1.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
5.
Hillsdale County, Michigan
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Hillsdale County is a county located in the U. S. state of Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the population was 46,688, Hillsdale County comprises the Hillsdale, MI Micropolitan Statistical Area. The Hillsdale County Courthouse was built by Claire Allen, a prominent southern Michigan architect, the county is named for its rolling terrain. It was set off in 1829, and organized six years later, see List of Michigan county name etymologies. Hillsdale County was a New England settlement, the original founders of Hillsdale consisted entirely of settlers from New England. These people were Yankees, that is to say they were descended from the English Puritans who settled New England in the 1600s and they were part of a wave of New England farmers who headed west into what was then the wilds of the Northwest Territory during the early 1800s. Most of them arrived as a result of the completion of the Erie Canal as well as the close of the Black Hawk War. They brought with them many of their Yankee New England values, such as a passion for education, the people of Hillsdale County, like many others in Michigan, maintained a cultural affinity with early New England. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 607 square miles. Hillsdale is the county in Michigan to border two other states. Within the county also exists the head waters of two St. Joseph Rivers, the St. Joseph River and the St. Joseph River, the county is divided into 18 townships. July is the hottest month with a high of 82 °F or 27.8 °C. June is the wettest month with 4.29 inches or 109.0 millimetres of rain on average, as of the census of 2000, there were 46,527 people,17,335 households, and 12,550 families residing in the county. The population density was 78 people per square mile, there were 20,189 housing units at an average density of 34 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 56% White,0. 43% Black or African American,0. 35% Native American,0. 33% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 34% from other races, and 0. 98% from two or more races. 1. 20% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,28. 4% were of German,28. 2% English and 9. 3% Irish ancestry according to 2010 American Community Survey estimate. 97. 0% spoke English,1. 2% Spanish and 1. 2% German as their first language,22. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the family size was 3.05
6.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
7.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
8.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
9.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
11.
Area code 517
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Area code 517 is the area code which serves the south central portion of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Notable cities within 517 include Charlotte, Mason, Eaton Rapids, Lansing, East Lansing, Holt, Jackson, Albion, Howell, Coldwater, Adrian, and Hillsdale. 517 was of the area codes created in 1947, covering most of the eastern half of the Lower Peninsula outside Metro Detroit. Besides Lansing, it included the Tri-Cities and much of Mid-Michigan and it was one of the largest area codes east of the Mississippi River. On April 7,2001, the central and northern portions of the territory became area code 989. Until then, despite the presence of Lansing and the Tri-Cities,517 had been the one of Michigans original three area codes to have never been split. NANPA Area Code Map of Michigan List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload. com,517 Area Code
12.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
13.
County seat
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A county seat is an administrative center, seat of government, or capital city of a county or civil parish. The term is used in the United States, Canada, Romania, China, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, county towns have a similar function. In the United States, counties are the subdivisions of a state. Depending on the state, counties may provide services to the public, impose taxes. Some types of subdivisions, such as townships, may be incorporated or unincorporated. The city, town, or populated place that houses county government is known as the seat of its respective county, a county seat is usually, but not always, an incorporated municipality. The exceptions include the county seats of counties that have no incorporated municipalities within their borders, such as Arlington County, Virginia, likewise, some county seats may not be incorporated in their own right, but are located within incorporated municipalities. For example, Cape May Court House, New Jersey, though unincorporated, is a section of Middle Township, in some of the colonial states, county seats include or formerly included Court House as part of their name. Most counties have only one county seat, an example is Harrison County, Mississippi, which lists both Biloxi and Gulfport as county seats. The practice of multiple county seat towns dates from the days when travel was difficult, there have been few efforts to eliminate the two-seat arrangement, since a county seat is a source of pride for the towns involved. There are 36 counties with multiple county seats in 11 states, Coffee County, for example, the official county seat is Greensboro, but an additional courthouse has been located in nearby High Point since 1938. For example, Clearwater is the county seat of Pinellas County, Florida, in New England, the town, not the county, is the primary division of local government. Historically, counties in this region have served mainly as dividing lines for the judicial systems. Connecticut and Rhode Island have no county level of government and thus no county seats, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine the county seats are legally designated shire towns. County government consists only of a Superior Court and Sheriff, both located in the shire town. Bennington County has two towns, but the Sheriff is located in Bennington. In Massachusetts, most government functions which would otherwise be performed by county governments in other states are performed by town governments. As such, Massachusetts has dissolved many of its county governments, two counties in South Dakota have their county seat and government services centered in a neighboring county
14.
Hillsdale College
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Hillsdale College is a co-educational, non-profit liberal arts college in Hillsdale, Michigan, United States. Most of the curriculum is based on and centered on the teaching of the Western heritage as a product of both the Greco-Roman culture and the Judeo-Christian tradition. Hillsdale requires every student, regardless of major, to complete a curriculum that includes courses on the Great Books. The college declines to accept financial support, instead providing private financial assistance to its students. In August 1844, members of the community of Freewill Baptists resolved to organize their denominations first collegiate institution. After gathering donations, they established Hillsdale College as Michigan Central College in Spring Arbor, in the 19th century Hillsdale and Bates College in Maine were the only American colleges associated with this denomination. Hillsdale no longer has any denominational affiliation, and Hillsdale Free Will Baptist College in Oklahoma was founded after the college disaffiliated itself with the denomination. However, Hillsdale is still considered a Christian institution, with students expected to follow moral tenets of Christianity as commonly understood in the Christian tradition. Under its first president, Daniel McBride Graham, who held the office from 1844 to 1848, Michigan Central College opened within a two-room store and admitted five students. In March 1845, the government of Michigan incorporated the college by an act of legislature, Fairfield assumed the presidency of Michigan Central College in 1848. In two years, on March 20,1850, the Michigan state legislature granted the college a special charter, giving it the right to confer degrees. Independent from its outset, the college one of the first in the United States to prohibit in its charter any discrimination on the basis of religion, race. Black students were admitted immediately after the colleges 1844 founding, in 1851 the college celebrated its first commencement and, one year later, graduated the first woman in Michigan with a Bachelor of Arts. The cornerstone of the new building, Central Hall, was laid on the Fourth of July 1853, when Michigan Central College moved, it reopened as Hillsdale College on November 7,1855, after receiving its new state charter the previous May. That fall the young institution opened with record enrollment, in 1856, it became the largest collegiate establishment in Michigan, a position it would hold for the majority of the 19th century. During these early years, Fairfield and college professor Ransom Dunn contributed to its academic, Fairfield led Hillsdale from 1848 to 1869. During his presidency, he helped found the Republican Party with Dunn in neighboring Jackson, a prominent leader in the newfound party, Fairfield was present at its first convention in 1858, where he was elected Lieutenant Governor of Michigan. On August 8,1860, the first degrees were conferred at Hillsdale by the college, and on March 20,1863 the state legislature of Michigan formally legalized the colleges change of name and location
15.
Allen, Michigan
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Allen is a village in Hillsdale County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 191 at the 2010 census, the village is within Allen Township at the junction of US12 and M-49. War of 1812 veteran Captain Moses Allen and his family journeyed here along the Sauk trail, on July 13,1830, a post office was established named Sylvanus, due to being in a wooded area. The office closed on September 5,1834, and was reestablished on September 9,1835 and it was renamed Allen in honor of Captain Allen on August 17,1868. A plat for what was already a village was also recorded in 1868. It was a station on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway, according to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.16 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2010, there were 191 people,80 households, the population density was 1,193.8 inhabitants per square mile. There were 94 housing units at a density of 587.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 97. 9% White,1. 0% Asian,25. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the family size was 2.94. The median age in the village was 45.8 years. 19. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24,22. 1% were from 25 to 44,26. 7% were from 45 to 64, and 24. 1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49. 7% male and 50. 3% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 225 people,87 households, and 58 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,470.7 per square mile, there were 93 housing units at an average density of 607.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 98. 67% White,28. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the family size was 3.22. In the village, the population was out with 27. 6% under the age of 18,7. 1% from 18 to 24,27. 1% from 25 to 44,21. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 95.7 males
16.
Camden, Michigan
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Camden is a village in Camden Township, Hillsdale County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 512 at the 2010 census, according to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.84 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2010, there were 512 people,176 households, the population density was 609.5 inhabitants per square mile. There were 211 housing units at a density of 251.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 99. 4% White,0. 2% Native American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 2% of the population. 24. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.41. The median age in the village was 32.6 years. 31. 2% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 3% were between the ages of 18 and 24,28. 9% were from 25 to 44,23. 3% were from 45 to 64, and 9. 4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49. 4% male and 50. 6% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 550 people,198 households, and 134 families residing in the village. The population density was 651.5 per square mile, there were 214 housing units at an average density of 253.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 97. 27% White,0. 55% Native American,0. 55% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 36% of the population. 25. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.78 and the average family size was 3.36. In the village, the population was out with 34. 0% under the age of 18,11. 1% from 18 to 24,28. 4% from 25 to 44,16. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 29 years, for every 100 females there were 103.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.2 males, the median income for a household in the village was $34,028, and the median income for a family was $36,429. Males had an income of $29,643 versus $21,042 for females. The per capita income for the village was $13,846, about 9. 2% of families and 12. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10. 9% of those under age 18 and 11. 3% of those age 65 or over. M-49 The local school district is Camden-Frontier, which residents from Camden as well as Frontier
17.
Jonesville, Michigan
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Jonesville is a city in Fayette Township, Hillsdale County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 2,258 at the 2010 census, the village was founded in 1828 at a stop along the famous Sauk Trail, otherwise known as the Chicago Road, where it intersects highway M-99. In August 2014, the village voted to adopt a charter, according to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 2.92 square miles, of which 2.89 square miles is land and 0.03 square miles is water. As of the census of 2010, there were 2,258 people,894 households, the population density was 781.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 983 housing units at a density of 340.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 95. 3% White,2. 1% African American,0. 3% Native American,0. 9% Asian,0. 3% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 1% of the population. 29. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.95. The median age in the village was 37.6 years. 26. 3% of residents were under the age of 18,9. 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24,23. 3% were from 25 to 44,23. 8% were from 45 to 64, and 17. 4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47. 4% male and 52. 6% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,337 people,926 households, and 623 families residing in the village. The population density was 856.7 per square mile, there were 975 housing units at an average density of 357.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 96. 02% White,1. 93% African American,0. 26% Native American,0. 21% Asian,0. 39% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 80% of the population. 28. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.92. In the village, the population was out with 27. 9% under the age of 18,8. 0% from 18 to 24,26. 4% from 25 to 44,22. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 102.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.8 males, the median income for a household in the village was $35,223, and the median income for a family was $41,813. Males had an income of $34,135 versus $23,333 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,877, about 6. 5% of families and 9. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9. 5% of those under age 18 and 5. 8% of those age 65 or over
18.
Litchfield, Michigan
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Litchfield is a city in Hillsdale County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 1,369 at the 2010 census, litchfield Township surrounds the city, but the two are autonomous municipalities. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.54 square miles. Litchfield also has the St. Joseph River flowing close to the downtown area, litchfield has a growing industrial base and is centrally located in southern Mid-Michigan. Litchfield is one of two cities in the county with a public pool, over 2000 people are employed within Litchfields large industrial park. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,369 people,559 households, the population density was 547.6 inhabitants per square mile. There were 616 housing units at a density of 246.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 96. 9% White,0. 3% African American,0. 7% Native American,0. 1% Asian,1. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 9% of the population. 29. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.99. The median age in the city was 38.4 years. 25. 6% of residents were under the age of 18, 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24,23. 4% were from 25 to 44, 27% were from 45 to 64, and 15% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49. 8% male and 50. 2% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,458 people,568 households, and 362 families residing in the city. The population density was 608.9 per square mile, there were 604 housing units at an average density of 252.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 98. 42% White,0. 21% African American,0. 07% Asian,0. 62% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 99% of the population. 31. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 15. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.04. In the city, the population was out with 26. 3% under the age of 18,9. 3% from 18 to 24,26. 2% from 25 to 44,20. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 87.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.8 males, the median income for a household in the city was $39,292, and the median income for a family was $47,500
19.
Montgomery, Michigan
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Montgomery is a village in Camden Township, Hillsdale County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 342 at the 2010 census, according to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.00 square mile, all land. As of the census of 2010, there were 342 people,126 households, the population density was 342.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 146 housing units at a density of 146.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 98. 0% White,0. 3% Native American,0. 6% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 0% of the population. 32. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 15. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.32. The median age in the village was 35.7 years. 30. 1% of residents were under the age of 18, 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24,28. 9% were from 25 to 44,16. 6% were from 45 to 64, and 17. 3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 52. 6% male and 47. 4% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 386 people,137 households, and 99 families residing in the village. The population density was 392.3 per square mile, there were 148 housing units at an average density of 150.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 99. 22% White,0. 26% Native American and 0. 52% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 07% of the population. 24. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.72 and the average family size was 3.09. In the village, the population was out with 30. 8% under the age of 18,7. 8% from 18 to 24,31. 6% from 25 to 44,16. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years, for every 100 females there were 107.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 111.9 males, the median income for a household in the village was $42,500, and the median income for a family was $42,500. Males had an income of $31,964 versus $24,500 for females. The per capita income for the village was $14,975, about 7. 5% of families and 13. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9. 8% of those under age 18 and 3. 4% of those age 65 or over. There are currently two churches in Montgomery
20.
North Adams, Michigan
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North Adams is a village in Adams Township of Hillsdale County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 477 at the 2010 census, according to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.52 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2010, there were 477 people,189 households, the population density was 917.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 219 housing units at a density of 421.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 98. 1% White,0. 4% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 2% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 2% of the population. 23. 8% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.00. The median age in the village was 40.2 years. 24. 5% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24,26. 7% were from 25 to 44,24. 5% were from 45 to 64, and 17. 6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48. 0% male and 52. 0% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 514 people,204 households, and 144 families residing in the village. The population density was 974.5 per square mile, there were 215 housing units at an average density of 407.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 99. 22% White,0. 58% Native American,0. 19% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 95% of the population. 26. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.01. In the village, the population was out with 26. 5% under the age of 18,8. 6% from 18 to 24,28. 0% from 25 to 44,23. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 108.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.8 males, the median income for a household in the village was $38,523, and the median income for a family was $42,813. Males had an income of $30,774 versus $22,750 for females. The per capita income for the village was $19,850, about 1. 3% of families and 3. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1. 6% of those under age 18 and 7. 7% of those age 65 or over
21.
Reading, Michigan
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Reading is a city in Hillsdale County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 1,078 at the 2010 census, the city is surrounded by Reading Township on M-49. In 1835 the original community was called Basswood Corners because of a stand of basswood trees nearby. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 1.01 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,078 people,392 households, the population density was 1,067.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 435 housing units at a density of 430.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 98. 9% White,0. 1% African American,0. 2% Native American,0. 1% Asian,0. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 8% of the population. 24. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.72 and the average family size was 3.21. The median age in the city was 33.3 years. 32. 2% of residents were under the age of 18, 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24,26. 7% were from 25 to 44, 22% were from 45 to 64, and 11. 2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49. 9% male and 50. 1% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,134 people,407 households, and 293 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,162.3 per square mile, there were 432 housing units at an average density of 442.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 98. 41% White,0. 71% Native American,0. 18% Asian,0. 18% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 32% of the population. 23. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.79 and the average family size was 3.25. In the city, the population was out with 34. 4% under the age of 18,9. 3% from 18 to 24,28. 6% from 25 to 44,17. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 30 years, for every 100 females there were 95.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.4 males, the median income for a household in the city was $33,750, and the median income for a family was $42,000. Males had an income of $28,482 versus $23,000 for females
22.
Waldron, Michigan
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Waldron is a village in Wright Township, Hillsdale County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 538 at the 2010 census, according to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.00 square mile, all land. As of the census of 2010, there were 538 people,211 households, the population density was 538.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 253 housing units at a density of 253.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 97. 6% White,0. 6% African American,0. 9% Native American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 7% of the population. 32. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.18. The median age in the village was 34.1 years. 30. 1% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24, 26% were from 25 to 44,24. 2% were from 45 to 64, and 11. 9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 47. 4% male and 52. 6% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 590 people,231 households, and 152 families residing in the village. The population density was 575.6 per square mile, there were 249 housing units at an average density of 242.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 97. 80% White,0. 34% African American,0. 34% Native American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 02% of the population. 29. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.13. In the village, the population was out with 29. 8% under the age of 18,9. 0% from 18 to 24,30. 0% from 25 to 44,18. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 92.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.5 males, the median income for a household in the village was $30,417, and the median income for a family was $36,125. Males had an income of $28,958 versus $19,375 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,083, about 10. 3% of families and 16. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21. 0% of those under age 18 and 5. 9% of those age 65 or over
23.
United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
24.
St. Joseph River (Lake Michigan)
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The St. Joseph River is a river, approximately 206 miles long, in southern Michigan and northern Indiana in the United States. It drains a rural farming area in the watershed of Lake Michigan. The watershed includes 3,742 river miles and flows through and near the Kalamazoo-Portage, Elkhart-Goshen, Mishawaka-South Bend, Baw Beese Lake was historically named for the Potawatomi Chief Baw Beese. The river follows a route generally westward across southern Michigan. From its headwaters, it flows initially northwest past Hillsdale into southeastern Calhoun County, then turns abruptly southwest to flow past Tekonsha, Union City, and Sherwood. At Three Rivers it is joined from the north by the Rocky and Portage rivers, in southwestern Michigan, it follows a wide meandering route generally northwest through Niles and past Berrien Springs. It enters Lake Michigan between St. Joseph and Benton Harbor, receiving the Paw Paw River from the north approximately 1 mile from its mouth on Lake Michigan, there are 190 dams in the St. Joseph River watershed, and 17 on the river mainstem. Most of these dams block fish passage, although fish ladders constructed on the lower dams allow salmonine passage as far as the Twin Branch Dam in Mishawaka. Early European explorers found Miami and Potawatomi peoples living near the mouth of the St. Joseph River at the site of present-day St. Joseph, the original Miami name for the river was Sakiwäsipi. In 1654, Médard Chouart des Groseilliers of France and a French companion were the first Europeans to travel the river, on November 1,1679 René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle sailed southeast across Lake Michigan and built Fort Miami at the mouth of the river. La Salle named the river La Rivière des Miamis, after giving up on the return of his ship, the Griffin, in April 1680, he became the first European to walk east across the Lower Peninsula of Michigan back to the Detroit River and Canada. The river was one of the most significant early transportation routes for thousands of years for the Native Americans and it was also used as canoe route by early French fur trappers in the Illinois Country. Two different portages allowed nearly continuous travel by canoe among different watersheds of the region. The first major transfer point was at the headwaters in southwestern Michigan, where travelers could make a portage to the St. Joseph River of the Maumee River watershed, which drained into Lake Erie. The second major transfer point was at South Bend, Indiana, another major access point along river was at Niles, Michigan, where the Old Sauk Trail, a major east-west Indian trail, crossed the river. The French established Fort St. Joseph there in 1691, European American settlement of the St. Joseph river basin area began to increase after southwestern Michigan was surveyed in 1829. From the early 1830s until 1846, the river bore various commodities from upstream to a port at St. Joseph. On April 11,1893, a Lake Michigan seiche pushed a wall of water,3 to 5 feet high, up the river at St. Joseph and this raised the level of the river by 4 to 5 feet
25.
Climate
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Climate is the statistics of weather, usually over a 30-year interval. Climate differs from weather, in that weather only describes the conditions of these variables in a given region. A regions climate is generated by the system, which has five components, atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates, Climate models are mathematical models of past, present and future climates. Climate change may occur long and short timescales from a variety of factors. For example, a 3°C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km in latitude or 500 m in elevation, therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones. Climate is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period, the standard averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations, the classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. The World Meteorological Organization describes climate normals as reference points used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or what is considered normal, a Normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element over a 30-year period. A30 year period is used, as it is enough to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies. The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a commission for climatology in 1929. At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting the commission designated the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for climatological standard normals. In 1982 the WMO agreed to update climate normals, and in these were completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990. The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get. Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water and these change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics
26.
Humid continental climate
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Precipitation is usually well distributed through the year. Some climatologists prefer to use the 0 °C isotherm as it is commonly used. In addition, the location in question must not be semi-arid or arid, humid continental climates tend to be found between latitudes 40° N and 60° N, within the central and northeastern portions of North America, Europe, and Asia. They are much less commonly found in the Southern Hemisphere due to the ocean area at that latitude. More extreme humid continental climates found in southern Siberia and the American Midwest combine hotter summer maxima, climatological averages are used to determine which locations are within a certain climate regime. The World Meteorological Organization has defined this average as through a 30 year period, the version from 1936 utilized a mean temperature of the coldest month of below −3 °C and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 °C. In Europe, the −3 °C average temperature isotherm was near the extent of winter snowpack. Many climatologists in the U. S. prefer to use 0 °C as the standard because they feel it better reflects consistency in regional landscapes, the 10 °C average temperature was found to be the minimum temperature necessary for the tree growth. Large temperature ranges are common within this climate zone, in addition, the location in question must not be semi-arid or arid. This is from an update to the climate regime definition introduced by Trewartha & Horn in 1980, despite the 1980 update, climate regimes are essentially the same within the Southern Hemisphere. The largest changes are seen in North America, Europe, under Köppen, the following variants of this climate are possible. The climate regime uses a three letter code, beginning with the letter D. Otherwise, The second letter f , s , A dry summer — the driest summer month has at most 30 millimetres of rainfall and has at most 1⁄3 the precipitation of the wettest winter month. W , A dry winter — the driest winter month has at most one‑tenth of the found in the wettest summer month. The third letter a , Warmest month averages above 22 °C b , Does not meet the requirements for a, within North America, moisture within this climate regime is supplied by the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent western subtropical Atlantic. Snowfall occurs in all areas with a continental climate and in many such places is more common than rain during the height of winter. In places with sufficient wintertime precipitation, the cover is often deep. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms, and in North America, though humidity levels are often high in locations with humid continental climates, the humid designation means that the climate is not dry enough to be classified as semi-arid or arid. By definition, forests thrive within this climate, biomes within this climate regime include temperate woodlands, temperate grasslands, temperate deciduous, temperature evergreen forests, and coniferous forests
27.
M-99 (Michigan highway)
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M-99 is a north–south state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan. It runs from the Ohio state border, where it connects to State Route 15, north to Lansing, where it terminates at a junction with Interstate 496 and the Capitol Loop. The highway mainly serves local communities along the route as it passes through farm lands in the part of the state. One segment is routed concurrently with US Highway 12 in Jonesville while the northern end runs through urban areas on a named for Martin Luther King. The current highway is the third to carry the M-99 designation, the others were located near Lake Michigan near Muskegon in the Lower Peninsula and Gulliver in the Upper Peninsula in the 1920s and 1930s. The current highway was first designated as parts of M-34 and M-64 in 1919 and these numbers were later dropped in favor of an M-9 designation in 1929. For part of 1934, a route was designated M-158 in Hillsdale County that was used for a rerouted M-9 in the area. The M-99 designation was applied to the highway in 1940, since then, the state has completed paving twice, one segment was returned to gravel surface for two years in the 1950s. The southern section in Hillsdale County was rerouted in the 1960s, SR15 ends at the Michigan state line just north of Pioneer, Ohio, where it becomes M-99. The roadway travels northward from the line on Pioneer Road. The trunkline turns westward on Hudson Road, which curves to the north around Baw Beese Lake just southeast of Hillsdale, M-99 passes through Hillsdale on a northwest course on Broad Street and Carlton Road, passing just a few blocks to the west of Hillsdale College. After leaving town, the bends to the north as Olds Street as it runs parallel to the St. Joseph River to Jonesville. In that community, M-99 intersects US12, the two highways run concurrently through Jonesville for less than half a mile before M-99 returns to its northwesterly course. It leaves the town toward Litchfield continuing parallel to the river, in Litchfield, M-99 enters the town from the southeast, passing near downtown where it meets the northern terminus of M-49. The highway leaves Litchfield heading northwest on Homer Road for a few miles before bending to the north as it crosses into Calhoun County, the trunkline passes through more farmland as it runs toward Homer on Hillsdale Street. In Homer, after passing through a roundabout, M-99 meets up with M-60, the road briefly splits into a divided highway near the end of the concurrency. M-99 heads north, while M-60 continues eastward, from here, M-99 continues northward on 28 Mile Road toward the city of Albion. After crossing the Kalamazoo River in downtown, M-99 merges with Business Loop I-94, M-99 heads north through farmland to the village of Springport where it turns eastward along Main Street as it passes through the town
28.
Indiana Northeastern Railroad
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The Indiana Northeastern Railroad is a short-line railroad operating in northeastern Indiana, northwestern Ohio and southeastern Michigan. Todays Indiana Northeastern Railroad stretches nearly 130 miles in length, the railroads traffic interchanges with Norfolk Southern at Montpelier, Ohio. Commodities moved by Indiana Northeastern Railroad include corn, soybeans, wheat and they also handle plastics, fiberboard, aluminum, copper, coal, perlite, stone, lumber, glass, rendering products, as well as agricultural fertilizers and chemicals. The railroads traffic base has continued to increase, in spite of occasional downturns in the economy, the railroads growth in such times is an indicator of its strength and resilience. For motive power, the IN uses many first-generation diesels and this makes the IN an ideal railroad for railroad photographers to take pictures of how railroads were powered in the first days of diesel traction. Units currently in use are a pair of EMD GP30s, an EMD GP10, four EMD GP9s with high-noses, an EMD GP7, the Little River Railroad also offers steam excursions on the line between Coldwater and Quincy, Michigan. It was the shortest direct route from Detroit, MI to Chicago, the line lost its through-train passenger service in the 1930s when the Pennsylvania Railroad wanted to compete in the Chicago – Detroit passenger market. The two railroads reached an agreement to run trains on the PRR between Chicago and Ft. Wayne, IN and then switch to the Wabash trackage for the Ft. Wayne to Detroit portion of the trip. This eliminated the necessity of the Montpelier, OH to Chicago, through numerous mergers, the Wabash found itself under the control of the Norfolk Southern Railway. Shortly after the creation of the Norfolk Southern Railway in 1982, the South Milford Grain Company, which relied on the rail line for export of its grain, strongly opposed the abandonment and took the railroad to court. The Norfolk Southern Railway offered the line from Gary to Ashley to South Milford Grain, however they only accepted the portion from Ashley, IN to Wolcottville. This would allow them to maintain an interchange with the Hillsdale County Railroad at Ashley, the new operation, under the ownership of the South Milford Grain Co. was called the Pigeon River Railroad. After several years of operation, the Hillsdale County Railroad entered into bankruptcy, shortly after this, South Milford Grain released their holdings on the rail line and its assets and the newly reorganized rail company became the Indiana Northeastern Railroad in 1992. In northeastern Indiana, the IN operates a line runs along the southern edge of Steuben County from South Milford east through Ashley, Steubenville. A line also runs north from Steubenville through Pleasant Lake, Angola, Fremont, in Michigan, the IN continues northeast into Hillsdale County through the communities of Montgomery, Reading and Bankers to Hillsdale, then northwest to Jonesville. From here, one branch runs northwest to Litchfield, while the other runs west through the Branch County communities of Quincy, the line ends just east of Batavia. The tracks between Batavia and Sturgis were pulled up in 2012 due to lack of customers and rotted ties, in Ohio, the IN extends east-northeast from the state line to the Williams County villages of Edon and Montpelier. 1073 - A chop-nosed GP9 which was rebuilt to GP10 specs,2216 - A chop-nosed GP7u, renumbered from 1500, from the Westmoreland Scenic Railroad which went bankrupt a few years ago
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1860 United States Census
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The United States Census of 1860 was the eighth Census conducted in the United States starting June 1,1860, and lasting five months. It determined the population of the United States to be 31,443,321, the total population included 3,953,761 slaves, representing 12. 6% of the total population. By the time the 1860 census returns were ready for tabulation, as a result, Census Superintendent Joseph C. G. Kennedy and his staff produced only an abbreviated set of public reports, without graphic or cartographic representations. The statistics did allow the Census staff to produce a display, including preparing maps of Southern states. These maps displayed militarily vital topics, including population, slave population, predominant agricultural products. The 1860 census Schedule 1 was one of two schedules that counted the population of the United States, the other was Schedule 2, aggregate data for small areas, together with compatible cartographic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System. National data reveals that farmers made up nearly 10% of utilized occupations, farm laborers represent the next highest percent with 3. 2%, followed by general laborers at 3. 0%. More localized data shows that other occupations were common, in the town of Essex, Massachusetts, a large section of the women in the labor force were devoted to shoe-binding, while for men the common occupations were farming and shoe-making. IPUMS data also notes that the share of the population that had enrolled in school or marked as Student stood at 0. 2%. The census of 1860 was the last in which much of Southern wealth was held as slaves—still legally considered property, G. G. Kennedy U. S. Federal Cens us Mortality Schedules 1850-1880 Adam Goodheart, The Census of Doom, NY Times
M-99). It passes through both the historic downtown as well as the newer business strip. Highway 99 connects to Highway 12 just over a mile north of Hillsdale.
