to a place of traditional values. Social realists from 1870 to 1930 used the name as a symbol of stifling conformity, sherwood Anderson, for example, wrote Winesburg, Ohio, A Group of Tales of Ohio Small Town Life in 1919. The best-selling 1920 novel Main Street was a critique of small town life, the locale was Gopher Prairie, presented as an ideal type of the Midwestern town, and the heroine, Carol Kennicott, was a more urbane, ideal-typical Progressive. Thus, in the 1949 movie adaptation of On The Town, Main Street Republicans, for example, see themselves as supporting those values as against urbane or Wall Street tendencies. Main Street is part of the iconography of American life, for example, the Army and Air Force Exchange Service, the outfit that operates the PX and BX stores on military bases, chose the name Main Street USA for its food courts. Main Street was a popular term during the crises in 2008 and 2009, the proposed bailout of U. S. financial system, the 2008 US presidential campaign. One widely reviewed book was Bailout, An Inside Account of How Washington Abandoned Main Street While Rescuing Wall Street by Neil Barofsky, a slang term popularized in the early 20th century, main drag, is also used to refer to a towns main street. These areas, which are designed to look like the street of a small town, house gift shops, restaurants and various services. While the architecture of these appears to be turn-of-the-20th-century, in fact these are decorative false-fronts on industrial-style buildings. Main Street, U. S. A. is also present at Disneyland Paris, at Tokyo Disneyland the area is named World Bazaar, but has the same look as Main Street, albeit housed under a decorative glass roof for protection from Japans unpredictable weather. Disneys design copied visual elements of small-town America seen in films by Frank Capra and others, disney wanted to embed the values and memories associated with life in small towns into an entertainment experience for tourists. Main Street Inc. is the name of a community revitalization program begun by the National Trust for Historic Preservation in the late 1970s, the core of the Main Street philosophy is the preservation of the historic built environment by engaging in historic preservation. Main Street focuses on an approach to revitalization based on the 4-point approach of design, promotion, economic restructuring. Originally targeted at small, traditional downtowns, the program has expanded to include towns of various sizes, in many communities, a merchants association or business improvement district serves a promotional role on behalf of the merchants of a downtown Main Street
13.
Holsworthy, Devon
–
Holsworthy is a small market town and civil parish in the local government district of Torridge, Devon, England. The county town of Exeter is 36.4 miles to the east, the river Deer, a tributary of the river Tamar, forms the western boundary of the parish, which includes the village of Brandis Corner. Holsworthy is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Haldeword and it was part of the Hundred of Black Torrington. According to the 2011 census the population of Holsworthy was 2,641, the original meaning of Holsworthy is probably Healds enclosure. Derived from the Old English personal name Heald or Healda, plus -worthig, an alternative possibility is from Old English heald meaning incline or slope. In 1086 the name was recorded as Haldeword and as Haldeurdi, other recorded spellings are Haldwwurth 1228, Halleswrthia -worth -wordi late 12th-1291, Haldeswrthy -wrthi -worth 1277–1389, Holdesworthe 1308, Healdesworthe c. In 1066 the lord of the manor was Earl Harold and in 1066 it was William I and it was given by Henry II to Fulk Paganell. He gave it, with his daughter Gundred, to Matthew del Jartye and their daughter and heiress brought it to Chaworth. Henry de Tracey purchased it from Chaworth, and it descended to the family of Martyn. From them it passed by marriage to the lords Audley, King Edward III granted it to his son, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster. John Holland, Duke of Exeter, possessed it by a grant from the Crown, in 1621 Sir John Speccot of Speccot in the parish of Merton, Devon, Sheriff of Cornwall in 1622, was lord of the manor. After that it was purchased by the Prideaux family of Soldon, in about 1713, the manor of Holsworthy was sold by Prideaux to Thomas Pitt, 1st Earl of Londonderry, from whom it descended to Earl Stanhope. In 1932 Holsworthy Urban District Council purchased the rights from Lord Stanhope. Holsworthy was part the Hundred of Black Torrington, in 1614 King James I granted a charter for an annual fair to be held in Holsworthy. During the English Civil War Holsworthy was held by Royalists forces until, on 17 February 1646, Sir Thomas Fairfax, after his victory at Torrington, sent a party to take possession of the town. In the Second World War, Prisoner of War Camp No.42 was located north of the town, german and Italian prisoners held there were employed as farm labourers. Soldon, Holsworthy, long a seat of a branch of the Prideaux family, the earliest form of governance recorded for Holsworthy is that of a Court Leet. A charter, dated 1154, granted a Chartered Court Leet of the Ancient Manor of Holsworthy, the court leet was one of the highest and oldest tribunals of English common law and was presided over by the Portreeve
14.
Devon
–
Devon, also known as Devonshire, which was formerly its common and official name, is a county of England, reaching from the Bristol Channel in the north to the English Channel in the south. It is part of South West England, bounded by Cornwall to the west, Somerset to the northeast, combined as a ceremonial county, Devons area is 6,707 km2 and its population is about 1.1 million. Devon derives its name from Dumnonia, which, during the British Iron Age, Roman Britain, the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the Kingdom of Wessex during the eighth and ninth centuries. The western boundary with Cornwall was set at the River Tamar by King Æthelstan in 936, Devon was constituted as a shire of the Kingdom of England thereafter. The north and south coasts of Devon each have both cliffs and sandy shores, and the bays contain seaside resorts, fishing towns. The inland terrain is rural, generally hilly, and has a low density in comparison to many other parts of England. Dartmoor is the largest open space in southern England at 954 km2, to the north of Dartmoor are the Culm Measures and Exmoor. In the valleys and lowlands of south and east Devon the soil is fertile, drained by rivers including the Exe, the Culm, the Teign, the Dart. As well as agriculture, much of the economy of Devon is linked with tourism, in the Brittonic, Devon is known as Welsh, Dyfnaint, Breton, Devnent and Cornish, Dewnens, each meaning deep valleys. One erroneous theory is that the suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire. However, there are references to Defenascire in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 AD, the term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from Dumnonia to Defenascir. Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30–40,000 years ago, Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under occupation for around 350 years. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was absorbed into Wessex by the mid 9th century. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited rather than a movement of people. The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD, the arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times, Devons tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devons Stannary Parliament, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748, agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century
15.
Orpington
–
Orpington is a town and electoral ward in the London Borough of Bromley in Greater London and lies at the south-eastern edge of Londons urban sprawl. It is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London, before the creation of Greater London in 1965 Orpington was in the county of Kent. Kent also remained the county for Orpington after this time. Stone Age tools have been found in areas of Orpington, including Goddington Park, Priory Gardens, the Ramsden estate. Early Bronze Age pottery fragments have been found in the Park Avenue area, during the building of Ramsden Boys School in 1956, the remains of an Iron Age farmstead were excavated. The area was occupied in Roman times, as shown by Crofton Roman Villa, during the Anglo-Saxon period, Fordcroft Anglo-Saxon cemetery was used in the area. The first record of the name Orpington occurs in 1038, when King Cnuts treasurer Eadsy gave land at Orpedingetune to the Monastery of Christ Church at Canterbury, the parish church also pre-dates the Domesday Book. On 22 July 1573, Queen Elizabeth I was entertained at Bark Hart and her horses stabled at the Anchor, on the southern edge of Orpington, Green St Green is recorded as Grenstretre, which means a road covered with grass. It is known in the 1800s as Greenstead Green, until the railway came, the local commercial centre was nearby St Mary Cray, rather than Orpington. St Mary Cray had a market, and industry, whereas Orpington was just a small country village surrounded by soft fruit farms. These crops attracted Romani people, working as itinerant pickers, to camps in local meadows. This work has largely ended, but the Borough still provides a permanent site at Star Lane, Orpington has been part of the London Borough of Bromley since the 1st of April 1965, previous to this Orpingtons local government was the Orpington Urban District. Orpington forms part of the Orpington and the current MP is Jo Johnson who has held the seat since 2010, james Cleverly is the London Assembly member for the Bexley and Bromley constituency in which Orpington is located. Orpingtons mayor is Councillor Ian Payne due to Orpington being a part of the London Borough of Bromley,2011 census data reports that the population of Orpington is 15,311 with 52% being female leaving 48% male. The average age is 42, slightly above the average age of 40. 86% of Orpingtons population was born in England, second is Scotland with 1. 1%,95. 1% of Orpingtons population speak English, second is all other Chinese with just 0. 4%. Christianity is the prominent religion in Orpington with 63. 1% of the population identifying as Christian, no religion was second with 24. 4%, notably 45 people identify as Jedi Knight and 5 Heavy Metal as their religion. 51. 1% of the population is married,23. 8% are single,8. 2% cohabit with a partner of the opposite sex and 0. 5% cohabit with a partner of the same sex
16.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
17.
Middle English
–
This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the High to the Late Middle Ages. Middle English developed out of Late Old English, seeing many dramatic changes in its grammar, pronunciation and this largely forms the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by the era of Early Modern English, by that time, a variant of the Northumbrian dialect was developing into the Scots language. During the Middle English period many Old English grammatical features were simplified or disappeared, noun, adjective and verb inflections were simplified, a process that included the reduction of most grammatical case distinctions. Middle English also saw an adoption of Norman French vocabulary, especially in areas such as politics, law. Everyday English vocabulary remained mostly Germanic, with Old Norse influence becoming apparent, significant changes in pronunciation took place, especially for long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift. Little survives of early Middle English literature, most likely due to the Norman domination, poets wrote both in the vernacular and courtly English. It is popularly believed that William Shakespeare wrote in Middle English, the latter part of the 11th century was a period of transition from Late Old English to Early Middle English. The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a synthetic language towards a more analytic or isolating word order and it was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss, there was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength. The change to Old English from Old Norse was substantive, pervasive and it is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw these endings must have led to confusion, tending gradually to become obscured. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in simplifying English grammar. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the cultures that arose in the 12th century. Sometimes, and particularly later, words were taken from Latin, giving such sets as kingly, later French borrowings came from standard rather than Norman French, this leads to such cognate pairs as warden, guardian. The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not, of course, change the language immediately, the general population would have spoken the same dialects as before the Conquest, these changed slowly until written records of them became available for study, which varies in different regions. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, Early Middle English has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, but a greatly simplified inflectional system
18.
High sheriff
–
The office existed in what is now the Republic of Ireland but was abolished there in 1926. In England and Wales, the term High Sheriff arose to distinguish sheriffs of counties proper from sheriffs of cities and boroughs designated counties-of-themselves but not counties properly speaking. These cities and boroughs no longer have sheriffs except for the City of London, in England and Wales the offices civil enforcement powers exist but are not exercised by convention. The office was termed that of sheriff until 1 April 1974, except in the City of London and their jurisdictions, the shrieval counties, are no longer co-terminous with administrative areas, representing a mix between the ancient counties and more recent local authority areas. The post contrasts with that of sheriff in Scotland, who is a sitting in a sheriff court. The word sheriff is a contraction of the shire reeve. The term, from the Old English scīrgerefa, designated an official responsible for keeping the peace throughout a shire or county on behalf of the king. The term was preserved in England notwithstanding the Norman Conquest, the office of sheriff had its origins in the 10th century, the office reached the height of its power under the Norman kings. While the sheriffs originally had been men of standing at court. The Provisions of Oxford established a yearly tenure of office, the appointments and duties of the sheriffs in England and Wales were redefined by the Sheriffs Act 1887. Under the provisions of the Local Government Act 1972, on 1 April 1974 the office previously known as sheriff was retitled high sheriff, the serving high sheriff submits a list of names of possible future high sheriffs to a tribunal which chooses three names to put to the Sovereign. The nomination is made on 12 November every year and the term of office runs from 25 March, no person may be appointed twice in three years, unless there is no other suitable person in the county. These officers nominate three candidates for each county in England and Wales, which are enrolled on a parchment by the Queens Remembrancer, the practice of pricking is an ancient custom used to appoint the high sheriffs of England and Wales. In February or March of each year, two parchments prepared the previous November are presented to the Sovereign at a meeting of the Privy Council, a further parchment is drawn up in November for Cornwall and presented to the Duke of Cornwall. Certain eligible persons nominate candidates for each county shrievalty, one of whom is chosen for each by the Sovereign. In practice, the first name on the list is always the one chosen. The Sovereign signifies assent by pricking the document with a silver bodkin by the relevant name for each county, the parchment for the Duchy of Lancaster is known as the Lites, and the ceremony of selection known as Pricking the Lites. The term lites, meaning list, was reserved for Yorkshire
19.
Lord High Chancellor
–
The Lord Chancellor, formally the Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, is a senior functionary in the government of the United Kingdom. They are appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister, the Lord Chancellor is the second highest ranking of the Great Officers of State, ranking after only the Lord High Steward. Prior to the Union there were separate Lords Chancellor for England and Wales, the Lord Chancellor is a member of the Cabinet and, by law, is responsible for the efficient functioning and independence of the courts. In 2007 there were a number of changes to the legal system, the current Lord Chancellor is Elizabeth Truss, who is also Secretary of State for Justice. One of the Lord Chancellors responsibilities is to act as the custodian of the Great Seal of the Realm, a Lord Keeper of the Great Seal may be appointed instead of a Lord Chancellor. The two offices entail exactly the same duties, the distinction is in the mode of appointment. The seal is then said to be in commission, since the 19th century, however, only Lord Chancellors have been appointed, the other offices having fallen into disuse. The office of Lord Chancellor of England may trace its origins to the Carolingian monarchy, in England, the office dates at least as far back as the Norman Conquest, and possibly earlier. Some give the first Chancellor of England as Angmendus, in 605, other sources suggest that the first to appoint a Chancellor was Edward the Confessor, who is said to have adopted the practice of sealing documents instead of personally signing them. A clerk of Edwards, Regenbald, was named chancellor in some documents from Edwards reign, in any event, the office has been continuously occupied since the Norman Conquest. The chancellor headed the office or chancery. Formerly, the Lord Chancellor was almost always a churchman, as during the Middle Ages the clergy were amongst the few men of the realm. The Lord Chancellor performed multiple functions—he was the Keeper of the Great Seal, the royal chaplain. Thus, the position emerged as one of the most important ones in government and he was only outranked in government by the Justiciar. As one of the Kings ministers, the Lord Chancellor attended the curia regis or Royal Court, if a bishop, the Lord Chancellor received a writ of summons, if an ecclesiastic of a lower degree or, if a layman, he attended without any summons. The curia regis would later evolve into Parliament, the Lord Chancellor becoming the prolocutor of its upper house, as was confirmed by a statute passed during the reign of Henry VIII, a Lord Chancellor could preside over the House of Lords even if not a Lord himself. The Lord Chancellors judicial duties also evolved through his role in the curia regis, petitions for justice were normally addressed to the King and the curia, but in 1280, Edward I instructed his justices to examine and deal with petitions themselves as the Court of Kings Bench. Important petitions were to be sent to the Lord Chancellor for his decision, by the reign of Edward III, this chancellery function developed into a separate tribunal for the Lord Chancellor
20.
Highway
–
A highway is any public road or other public way on land. It is used for roads, but also includes other public roads and public tracks, It is not an equivalent term to controlled-access highway, or a translation for autobahn, autoroute. In North American and Australian English, major such as controlled-access highways or arterial roads are often state highways. Other roads may be designated county highways in the US and Ontario and these classifications refer to the level of government that maintains the roadway. In British English, highway is primarily a legal term, everyday use normally implies roads, while the legal use covers any route or path with a public right of access, including footpaths etc. The term has led to several related derived terms, including highway system, highway code, highway patrol, the term highway exists in distinction to waterway. Major highways are named and numbered by the governments that typically develop. Australias Highway 1 is the longest national highway in the world at over 14,500 km or 9,000 mi, China has the worlds largest network of highways followed closely by the United States of America. Some highways, like the Pan-American Highway or the European routes, some major highway routes include ferry services, such as U. S. Route 10, which crosses Lake Michigan. Traditionally highways were used by people on foot or on horses, later they also accommodated carriages, bicycles and eventually motor cars, facilitated by advancements in road construction. In the 1920s and 1930s, many nations began investing heavily in progressively more modern highway systems to spur commerce and these features are typically present on highways built as motorways. The general legal definition deals with right of use not the form of construction, the status of highway on most older roads has been gained by established public use while newer roads are typically dedicated as highways from the time they are adopted. In England and Wales, a highway is also known as The Queens Highway. The core definition of a highway is modified in various legislation for a number of purposes, scots law is similar to English law with regard to highways but with differing terminology and legislation. What is defined in England as a highway will often in Scotland be what is defined by s, Highways generally have a route number designated by the state and federal departments of transportation. Smaller roads may be termed byways, modern highway systems developed in the 20th century as the automobile gained popularity. The worlds first limited access road was constructed on Long Island New York in the United States known as the Long Island Motor Parkway or the Vanderbilt Motor Parkway, construction of the Bonn–Cologne autobahn began in 1929 and was opened in 1932 by the mayor of Cologne, Konrad Adenauer. In the USA, the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 enacted a fund to create a highway system
21.
Vestry
–
The vestry was a meeting of the parish ratepayers chaired by the incumbent of the parish, originally held in the parish church or its vestry, from which it got its name. The vestry committees were not established by any law, but they evolved independently in each parish according to local needs from their roots in medieval parochial governance, by the late 17th century they had become, along with the county magistrates, the rulers of rural England. The original unit of settlement among the Anglo-Saxons in England was the tun or town, the inhabitants met to carry out this business in the town moot or meeting, at which they appointed the various officials and the common law would be promulgated. Later with the rise of the shire, the township would send its reeve and four best men to represent it in the courts of the hundred and shire. However, this independence of the Saxon system was lost to the township by the introduction of the feudal manorial Court Leet which replaced the town meeting. The division into ancient parishes was linked to the system, with parishes. This new meeting was supervised by the parish priest, probably the best educated of the inhabitants, as the complexity of rural society increased, the vestry meetings pragmatically acquired greater responsibilities, and were given the power to grant or deny payments from parish funds. Although the vestry committees were not established by any law, and had come into being in an unregulated ad-hoc process and this was convenient when they were the obvious body for administering the Edwardian and Elizabethan systems for support of the poor on a parochial basis. This was their first, and for centuries their principal. With this gradual formalisation of civil responsibilities, the ecclesiastical parishes acquired a dual nature, eventually, the vestry assumed a variety of tasks. It became responsible for appointing officials, such as the parish clerk, overseers of the poor, sextons and scavengers, constables. At the high point of their powers, just prior to removal of Poor Law responsibilities in 1834 and this level of activity had resulted in an increasing sophistication of administration. Consequently, in some of these a new body, the vestry, was created. This was a committee of selected parishioners whose members generally had a property qualification. This took responsibility from the community at large and improved efficiency and this committee was also known as the close vestry, whilst the term open vestry was used for the meeting of all ratepayers. The first reading of the bill was made annually, but every year the bill never got any further and this continues to this day as an archaic custom in the Lords to assert the independence from the Crown, even though the select vestries have long been abolished. These new bodies now received the poor law levy and administered the system, and removed a portion of the income of the vestry. These were able to levy their own rate, the church rate ceased to be levied in many parishes and was made voluntary in 1868
22.
Motorway
–
A controlled-access highway is a type of highway which has been designed for high-speed vehicular traffic, with all traffic flow and ingress/egress regulated. Common English terms are freeway, motorway and expressway, other similar terms include Interstate and parkway. Some of which may be limited-access highways, although this term can refer to a class of highway with somewhat less isolation from other traffic. In countries following Vienna convention, the motorway qualification implies they are forbidden for walking or parking, a controlled-access highway provides an unhindered flow of traffic, with no traffic signals, intersections or property access. They are free of any at-grade crossings with roads, railways, or pedestrian paths. Entrances and exits to the highway are provided at interchanges by slip roads, on the controlled-access highway, opposing directions of travel are generally separated by a median strip or central reservation containing a traffic barrier or grass. Elimination of conflicts with other directions of traffic dramatically improves safety and capacity, controlled-access highways evolved during the first half of the 20th century. Italy opened its first autostrada in 1924 connecting Milan to Varese, Germany began to build its first 30-kilometre autobahn controlled-access highway without speed limits in 1932 between Cologne and Bonn. It then rapidly constructed a system of such roads in anticipation of their use in the Second World War. The first North American freeways opened in the New York City area in the 1920s, Britain, heavily influenced by the railways, did not build its first motorway, the Preston By-pass, until 1958. Most technologically advanced nations feature a network of freeways or motorways to provide high-capacity urban travel, or high-speed rural travel. Many have a national-level or even international-level system of route numbering, exit is marked with another symbol. The definitions of motorway from the OECD and PIARC are almost identical, british Standards Motorway, Limited-access dual carriageway road, not crossed on the same level by other traffic lanes, for the exclusive use of certain classes of motor vehicle. ITE Freeway, A divided major roadway with full control of access and this definition applies to toll as well as toll-free roads. Freeway A, This designates roadways with greater complexity and high traffic volumes. Usually this type of freeway will be found in areas in or near the central core. Freeway B, This designates all other divided roadways with full control of access where lighting is needed, principal arterials may cross through urban areas, serving suburban movements. The traffic is characterized by high speeds and full or partial access control, other roads leading to a principal arterial are connected to it through side collector roads
Media related to High streets at Wikimedia Commons