1.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
2.
Chiton (costume)
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A chiton was a form of clothing in Ancient Greece, worn by both sexes, but especially men. It is a garment, unlike the female peplos, a draped garment held on the shoulders by a fibula. There are two forms of chiton, the Doric chiton and the later Ionic chiton, the Doric style was simpler and had no sleeves, being simply pinned, sewn, or buttoned at the shoulder. The Ionic style was made of a wider piece of fabric, and was pinned, sewn, or buttoned all the way from the neck to the wrists. By the late Archaic, Ionic chitons had become more common, the Doric chiton is a single rectangle of woolen or linen fabric. It can be plain or with an overfold called an apoptygma. It can be draped and fastened at the shoulder by pins or sewing, the Ionic chiton could also be made from linen or wool and was draped without the fold and held in place from neck to wrist by several small pins. A large belt called a zoster could be worn over the chiton, the chitons length was greater than the height of the wearer, so excessive fabric was pulled above the belt, like a blouse. The chiton was worn in combination with the heavier himation over it. When used alone, the chiton was called a monochiton, a long chiton which reached the heels was called a chiton poderes, while a longer one which dragged the ground was called a chiton syrtos or an elkekhitōnes. A womans chiton would always be worn at ankle length, men wore the long chiton during the Archaic period, but later wore it at knee length, except for certain occupations such as priests and charioteers, and also the elderly. A sleeved form was worn by priests and actors, the colour or pattern would often indicate status, but varied over time. The chiton was the outfit of Aphrodite because it was considered very feminine, dionysus is often depicted wearing it. The chiton was worn by the Romans after the 3rd century BC. However, they referred to it as a tunica, an example of the chiton can be seen, worn by the caryatids, in the porch of the Athens Erechtheum. A charioteers chiton can be seen on the Charioteer of Delphi, clothing in the ancient world Zoster Exomis Tunic References Sources Chiton Encyclopædia Britannica Greek Dress Greek clothes
3.
Cloak
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Cloaks have been used by myriad historic societies, many climates favor wearing a full-body garment which is easily removed and does not constrain the wearer with sleeves. Over time cloak designs have changed to match fashion and available textiles. Cloaks generally fasten at the neck or over the shoulder, vary in length, from hip all the way down to the ankle, mid-calf being the normal length. They may have a hood, and may cover and fasten down the front. However, cloaks are almost always sleeveless, the word cloak comes from Old North French cloque meaning travelling cloak, from Medieval Latin clocca travelers cape, literally a bell, so called from the garments bell-like shape. Thus the word is related to the word clock, ancient Greeks and Romans were known to wear cloaks. Greek men and women wore the himation, from the Archaic through the Hellenistic periods, Romans would later wear the Greek-styled cloak, the pallium. The pallium was quadrangular, shaped like a square, and sat on the shoulders, Romans of the Republic would wear the toga as a formal display of their citizenship. It was denied to foreigners and was worn by magistrates on all occasions as a badge of office, the toga was claimed to have originated with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. Opera cloaks are made of quality materials such as wool or cashmere, velvet, ladies may wear a long cloak usually called a cape, or a full-length cloak. Gentlemen wear an ankle-length or full-length cloak, formal cloaks often have expensive, colored linings and trimmings such as silk, satin, velvet and fur. For example, they may grant the person wearing it invisibility as in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling, alternatively, they may nullify magical projectiles, as the cloak of magic resistance in NetHack. In addition, the magical hide armor that Hercules made for himself from the skin of the Nemean Lion, at the end of Hercules first labor and this latter was notable because it was said to be impervious to all cutting and impact weapons. Figuratively, a cloak may be anything that disguises or conceals something, in many science fiction worlds such as Star Trek, there are cloaking devices, which provide a way to avoid detection or to make objects appear invisible. Because they keep a person hidden and conceal a weapon, the cloak and dagger has come to refer to espionage and secretive crimes. Cloak and dagger stories are thus mystery, detective, and crime stories of this, the vigilante duo of Marvel comics Cloak and Dagger is a reference to this. ISBN 0-8109-6317-5 Baumgarten, Linda, What Clothes Reveal, The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America, ISBN 0-300-09580-5 Payne, Blanche, History of Costume from the Stone Age to the Twentysecond Century, Harper & Row,2965. No ISBN for this edition, ASIN B0006BMNFS Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Bagnalls,1957
4.
Shawl
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A shawl is a simple item of clothing, loosely worn over the shoulders, upper body and arms, and sometimes also over the head. It is usually a rectangular or square piece of cloth, that is folded to make a triangle. Shawl and pashmina name comes from Kashmir, but it originates from Hamedan Persia and he took someof this goat wool and made socks which he gave as a gift to king of Kashmir, Sultan Qutabdin. Afterwards Hamadani suggested to the king that they start a weaving industry in Kashmir using this wool. That is how pashmina shawls began, the skills and knowledge that he brought to Kashmir gave rise to an entire industry. Kashmir was a point through which the wealth, knowledge. Perhaps the most widely known woven textiles are the famed Kashmir shawls, the Kanikar, for instance, has intricately woven designs that are formalized imitations of Nature. The Chenar leaf, apple and cherry blossoms, the rose and tulip, the almond and pear, yet another type of Kashmir shawl is the Jamiavr, which is a brocaded woolen fabric sometimes in pure wool and sometimes with a little cotton added. Still another type of Kashmir shawl is the double-sided Dourukha, a shawl that is so done as to produce the same effect on both sides. The most expensive shawls, called Shahtoosh, are made from under-fleece of the Tibetan antelope or Chiru and these shawls are so fine that even a very tightly woven shawl can be easily pulled through a small finger ring. The naksha, a Persian device like the Jacquard loom invented centuries later, enabled Indian weavers to create floral patterns. The Kashmir shawl that evolved from this expertise in its heyday had greater fame than any other Indian textile, always a luxury commodity, the intricate, tapestry-woven, fine wool shawl had become a fashionable wrap for the ladies of the English and French elite by the 18th century. Supply fell short of demand and manufacturers pressed to produce more, as early as 1803, Kashmiri needlework production was established to increase and hasten output of these shawls, which had been imitated in England since 1784 and even in France. By 1870, the advent of the Jacquard loom in Europe destroyed the exclusivity of the original Kashmir shawl, even the characteristic Kashmiri motif, the mango-shape, began to be known simply as the paisley. The paisley motif is so ubiquitous to Indian fabrics that it is hard to realize that it is only about 250 years old and it evolved from 1600s floral and tree-of-life designs that were created in expensive, tapestry-woven Mughal textiles. The design in India originated from Persian motif called butta-jeghgha which represents a stylized cypress tree, early designs depicted single plants with large flowers and thin wavy stems, small leaves and roots. As the designs became denser over time, more flowers and leaves were compacted within the shape of the tree, by the late 18th century, the archetypal curved point at the top of an elliptical outline had evolved. In the late 18th century and 19th century, the became an important motif in a wide range of Indian textiles
5.
Toga
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The toga, a distinctive garment of Ancient Rome, was a roughly semicircular cloth, between 12 and 20 feet in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from wool, and was worn over a tunic. In Roman historical tradition, it is said to have been the favoured dress of Romulus, Romes founder, as Roman women gradually adopted the stola, the toga was recognised as formal wear for Roman citizen men. Women engaged in prostitution might have provided the main exception to this rule, the type of toga worn reflected a citizens rank in the civil hierarchy. Various laws and customs restricted its use to citizens, who were required to wear it for public festivals, from its probable beginnings as a simple, practical work-garment, the toga became more voluminous, complex and costly, increasingly unsuited to anything but formal and ceremonial use. When circumstances allowed, those otherwise entitled or obliged to wear it opted for more comfortable and it gradually fell out of use, firstly among citizens of the lower class, then those of the middle class. Eventually, it was only by the highest classes for ceremonial occasions. The toga was an approximately semi-circular woolen cloth, usually white, worn draped over the shoulders and around the body and it was considered formal wear, and was generally reserved for citizens. Toga virilis also known as toga alba or toga pura, A plain white toga, worn on occasions by adult male commoners. It represented adult male citizenship and its attendant rights, freedoms, toga praetexta, a white toga with a broad purple stripe on its border, worn over a tunic with two broad, vertical purple stripes. It was formal costume for, Curule magistrates in their functions, and traditionally. Freeborn boys, and some girls, before they came of age. It marked their protection by law from sexual predation and immoral or immodest influence, a praetexta was thought effective against malignant magic, as were a boys bulla, and a girls lunula. Some priesthoods, including the Pontifices, Tresviri Epulones, the augurs, toga candida, Bright toga, a toga rubbed with chalk to a dazzling white, worn by candidates for public office. Thus Persius speaks of a cretata ambitio, chalked ambition, toga candida is the etymological source of the word candidate. It was worn mainly by mourners, but could also be worn in times of danger or public anxiety. It was sometimes used as a protest of sorts—when Cicero was exiled, mourners with a toga praetexta could turn it inside out, to conceal the stripe, or wear a toga pura. Toga picta, Dyed solid purple, embroidered with gold, and worn over a similarly decorated tunica palmata, during the Empire, it was worn by consuls and emperors
6.
Byzantine dress
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Byzantine dress changed considerably over the thousand years of the Empire, but was essentially conservative. A different border or trimming round the edges was very common, taste for the middle and upper classes followed the latest fashions at the Imperial Court. In the early stages of the Byzantine Empire the traditional Roman toga was still used as formal or official dress. The hems often curve down to a sharp point, in general, except for military and presumably riding-dress, men of higher status, and all women, had clothes that came down to the ankles, or nearly so. Women often wore a top layer of the stola, for the rich in brocade, all of these, except the stola, might be belted or not. The chlamys, a semicircular cloak fastened to the shoulder continued throughout the period. The length fell sometimes only to the hips or as far as the ankles, much longer than the version worn in Ancient Greece. As well as his courtiers, Emperor Justinian wears one, with a huge brooch, a paragauda or border of thick cloth, usually including gold, was also an indicator of rank. Sometimes an oblong cloak would be worn, especially by the military and ordinary people, cloaks were pinned on the right shoulder for ease of movement, and access to a sword. Leggings and hose were worn, but are not prominent in depictions of the wealthy, they were associated with barbarians. Even basic clothes appear to have been expensive for the poor. Others, when engaged in activity, are shown with the sides of their tunic tied up to the waist for ease of movement, the most common images surviving from the Byzantine period are not relevant as references for actual dress worn in the period. Sandals are worn on the feet and this costume is not commonly seen in secular contexts, although possibly this is deliberate, to avoid confusing secular with divine subjects. The Theotokos is shown wearing a maphorion, a more shaped mantle with a hood and this probably is close to actual typical dress for widows, and for married women when in public. The Virgins underdress may be visible, especially at the sleeves, there are also conventions for Old Testament prophets and other Biblical figures. Apart from Christ and the Virgin, much iconographic dress is white or relatively muted in colour especially when on walls and in manuscripts, many other figures in Biblical scenes, especially if unnamed, are usually depicted wearing contemporary Byzantine clothing. Modesty was important for all except the very rich, and most women appear almost entirely covered by rather shapeless clothes, the basic garment in the early Empire comes down to the ankles, with a high round collar and tight sleeves to the wrist. The fringes and cuffs might be decorated with embroidery, with a band around the arm as well
7.
Mary, mother of Jesus
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Mary, also known by various titles, styles and honorifics, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth and the mother of Jesus, according to the New Testament and the Quran. The gospels of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin, the miraculous birth took place when she was already betrothed to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony. She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, the Gospel of Luke begins its account of Marys life with the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to canonical gospel accounts, Mary was present at the crucifixion and is depicted as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem. According to the Catholic and Orthodox teaching, at the end of her life her body was assumed directly into Heaven. Mary has been venerated since Early Christianity, and is considered by millions to be the most meritorious saint of the religion and she is claimed to have miraculously appeared to believers many times over the centuries. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, there is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Roman Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her status as the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her perpetual virginity, many Protestants minimize Marys role within Christianity, based on the argued brevity of biblical references. Mary also has a position in Islam, where one of the longer chapters of the Quran is devoted to her. Marys name in the manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name ܡܪܝܡ. The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία, which is a form of Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament, in Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that she conceived Jesus miraculously through the Holy Spirit without her husbands involvement. The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos, Aeiparthenos as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. For example, the title Our Lady of Sorrows has inspired such masterpieces as Michelangelos Pietà, the title Theotokos was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, this phrase in Greek, in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God, some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title Queen Mother has been given to Mary since she was the mother of Jesus, the scriptural basis for the term Queen can be seen in Luke 1,32 and the Isaiah 9,6. Queen Mother can be found in 1 Kings 2, 19-20 and Jeremiah 13, other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for calling on Mary
8.
Clothing in the ancient world
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The clothing used in the ancient world strongly reflects the technologies that these peoples mastered. Archaeology plays a significant role in documenting this aspect of ancient life, for fabric fibers, in many cultures the clothing worn was indicative of the social status achieved by various members of their society. The attire fashion and clothing is exclusively human characteristic and is a feature of most human societies, clothing and textiles in different periods and ages reflect the development of civilization and technologies in different periods of time at different places. The most common textile in ancient Egypt was flax, while being aware of other materials, the ancient Egyptians preferred to use linen, a product made from the flax plant. Aside from this, other animal based products, such as animal pelts, were reserved for priests and eventually saw adoption by only the highest class of ancient Egyptian citizenry. Linen is also light, strong and flexible which made it ideal for life in the climate, wherein abrasion. Thus, aside from small minority, every ancient Egyptian used linen as their predominant textile. They also used more complex drapery, designs and patterns that included dyed threads and these materials were expensive and the wearer showed greater status by wearing them. On the other hand, cheaper thicker linen was used within the lower class and it was considered acceptable for men and woman alike to bear their chests, in both upper and lower class. Certain clothing was common to both genders such as the tunic and the robe, around 1425 to 1405 BCE, a light tunic or short-sleeved shirt was popular, as well as a pleated skirt. Clothing for adult women remained unchanged over several millennia, save for small details, draped clothes, with very large rolls, gave the impression of wearing several items. It was in fact a hawk, often of very fine muslin and these suspenders were sometimes wide enough to cover the breasts and were painted and colored for various reasons, for instance to imitate the plumage on the wings of Isis. Clothing of the family was different, and was well documented, for instance the crowns of the pharaohs, feather headdresses. Shoes were the same for both sexes, sandals braided with leather, or, particularly for the bureaucratic and priestly classes, beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt Embalming made it possible to develop cosmetic products and perfumery very early. Perfumes in Egypt were scented oils which were very expensive, in antiquity, people made great use of them. The Egyptians used make-up much more than anyone else at the time, kohl, used as eyeliner, was eventually obtained as a substitute for galena or lead oxide which had been used for centuries. Eye shadow was made of crushed malachite and lipstick of ochre, substances used in some of the cosmetics were toxic, and had adverse health effects with prolonged use. Beauty products were mixed with animal fats in order to make them more compact, more easily handled
9.
Exomis
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The exomis was a Greek tunic used by workers and light infantry. The tunic largely replaced the older chitoniskos as the tunic of the hoplites during the later 5th century BC. It was made of two rectangles of linen, which were stitched together from the sides to form a cylinder, an opening at the top was also left for the head. The cylinder was gathered up at the waist with a cloth using a reef knot. To allow freedom of movement to the arm, the seam at the right shoulder was taken apart. The color of the varied, but red was increasingly the standard color preferred by hoplites during. The exomis could be worn in conjunction with the chlamys cape
10.
Tunic
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A tunic is any of several types of garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the ankles. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered people around their waist. The Roman tunica was adopted by the Roman citizens in the 3rd century BC and it was worn by citizens and non-citizens alike, citizens, though, might wear it under the toga, especially at formal occasions. The length of the garment, the presence or lack of stripes, as well as their width and ornamentation, Roman senators, for example, used the Laticlavus, with broad purple stripes, and members of the equestrian class wore the Angusticlavia, with narrower stripes. Soldiers, slaves and manual workers generally had tunics to a little above the knee, the tunic or chiton was worn as a shirt or gown by both genders among the ancient Romans. The body garment was loose-fitting for males, usually beginning at the neck, a womans garment could be either close fitting or loose, beginning at the neck and extending over a skirt or skirts. Tunics were also worn in ancient Greece, whence the Roman version was adopted, later Greek and Roman tunics were an evolution from the very similar chiton, chitoniskos, and exomis all of which can be considered versions of the garment. In Ancient Greece, a persons tunic was decorated at the hem-line to represent the city-state in which he lived, similar tunics were eventually taken up by the Romans, and found their way into the Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the long sleeved Celto-Germanic tunic continued to be worn, being used by both Vikings and Normans, the garment continued as a general male garment into the Middle Ages, still being used in Norway as late as the 17th century. The tunic continued to be the basic garment of the Byzantine Romans of both throughout the medieval period. Except for the military or riding-dress, men and women of higher status wore tunics that came down to the ankles, tunics were often dyed or richly embroidered, although the plainer ones could be used when layering different types. Beyond the reduced empire, the continued to be worn with varying sleeve. Often reaching the knees or ankles, it was worn over underclothes consisting of a shirt. It may be accompanied by hose, wool and Linen were common fabrics used, though the wealthy sometimes wore fancy silk tunics, or a lesser fabric with silk trim. Tunics worn during the Early Middle Ages often featured decorative embroidery or tablet-woven braids along the neck, hem and this was the case, for instance, with tunics worn by both rich and poor Anglo-Saxons before the Norman Conquest. Around 1830, small boys began to be dressed in sashed or belted tunics over trousers, during the Crimean War in the 1850s, it was realized that the waist length jackets which had been worn by British soldiers since Napoleonic times were unsuitable for fighting in winter conditions. A new longer jacket was introduced which reached down to the mid thigh and this type of jacket soon became standard for most armies. In Western culture, its use primarily in a religious
11.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
12.
History of clothing and textiles
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The study of the history of clothing and textiles traces the availability and use of textiles and other materials and the development of technology for the making of clothing over human history. The wearing of clothing is exclusively a characteristic and is a feature of most human societies. Clothing and textiles have been important in history and reflect the materials available to a civilization as well as the technologies that had been mastered. The social significance of the product reflects their culture. Textiles can be felt or spun fibers made into yarn and subsequently netted, looped, knit or woven to make fabrics, scholarship of textile history, especially its earlier stages, is part of material culture studies. The development of textile and clothing manufacture in prehistory has been the subject of a number of studies since the late 20th century. These sources have helped to provide a coherent history of these prehistoric developments, evidence suggests that humans may have begun wearing clothing as far back as 10,000 to 50,000 years ago. These estimates predate the first known human exodus from Africa, although other species who may have worn clothes –. Possible sewing needles have been dated to around 40,000 years ago, the earliest definite examples of needles originate from the Solutrean culture, which existed in France from 19,000 BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia. At a slightly later date the Venus figurines were depicted with clothing and those from western Europe were adorned with basket hats or caps, belts worn at the waist, and a strap of cloth that wrapped around the body right above the breast. Eastern European figurines wore belts, hung low on the hips, archaeologists have discovered artifacts from the same period that appear to have been used in the textile arts, net gauges, spindle needles and weaving sticks. The first actual textile, as opposed to skins sewn together, was probably felt, surviving examples of Nålebinding, another early textile method, date from 6500 BC. Our knowledge of ancient textiles and clothing has expanded in the recent past thanks to technological developments. In northern Eurasia peat bogs can also preserve textiles very well, from pre-history through the early middle ages, for most of Europe, the Near East and North Africa, two main types of loom dominate textile production. These are the loom and the two-beam loom. The length of the cloth beam determined the width of the cloth woven upon it, the second loom type is the two-beam loom. Early woven clothing was made of full loom widths draped, tied
13.
Clothing in ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egyptian clothes refers to clothing worn in ancient Egypt from the end of the Neolithic period to the collapse of the Ptolemaic dynasty with the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Egyptian clothing was filled with a variety of colors, adorned with precious gems and jewels, the fashions of the Ancient Egyptians were made for not only beauty but also comfort. Egyptian fashion was created to keep cool while in the hot desert, in ancient Egypt, linen was by far the most common textile. It helped people to be comfortable in the subtropical heat, linen is made from the flax plant by spinning the fibers from the stem of the plant. Spinning, weaving and sewing were very important techniques for all Egyptian societies, plant dyes could be applied to clothing but the clothing was usually left in its natural color. Wool was known, but considered impure, only the wealthy wore animal fibers that were the object of taboos. They were used on occasion for overcoats, but were forbidden in temples and sanctuaries, peasants, workers and other people of modest condition often wore nothing, but the shenti was worn by all people. The most common headdress was the khat or nemes, a cloth worn by men. From about 2130 BC during the Old Kingdom, garments were simple, the men wore wrap around skirts known as the shendyt, which were belted at the waist, sometimes pleated or gathered in the front. During this time, mens skirts were short, as the Middle Kingdom of Egypt,1600 B. C. came, the skirt was worn longer. Then, around 1420 BC, there was a tunic or blouse with sleeves. During the Old, Middle and New Kingdom, Ancient Egyptian women often wore simple sheath dresses called kalasiris, womens clothing in ancient Egypt was more conservative than mens clothing. The dresses were held up by one or two straps and were worn down to the ankle, while the edge could be worn above or below the breasts. The length of the dress denoted the social class of the wearer, beading or feathers were also used as an embellishment on the dress. Over the dress, women had a choice of wearing shawls, capes, the shawl was a piece of cloth around 4 feet wide by 13 or 14 feet long. This was mostly worn pleated as well, female clothes only changed slightly through the millennia. Draped clothing sometimes gave the impression of different clothing. It was made of haïk, a fine muslin
14.
Biblical clothing
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The clothing of the people in Biblical times was made from wool, linen, animal skins, and perhaps silk. Most events in the Old and New Testament take place in Ancient Israel and they wore underwear and cloth skirts. Complete descriptions of the styles of dress among the people of the Bible is impossible because the material at hand is insufficient, Assyrian and Egyptian artists portrayed what is believed to be the clothing of the time, but there are few depictions of Israelite garb. One of the few sources on Israelite clothing is the Bible. Ezor, ḥagor The earliest and most basic garment was the ezor or ḥagor, an apron around the hips or loins and it was a simple piece of cloth worn in various modifications, but always worn next to the skin. Priests wore an ezor of linen known as a ephodh, if worn for mourning, it was called a saḳ. When garments were held together by a belt or girdle, the cloth was called an ezor or ḥagor. Kethōneth The ezor later became displaced among the Hebrews by the kethōneth an under-tunic, the kethōneth appears in Assyrian art as a tight-fitting undergarment, sometimes reaching only to the knee, sometimes to the ankle. In its early form the kethōneth was without sleeves and even left the left shoulder uncovered, in time men of leisure wore kethōneth with sleeves. In later times, anyone dressed only in the kethōneth was described as naked, deprived of it he would be absolutely naked, sādhı̄n The well-off might also wear a ṣādhı̄n under the kethōneth. This rather long under garment had sleeves and was of fine linen, simlāh The simlāh was the heavy outer garment or shawl of various forms. It consisted of a rectangular piece of rough, heavy woolen material, crudely sewed together so that the front was unstitched. It is translated into Greek as himation, and the ISBE concludes that it resembled, if it was not identical with. In the day it was protection from rain and cold, the front of the simlāh also could be arranged in wide folds and all kinds of products could be carried in it. Every respectable man generally wore the simlāh over the kethōneth, but since the simlāh hindered work, from this simple item of the common people developed the richly ornamented mantle of the well-off, which reached from the neck to the knees and had short sleeves. Meīl The meīl stands for a variety of garments worn over the undergarment like a cloak, the meı̄l was a costly wrap and the description of the priests meı̄l was similar to the sleeveless abaya. This, like the meı̄l of the high priest, may have reached only to the knees, but it is commonly supposed to have been a long-sleeved garment made of a light fabric. Addereth, maaṭafah At a later period the nobles wore over the simlāh, or in place of it, the leather garment worn by the prophets was called by the same name because of its width
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Clothing in ancient Greece
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Clothing in Ancient Greece primarily consisted of the chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys. Ancient Greek men and women typically wore two pieces of clothing draped about the body, an undergarment and a cloak. Clothes were customarily homemade out of lengths of rectangular linen or wool fabric with little cutting or sewing, and secured with ornamental clasps or pins. Pieces were generally interchangeable between men and women, while no clothes have survived from this period, descriptions exist in contemporary accounts and artistic depictions. Clothes were mainly homemade, and often served many purposes, common clothing of the time was plain white, sometimes incorporating decorative borders. There is evidence of design and bright colors, but these were less common. The chiton was a simple garment of lighter linen that was worn by both sexes and all ages. It consisted of a wide, rectangular tube of material secured along the shoulders, chitons typically fell to the ankles of the wearer, but shorter chitons were sometimes worn during vigorous activities by athletes, warriors or slaves. Often excess fabric would be pulled over a girdle, or belt, to deal with the bulk sometimes a strap, or anamaschalister was worn around the neck, brought under the armpits, crossed in the back and tied in the front. A himation, or cloak, could be worn over-top of the chiton, a predecessor to the himation, the peplos was a square piece of cloth that was originally worn over the chiton. The top third of the cloth was folded over and pinned at both shoulders, leaving the cloth open down one side, sometimes the peplos was worn alone as an alternative form of chiton. As with the chiton, often a girdle or belt would be used to fasten the folds at the waist, the himation was a simple outer garment worn over the peplos or chiton. It consisted of a heavy material, passing under the left arm. The cloak would be twisted around a strap that also passed under the left arm, a more voluminous himation was worn in cold weather. The himation could be pulled up over the head to cover the wearer when they were overcome by emotion or shame, the chlamys was a seamless rectangle of woolen material worn by men for military or hunting purposes. It was worn as a cloak and fastened at the shoulder with a brooch or button. The chlamys was typical Greek military attire from the 5th to the 3rd century BC, women often wore a strophion, the bra of the time, under their garments. The strophion was a band of wool or linen wrapped across the breasts
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Clothing in ancient Rome
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Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised a short-sleeved or sleeveless, knee-length tunic for men and boys, and a longer, usually sleeved tunic for women and girls. Clothing, footwear and accoutrements identified gender, status, rank and social class and this was probably most apparent in the segregation of seating tiers at public theatres, games and festivals. Magistrates, priesthoods and the military had their own distinctive and privileged forms of dress. It was usually made of linen, and was augmented as necessary with underwear, or with various kinds of weather wear, such as knee-breeches for men. In colder parts of the empire, full length trousers were worn, most urban Romans wore shoes, slippers, boots or sandals of various types, in the countryside, some wore clogs. Spinning and weaving were thought virtuous, frugal occupations for Roman women of all classes, relative to the overall basic cost of living, even simple clothing was expensive, and was recycled many times down the social scale. Romes governing elite produced laws designed to limit public displays of personal wealth, none were particularly successful, the same wealthy elite had an appetite for luxurious clothing. Exotic fabrics were available, at a price, silk damasks, translucent gauzes, cloth of gold, and intricate embroideries, not all dyes were costly, however, and most Romans wore colourful clothing. Clean, bright clothing was a mark of respectability and status among all social classes, the fastenings and brooches used to secure garments such as cloaks provided further opportunities for personal embellishment and display. The basic garment for both sexes and all classes was the tunica, often worn beneath one or more additional layers, in its simplest form, the tunic was a single rectangle of woven fabric, originally woolen, but from the mid-republic onward, increasingly made from linen. It was sewn into a tubular shape and pinned around the shoulders like a Greek chiton, to form openings for the neck. In some examples from the part of the empire, neck openings were formed in the weaving. Most working men wore knee-length, short-sleeved tunics, secured at the waist with a belt, some traditionalists considered long sleeved tunics appropriate only for women, very long tunics on men as a sign of effeminacy, and short or unbelted tunics as marks of servility. Womens tunics were usually ankle or foot-length, long-sleeved, and could be loosely or belted. Though essentially simple in design, tunics could also be luxurious in their fabric, colours. Loincloths, known as subligacula or subligaria could be worn under a tunic and they could also be worn on their own, particularly by slaves who engaged in hot, sweaty or dirty work. Women wore both loincloth and strophium under their tunics, and some wore tailored underwear for work or leisure, a 4th century AD Sicillian mosaic shows several bikini girls performing athletic feats, in 1953 a Roman leather bikini bottom was excavated from a well in London. Roman society was graded into several citizen and non-citizen classes and ranks, ruled by a minority of wealthy
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Hanfu
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Hanfu is the traditional, historical dress of the Han people. The term Hanfu was originally recorded by the Book of Han, Chinese clothing is influential to Japanese kimono and Korean hanbok. From the beginning of its history, Hanfu was inseparable from silk, supposedly discovered by the Yellow Emperors consort, vivid primary colors and green were used, due to the degree of technology at the time. Such markers included the length of a skirt, the wideness of a sleeve, in addition to these class-oriented developments, Han Chinese clothing became looser, with the introduction of wide sleeves and jade decorations hung from the sash which served to keep the yi closed. The yi was essentially wrapped over, in a known as jiaoling youren, or wrapping the right side over before the left. The style of traditional / historical Han clothing can be summarized as containing garment elements that are arranged in distinctive, one can often tell the profession or social rank of someone by what they wear on their heads. The typical types of male headwear are called jin for soft caps, mao for stiff hats, officials and academics have a separate set of hats, typically the putou, the wushamao, the si-fang pingding jin and the Zhuangzi jin. A typical hairpiece for women is the ji but there are more elaborate hairpieces, in addition, managing hair was also a crucial part of ancient Han peoples daily life. Commonly, males and females would stop cutting their hair once they reached adulthood and this was marked by the Chinese coming of age ceremony Guan Li, usually performed between ages 15 to 20. They allowed their hair to grow long naturally until death, including facial hair, children were exempt from the above commandment, they could cut their hair short, make different kinds of knots or braids, or simply just let them hang without any care. However, once they entered adulthood, every male was obliged to tie his hair into a bun called ji either on or behind his head. Females on the hand, had more choices in terms of decorating their hair as adults. They could still arrange their hair into as various kinds of hairstyles as they pleased, there were different fashions for women in various dynastic periods. Han children and females were spared from this order, also Taoist monks were allowed to keep their hair, Han defectors to the Qing like Li Chengdong and Liu Liangzuo and their Han troops carried out the queue order to force it on the general population. Han-Chinese clothing had changed and evolved with the fashion of the days since its commonly assumed beginnings in the Shang dynasty, many of the earlier designs are more gender-neutral and simple in cuttings. Later garments incorporate multiple pieces with men commonly wearing pants and women wearing skirts. Clothing for women usually accentuates the bodys natural curves through wrapping of upper garment lapels or binding with sashes at the waist, each dynasty has their own styles of Hanfu as they evolved and only few styles are fossilized. Types include tops and bottoms, and one-piece robes that wrap around the body once or several times, note, Daopao doesnt necessarily means Taoists robe, it actually is a style of robe for scholars
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History of clothing in India
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Indians have mainly worn clothing made up of locally grown cotton. India was the one of the first places where cotton was cultivated and used even as early as 2500 BC during the Harappan Era and these scriptures view the figures of human wearing the clothes which can be wrapped around the body. Taking the instances of the Sari to that of turban and the dhoti, the clothing system was also related to the social and economic status of the person. The upper classes of the society wore fine muslin garments and silk fabrics while the common classes wore garments made up of locally made fabrics. For instance, Women from Rich families wore clothes made up of silk from China, the Indus civilisation knew the process of silk production. Recent analysis of Harappan silk fibres in beads have shown that silk was made by the process of reeling, evidences for textiles in Indus Valley Civilisation are not available from preserved textiles but from impressions made into clay and from preserved pseudomorphs. The only evidence found for clothing is from iconography and some unearthed Harappan figurines which are usually unclothed and these little depictions show that usually men wore a long cloth wrapped over their waist and fastened it at the back. Turban was also in custom in some communities as shown by some of the male figurines, evidences also show that there was a tradition of wearing a long robe over the left shoulder in higher class society to show their opulence. The normal attire of the women at that time was a very scanty skirt up to knee length leaving the waist bare, cotton made head dresses were also worn by the women. Fibre for clothing generally used were cotton, flax, silk, wool, linen, leather, one fragment of colored cloth is available in evidences which is dyed with red madder show that people in Harappan civilisation dyed their cotton clothes with a range of colors. One thing was common in both the sexes that both men and women were fond of jewellery, orthodox males and females usually wore the uttariya by throwing it over the left shoulder only, in the style called upavita. There was another garment called pravara that they used to wear in cold and this was the general garb of both the sexes but the difference existed only in size of cloth and manner of wearing. Sometimes the poor used to wear the lower garment as a loincloth only while wealthy would wear it extending to the feet as a sign of prestige. Sari was the costume for women in Vedic culture. Women used to wrap it around their waist, pleated in front over the belly and drape it over their shoulder covering their bust area, ‘Choli’ or blouse, as an upper garment was introduced in the later Vedic period with sleeves and a neck. A new version of sari, little smaller than sari, called dupatta, was incorporated later. The word sari is derived from Sanskrit शाटी śāṭī which means strip of clothand शाडी śāḍī or साडी sāḍī in Prakrit, most initial attires of men in those times were dhoti and lungi. Dhoti is basically a single cloth wrapped around the waist and by partitioning at the center, is fastened at the back, a dhoti is from four to six feet long white or colour strip of cotton
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Anglo-Saxon dress
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Anglo-Saxons clothing usually used only three types of fabric. Wool was a material which was used for most garments. Lower-class people, such as slaves and poorer peasants, could only use wool for their garments, even for those worn against the skin. Linen, harvested from the plant, was a finer material which was used for garments that were worn close to the skin by better-off peasants. Silk was an expensive material and was used only by the very rich. The primary garment consisted of a woollen tunic. For the poorer theow, this would be the clothing worn, although some may have been given woolen trousers. A gebur would be able to afford woollen trousers and leather shoes, and would carry a knife. A linen undertunic and linen braies would be worn by peasants and nobility. During the 11th century, the length of the braies decreased, geneatas and thegns would often have cross-gartering on their hose, along with leather turnshoes. Over the tunic, a cloak would be worn, which was held together by a brooch or, later on, there are several illustrations of warriorlike persons wearing headgear similar to Phrygian caps or helmets found in 10th and 11th century Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. It is possible, though, that these images do not depict any actual fashion of the period, men of the northern tribes of 5th and 6th century England dressed alike regardless of social rank. The fashions during this time consisted of the cloak, tunic, trousers, leggings, the short, fur-lined cloak was designed so that the skin of the animal faced outward and the fur brushed against the undergarments. However, woollen cloaks have also been found, the garment opened either at the front or at the right shoulder. A single brooch, usually circular in shape, fastened the square or rectangular cloak, other means of fastening the cloth together included tying, lacing, or using a clasp, often made of natural materials such as thorn, bones, wood, or horns. The less prosperous wore woollen cloaks, the tunic ended between the hip and the knee and had either long or short sleeves. A belt or girdle was worn with the tunic and might have had a buckle. Trousers, traditionally worn under a tunic or with a small cloak, were ankle length
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English medieval clothing
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Clothing was over-lapped and tightly bound, “The female chest was frequently exposed, yet the true structure of the female body was visually distorted…”. The open surcoat, a garment with a bodice and a skirt that trailed to the ground. In fact, by the end of the 14th century, the gown had replaced all garment items aside from the surcoat, the basic garments for women consisted of the smock, hose, kirtle, gown, surcoat, girdle, cape, hood, and bonnet. The development of the skirt was significant for women’s medieval clothing, medieval clothes provided information about the status of the person wearing them. Early Anglo-Saxon regardless of social rank wore a cloak, tunic, trousers, leggings, the short, fur-lined cloak was designed so that the skin of the animal faced outward and the fur brushed against the undergarments. However, woolen cloaks have also been found, the garment opened either at the front or at the right shoulder. A single brooch, usually circular in shape, fastened the square or rectangular cloak, other means of fastening the cloth together included tying, lacing, or using a clasp, often made of natural materials such as thorn, bones, wood, or horns. The less prosperous wore woolen cloaks, the tunic ended between the hip and the knee and had either long or short sleeves. A belt or girdle was worn with the tunic and might have had a buckle. Multiple tunics were worn at once so that the lower one, trousers, traditionally worn under a short tunic or with a small cloak, were ankle length. If loose, the material was bunched around the waist and, as Owen-Crocker describes. Garters or leggings accompanied narrow trousers, pieces of fabric attached to the trousers forming belt loops so that the garment could be at held in place at the waist by a belt. Leggings, usually worn in pairs, acted as protection for the legs. The first legging, referred to as the proper or stocking. The second was simply a leather of fabric used to tie on the leggings or, if worn around the shin or foot, provided warmth and protection. The lower caste wore leggings made of ripped or cut cloth from old clothes, blankets, the very rich people sometimes wore jewels. Belts worn at the hips were more of a necessity rather than a luxury, buckles were common and most faced the front, however others have been found to face both sides or even, in some cases, were placed at the back of the body. Owen-Crocker mentions that “belt ornaments and tags” dangled from the belts of the Anglo-Saxons in addition to everyday equipment, beads occasionally acted as alternatives, although not often
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Early medieval European dress
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Early medieval European dress changed very gradually from about 400 to 1100. The main feature of the period was the meeting of late Roman costume with that of the peoples who moved into Europe over this period. The most easily recognisable difference between the two groups was in costume, where the invading peoples generally wore short tunics, with belts. The Romanised populations, and the Church, remained faithful to the longer tunics of Roman formal costume, coming below the knee, many aspects of clothing in the period remain unknown. This is partly because only the wealthy were buried with clothing, it was rather the custom that most people were buried in burial shrouds, also called winding sheets. Fully dressed burial may have regarded as a pagan custom. Apart from the elite, most people in the period had low living standards, and clothes were probably home-made, usually from cloth made at a village level, the elite imported silk cloth from the Byzantine, and later Muslim, worlds, and also probably cotton. They also could afford bleached linen and dyed and simply patterned wool woven in Europe itself, but embroidered decoration was probably very widespread, though not usually detectable in art. Most people probably wore only wool or linen, usually undyed, the Sutton Hoo finds and the Tara Brooch are two of the most famous examples from the British Isles in the middle of the period. In France, over three hundred gold and jewelled bees were found in the tomb of the Merovingian king Childeric I, metalwork accessories were the clearest indicator of high-ranking persons. In Anglo-Saxon England, and probably most of Europe, only people could carry a seax or knife. Both mens and womens clothing was trimmed with bands of decoration, variously embroidery, tablet-woven bands, the famous Anglo-Saxon opus anglicanum needlework was sought-after as far away as Rome. The primary garment was the tunic — generally a long fabric panel, folded over with a cut into the fold. It was typical for the wealthy to display their affluence with a tunic made of finer and more colorful cloth. The tunic was usually belted, with either a leather or strong fabric belt, depending on climate, trousers were tailored either loose or tight. The most basic leggings were strips of cloth wound round the leg, and held in place by laces, presumably of leather. This may have been done with loose-fitting trousers also, over this a sleeved tunic was worn, which for the upper classes gradually became longer towards the end of the period. For peasants and warriors it was always at the knee or above, for winter, outside or formal dress, a cloak or mantle completed the outfit
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Ottoman clothing
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Ottoman clothing is the style and design of clothing worn by the Ottoman Turks. While the Palace and its court dressed lavishly, the people were only concerned with covering themselves. Starting in the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, administrators enacted sumptuary laws upon clothing, the clothing of Muslims, Christians, Jewish communities, clergy, tradesmen, and state and military officials were particularly strictly regulated during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. In this period men wore outer items such as mintan, zıbın, şalvar, kuşak, potur, entari, kalpak, sarık on the head, çarık, çizme, çedik, Yemeni on the feet. The administrators and the wealthy wore caftans with fur lining and embroidery, whereas the class wore cübbe and hırka. Womens everyday wear was şalvar, a gömlek that came down to the mid-calf or ankle, a short, fitted jacket called a hırka, and a sash or belt tied at or just below the waist. For formal occasions, such as visiting friends, the added an entari. Both hırka and entari were buttoned to the waist, leaving the open in front. Both garments also had all the way to the throat. All of these clothes could be colored and patterned. However, when a left the house, she covered her clothes with a ferace. She also covered her face with a variety of veils or wraps, bashlyks, or hats, were the most prominent accessories of social status. While the people wore külahs covered with abani or Yemeni, the cream of the society wore bashlyks such as yusufi, örfi, katibi, kavaze, during the rule of Süleyman a bashlyk called perişani was popular as the palace people valued bashlyks adorned with precious stones. Kavuk, however, was the most common type of bashlyk, for this reason, a related tradesmenship was formed in the 17th century. Fur was a material of prestige in that period, political crises of the 17th century were reflected as chaos in clothes. The excessively luxurious compulsion of consumption and showing off in the Tulip Era lasted till the 19th century, the modernization attempts of Mahmut II in 1825 first had its effects in the state sector. While sarık was replaced by fez, the employed in Bab-ı Ali began to wear trousers, setre. Womens clothes of the Ottoman period were observed in the mansions, entari, kuşak, şalvar, başörtü, ferace of the 19th century continued their existence without much change
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Directoire style
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Directoire style, French pronunciation, , describes a period in the decorative arts, fashion, and especially furniture design, concurrent with the post-Revolution French Directory. The style uses Neoclassical architectural forms, minimal carving, planar expanses of highly grained veneers and it is a style transitional between Louis XVI and Empire. The Directoire style was established by the architects and designers Charles Percier and Pier François Léonard Fontaine. Conventionels saw themselves as antique heroes, children were named after Brutus, Solon and Lycurgus. The festivals of the Revolution were staged by Jacques-Louis David as antique rituals, even the chairs in which the committee of Salut Publique sat were made on antique models devised by David. Style and Civilisation 1968, Pegler, Martin M, Carboni, the Fairchild Dictionary of Interior Design
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1820s in Western fashion
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During the 1820s in European and European-influenced countries, fashionable womens clothing styles transitioned away from the classically influenced Empire/Regency styles of c. 1795–1820 and re-adopted elements that had been characteristic of most of the 18th century, such as full skirts, the silhouette of mens fashion changed in similar ways, by the mid-1820s coats featured broad shoulders with puffed sleeves, a narrow waist, and full skirts. Trousers were worn for day wear, while breeches continued in use at court. Sleeves also began increasing in size, foreshadowing the styles of the 1830s, however, there was still no radical break with the Empire/Regency aesthetic. Skirts became even wider at the bottom during the 1820s, with ornamentation and definition toward the bottom of the skirt such as tucks, pleats, ruffles. During the second half of the 1820s, this aesthetic was decisively repudiated. Rich colors such as yellow and Turkey red became popular. A bustle was sometimes also worn, belts accentuated the new defined waist. Dresses were often worn with a round ruffled linen collar similar to a soft Elizabethan ruff, early in the decade, hair was parted in the center front and styled into tight curls over the temples. As the decade progressed, these became more elaborate and expansive. The bun on the back became a looped knot worn high on top of the head, wide-brimmed hats and hat-like bonnets with masses of feathers and ribbon trims were worn by mid-decade. These caps were worn under bonnets for street-wear, women also began to wear caps known as a cornette around 1816. These caps were tied under the chin and worn indoors and they also tended to be greatly adorned with plumes, ribbons, flowers, and jewels. Another alternative to the cornette was the turban, also often bejeweled and adorned, cloaks and full-length coats were worn in cold or wet weather. The fashionable shoe was a flat slipper, in the late 1820s, the first high shoe appeared and became vogue for both men and women. The shoe typically consisted of a three-inch high cloth top that laced on the side and a leather vamp that supported a long, narrow. Mademoiselle Gonin wears a dress with small puffed sleeves, with a ruffled collar. Her hair is styled into small curls at her temples, collette Versavels blue dress of 1822 is slightly cone-shaped, and is trimmed with frills around the hem
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Victorian fashion
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The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movement in architecture, literature, and the decorative and visual arts as well as a perception of the traditional gender roles also influenced fashion. Under Queen Victorias rule, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. Mass production of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion, clothing could be made quicker and more cheaply. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption. During the Victorian Era, a place was at home. Unlike in the centuries when women could help their husbands and brothers in family businesses, in the nineteenth century. Their dress styles reflected their lifestyle, Victorian fashion was not intended to be utilitarian. Clothes were seen as an expression of women’s place in society and were hence, middle class women exhibited similar dress styles, however, the decorations were not as extravagant. The layering of these make them very heavy. Corsets were also stiff and restricted movement, although the clothes were not comfortable, the type of fabrics and the in-numerous layers were worn as a symbol of wealth. Neck-line Bertha is the low shoulder neck-line worn by women during the Victorian Era, the cut exposed a woman’s shoulders and it sometimes was trimmed over with a three to six inch deep lace flounce, or the bodice has neckline draped with several horizontal bands of fabric pleats. However, the exposure of neck-line was only restricted to the upper and middle class, the décolleté style made shawls to become an essential feature of dresses. Corsets lost their shoulder straps, and fashion was to produce two bodices, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening, boning Corsets were used in women’s gowns for emphasizing the small waist of the female body. They function as an undergarment which can be adjusted to bound tightly around the waist, hold and train a person’s waistline, so to slim and it also helped stop the bodice from horizontal creasing. With the corset, a small tight fitting waist would be shown. Yet, corsets have been blamed for causing lots of diseases because of the tight waist bound, ill condition examples were curvature of the spine, deformities of the ribs and birth defects. As a result, people started to oppose the use of corsets in later times, Sleeves Sleeves were tightly fit during the early Victorian era
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1830s in Western fashion
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Womens costume featured larger sleeves than were worn in any period before or since, which were accompanied by elaborate hairstyles and large hats. The final months of the 1830s saw the proliferation of a revolutionary new technology—photography, items of historical dress including neck ruffs, ferronnières, and sleeves based on styles of earlier periods were popular. Innovations in roller printing on textiles introduced new dress fabrics, rich colors such as the Turkey red of the 1820s were still found, but delicate floral prints on light backgrounds were increasingly popular. More precise printing eliminated the need for dark outlines on printed designs, and new green dyes appeared in patterns of grasses, ferns, combinations of florals and stripes were fashionable. Overall, both mens and womens fashion showed width at the shoulder above a tiny waist, Mens coats were padded in the shoulders and across the chest, while womens shoulders sloped to huge sleeves. In the 1830s, fashionable womens clothing styles had distinctive large leg of mutton or gigot sleeves, above large full conical skirts, heavy stiff fabrics such as brocades came back into style, and many 18th-century gowns were brought down from attics and cut up into new garments. The combination of sloping shoulders and sleeves which were very large over most of the arm is distinctive to the day dresses of the 1830s. Pelerines, tippets, or lace coverings draped over the shoulders, were popular, the fashionable feminine figure, with its sloping shoulders, rounded bust, narrow waist and full hips, was emphasized in various ways with the cut and trim of gowns. To about 1835, the small waist was accentuated with a wide belt, later the waist and midriff were unbelted but cut close to the body, and the bodice began to taper to a small point at the front waist. The fashionable corset now had gores to individually cup the breasts, evening gowns had very wide necklines and short, puffed sleeves reaching to the elbow from a dropped shoulder, and were worn with mid-length gloves. The width at the shoulder was often emphasized by gathered or pleated panels of fabric arranged horizontally over the bust, morning dresses generally had high necklines, and shoulder width was emphasized with tippets or wide collars that rested on the gigot sleeves. Summer afternoon dresses might have wide, low necklines similar to evening gowns, skirts were pleated into the waistband of the bodice, and held out with starched petticoats of linen or cotton. Around 1835, the fashionable skirt-length for middle- and upper-class womens clothes dropped from ankle-length to floor-length, early 1830s hair was parted in the center and dressed in elaborate curls, loops and knots extending out to both sides and up from the crown of the head. Braids were fashionable, and were likewise looped over either ear, bonnets with wide semicircular brims framed the face for street wear, and were heavily decorated with trim, ribbons, and feathers. Married women wore a linen or cotton cap for daywear, trimmed with lace, ribbon, and frills, the cap was worn alone indoors and under the bonnet for street wear. For evening wear, hair ornaments including combs, ribbons, flowers, womens undergarments consisted of a knee-length linen chemise with straight, elbow length sleeves. Corsets compressed the waist and skirts were held in shape by layers of starched petticoats, stiffened with tucks, the full sleeves were supported by down-filled sleeve plumpers. Tall top hats with veils were worn, shawls were worn with short-sleeved evening gowns early in the decade, but they were not suited to the wide gigot sleeves of the mid-1830s
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1840s in Western fashion
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1840s fashion in European and European-influenced clothing is characterized by a narrow, natural shoulder line following the exaggerated puffed sleeves of the later 1820s and 1830s. The narrower shoulder was accompanied by a lower waistline for both men and women, shoulders were narrow and sloping, waists became low and pointed, and sleeve detail migrated from the elbow to the wrists. Where pleated fabric panels had wrapped the bust and shoulders in the previous decade, they now formed a triangle from the shoulder to the waist of day dresses. Skirts evolved from a shape to a bell shape, aided by a new method of attaching the skirts to the bodice using organ or cartridge pleats which cause the skirt to spring out from the waist. Full skirts were achieved mainly through layers of petticoats, the increasing weight and inconvenience of the layers of starched petticoats would lead to the development of the crinoline of the second half of the 1850s. Sleeves were narrower and fullness dropped from just below the shoulder at the beginning of the decade to the lower arm, evening gowns were worn off the shoulder and featured wide flounces that reached to the elbow, often of lace. They were worn with sheer shawls and opera-length gloves, another accessory was a small bag. At home, bags were often white satin and embroidered or painted, outdoor bags were often green or white and tasseled. There were also crocheted linen bags, shoes were made from the same materials as handbags. There were slippers of crocheted linen and bright colored brocade satin slippers that tied around the ankle with silk ribbon. The wide hairstyles of the previous decade gave way to fashions which kept the hair closer to the head, hair was still generally parted in the center. Isolated long curls dangling down towards the front were worn, often without much relationship to the way that the rest of the hair was styled. Alternately the side hair could be smoothed back over the ears or looped and braided, linen caps with frills, lace, and ribbons were worn by married women indoors, especially for daywear. These could also be worn in the garden with a parasol, bonnets for street wear were smaller than in the previous decade, and were less heavily decorated. The decorations that did adorn bonnets included flowers on the brim or a veil that could be draped over the face. Married women wore their caps under their bonnets, the crown and brim of the bonnet created a horizontal line and when tied under the chin, the brim created a nice frame around the face. This style was often called the coal-scuttle bonnet because of its resemblance to the metals scoops used to shovel coal into furnaces. For evening, feathers, pearls, lace, or ribbons were worn in the hair, there was also a small brimless bonnet worn with the ribbon untied at the nape of the neck
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1850s in Western fashion
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1850s fashion in Western and Western-influenced clothing is characterized by an increase in the width of womens skirts supported by crinolines or hoops, and the beginnings of dress reform. Masculine styles began to more in London, while female fashions originated almost exclusively in Paris. In the 1850s, the skirts of the 1840s continued to expand. Skirts were made fuller by means of flounces, usually in tiers of three, gathered tightly at the top and stiffened with horsehair braid at the bottom. Early in the decade, bodices of morning dresses featured panels over the shoulder that were gathered into a blunt point at the dropped waist. These bodices generally fastened in back by means of hooks and eyes, wider bell-shaped or pagoda sleeves were worn over false undersleeves or engageantes of cotton or linen, trimmed in lace, broderie anglaise, or other fancy-work. Separate small collars of lace, tatting, or crochet-work were worn with morning dresses, sometimes with a ribbon bow, evening ball gowns were very low-necked, off-the-shoulder, and had short sleeves. Pantalettes were essential under this new fashion for modestys sake, cape-like jackets were worn over the very wide skirts. Another fashionable outer garment was an Indian shawl or one woven in Paisley, riding habits had fitted jackets with tight sleeves, worn over a collared shirt or chemisette. They were worn long skirts and mannish top hats. The indoor cap became little more than a lace and ribbon frill worn on the back of the head, the style was promoted by editor Amelia Bloomer and was immediately christened a Bloomer suit by the press. Despite its practicality, the Bloomer suit was the subject of ridicule in the press and had little impact on mainstream fashion. The Bloomer suit, a dress worn over full trousers gathered at the ankle. Male outdoors attire and female riding-habit of 1850,1851 Parisian fashion plate shows the fashionable use of fabrics printed â la disposition on skirt flounces and for bodices and sleeves. Madame Moitessier wears a black evening gown with ruffles. She wears a brooch and bracelets on both wrists, mrs. Coventry Patmore wears a small fancy-work collar and a ribbon at her throat. Her thick, wavy hair is parted in the center and poufed over her ears,1851, matilde Juva-Branca wears a dark morning dress with a lace blouse or chemisette and cuffs and short leather gloves. Her hair is parted and worn in long curls,1851
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1860s in Western fashion
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In mens fashion, the three-piece ditto suit of sack coat, waistcoat, and trousers in the same fabric emerged as a novelty. Mauveine Aniline dyes were discovered in 1856 and quickly became fashionable colors, the first ones were mauve and bright purple. Magenta was popularized in England by the Duchess of Sutherland after she was appealed to by the Spitalfields silk weavers, by the early 1860s, skirts had reached their ultimate width. After about 1862 the silhouette of the changed and rather than being bell-shaped it was now flatter at the front. This large area was occupied by all manner of decoration. Puffs and strips could cover much of the skirt, there could be so many flounces that the material of the skirt itself was hardly visible. Lace again became popular and was used all over the dress, any part of the dress could also be embroidered in silver or gold. This massive construct of a dress required gauze lining to stiffen it, even the clothes women would ride horses in received these sorts of embellishments. Day dresses featured wide pagoda sleeves worn over undersleeves or engageantes, high necklines with lace or tatted collars or chemisettes completed the demure daytime look. Evening gowns had low necklines and short sleeves, and were worn with gloves or lace or crocheted fingerless mitts. The voluminous skirts were supported by hoops, petticoats, and or crinolines, the use of hoops was not as common until 1856, prior supporting the skirts with layers if starched petticoats. Bouffant gowns with large crinolines were probably reserved for special occasions, as the decade progressed, sleeves narrowed, and the circular hoops of the 1850s decreased in size at the front and sides and increased at the back. Looped up overskirts revealed matching or contrasting underskirts, a look that would reach its ultimate expression the next two decades with the rise of the bustle, waistlines rose briefly at the end of the decade. Fashions were adopted more slowly in America than in Europe and it was not uncommon for fashion plates to appear in American womens magazines a year or more after they appeared in Paris or London. For walking, jackets were accompanied by floor-length skirts that could be looped or drawn up by means of tapes over a shorter petticoat, as skirts became narrower and flatter in front, more emphasis was placed on the waist and hips. A corset was used to help mold the body to the desired shape. This was achieved by making the longer than before. To increase rigidity, they were reinforced with strips of whalebone, cording
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1870s in Western fashion
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1870s fashion in European and European-influenced clothing is characterized by a gradual return to a narrow silhouette after the full-skirted fashions of the 1850s and 1860s. By 1870, fullness in the skirt had moved to the rear and this fashion required an underskirt, which was heavily trimmed with pleats, flounces, rouching, and frills. Day dresses had high necklines that were closed, squared. Sleeves of morning dresses were narrow throughout the period, with a tendency to flare slightly at the wrist early on, women often draped overskirts to produce an apronlike effect from the front. Evening gowns had low necklines and very short, off-the-shoulder sleeves, other characteristic fashions included a velvet ribbon tied high around the neck and trailing behind for evening. Under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and other artistic reformers, newly fashionable tea gowns, an informal fashion for entertaining at home, combined Pre-Raphaelite influences with the loose sack-back styles of the 18th century. Leisure dress was becoming an important part of a womans wardrobe, seaside dress in England had its own distinct characteristics but still followed the regular fashions of the day. Seaside dress was seen as more daring, frivolous, eccentric, even though the bustle was extremely cumbersome, it was still a part of seaside fashion. With the narrower silhouette, emphasis was placed on the bust, waist, a corset was used to help mold the body to the desired shape. This was achieved by making the longer than before. To increase rigidity, they were reinforced with strips of whalebone, cording. Steam-molding, patented in 1868, helped create a curvaceous contour, skirts were supported by a hybrid of the bustle and crinoline or hooped petticoat sometimes called a crinolette. The cage structure was attached around the waist and extended down to the ground, the crinolette itself was quickly superseded by the true bustle, which was sufficient for supporting the drapery and train at the back of the skirt. In keeping with the emphasis, hair was pulled back at the sides and worn in a high knot or cluster of ringlets. Bonnets were smaller to allow for the elaborately piled hairstyles and resembled hats except for their ribbons tied under the chin, smallish hats, some with veils, were perched on top of the head, and brimmed straw hats were worn for outdoor wear in summer. The main kind of wrap that dominated in the 1870s were capes, some examples are the pelisse and the paletot coat. Walking dress of 1870 has a tiered and ruffled skirt back,1870 fashion plate shows jacket-bodices with draped and trimmed skirts in back. Ruffles and pleated frills are characteristic trimmings of the 1870s, french morning dress of 1871 features a narrow red ribbon at the low neckline and a large matching bow with streamers at the back waist
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1880s in Western fashion
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Fashion in the 1880s in Western and Western-influenced countries is characterized by the return of the bustle. The long, lean line of the 1870s was replaced by a full, fashionable waists were low and tiny below a full, low bust supported by a corset. The Rational Dress Society was founded in 1881 in reaction to the extremes of fashionable corsetry, as in the previous decade, emphasis remained on the back of the skirt, with fullness gradually rising from behind the knees to just below the waist. The fullness over the bottom was balanced by a fuller, lower chest and these gowns typically did not have a long train in the back, which was different from the gowns worn in the 1870s, and were extremely tight. They were known as the due to the tightness of them. Winter gowns were made in darker hues whereas summer ones were made in lighter colors, velvet was also a very popular fabric used during this period. Skirts were looped, draped, or tied up in various ways, the polonaise was a revival style based on a fashion of the 1780s, with a fitted, cutaway overdress caught up and draped over an underskirt. Long, jacket-like fitted bodices called basques were also popular for clothing during the day, evening gowns were sleeveless and low-necked, and were worn with long over the elbow or shoulder length gloves of fine kidskin or suede. Choker necklaces and jewelled collars were fashionable under the influence of Alexandra, Princess of Wales, bodices were very tight fitted as a result of darts and princess seams. In the early 19th century dropped waists were common, creating a long torso. Most ended in a point just below the waist, collars that were very high and banded were very popular. These types of collars were called officers collars, the bustle returned to fashion and reached its greatest proportions c. 1886–1888, extending almost straight out from the back waist to support a profusion of drapery, frills, swags, the fashionable corset created a low, full bust with little separation of the breasts. A usual type of undergarment was called combinations, a camisole with attached knee- or calf-length drawers, worn under the corset, bustle, woolen combinations were recommended for health, especially when engaging in fashionable sports. Riding habits had become a uniform of matching jacket and skirt worn with a shirt or chemisette, with a top hat. They were worn without bustles, but the cut of the jacket followed the silhouette of the day, in contrast, hunting costumes were far more fashionably styled, with draped ankle-length skirts worn with boots or gaiters. Tailored costumes consisting of a jacket and skirt were worn for travel or walking, these were worn with the bustle. Travelers wore long coats like dusters to protect their clothes from dirt, rain, artistic or Aesthetic dress remained an undercurrent in Bohemian circles throughout the 1880s
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1890s in Western fashion
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Fashion in the 1890s in European and European-influenced countries is characterized by long elegant lines, tall collars, and the rise of sportswear. Fashionable womens clothing styles shed some of the extravagances of previous decades, early 1890s dresses consisted of a tight bodice with the skirt gathered at the waist and falling more naturally over the hips and undergarments than in previous years. The mid-1890s introduced leg omutton sleeves, which grew in size each year until they disappeared in about 1906, during the same period of the mid-1890s, skirts took on an A-line silhouette that was almost bell-like. The late 1890s returned to the tighter sleeves often with small puffs or ruffles capping the shoulder, skirts took on a trumpet shape, fitting more closely over the hip and flaring just above the knee. Corsets in the 1890s helped define the figure as immortalized by artist Charles Dana Gibson. In the very late 1890s, the elongated, giving the women a slight S-bend silhouette that would be popular well into the Edwardian era. Changing attitudes about acceptable activities for women also made popular for women, with such notable examples as the bicycling dress. Unfussy, tailored clothes, adapted from the theme of mens tailoring and simplicity of form, were worn for outdoor activities. The shirtwaist, a costume with a bodice or waist tailored like a shirt with a high collar, was adopted for informal daywear. Walking suits featured ankle-length skirts with matching jackets, the notion of rational dress for womens health was a widely discussed topic in 1891, which led to the development of sports dress. This included ample skirts with a blouse for hockey. In addition, cycling became very popular and led to the development of cycling costumes, by the 1890s, women bicyclists increasingly wore bloomers in public and in the company of men as well as other women. Bloomers seem to have more commonly worn in Paris than in England or the United States and became quite popular. In the United States, bloomers were more intended for exercise than fashion, the rise of American womens college sports in the 1890s created a need for more unencumbered movement than exercise skirts would allow. By the end of the decade, most colleges that admitted women had womens basketball teams, across the nations campuses, baggy bloomers were paired with blouses to create the first womens gym uniforms. They were particularly useful for cycling, walking or sporting pursuits as the shorter hems were less likely to catch in the mechanisms or underfoot. Swimwear was also developed, usually made of blue wool with a long tunic over full knickers. Afternoon dresses typical of the period had high necks, wasp waists, puffed sleeves
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Edwardian era
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The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 marked the end of the Victorian era. The new king Edward VII was already the leader of an elite that set a style influenced by the art. The Liberals returned to power in 1906 and made significant reforms, below the upper class, the era was marked by significant shifts in politics among sections of society that had been largely excluded from wielding power in the past, such as common labourers. The Edwardian period is sometimes imagined as a golden age of long summer afternoons and garden parties. This perception was created in the 1920s and later by those who remembered the Edwardian age with nostalgia, the Edwardian age was also seen as a mediocre period of pleasure between the great achievements of the preceding Victorian age and the catastrophe of the following war. Recent assessments emphasise the differences between the wealthy and the poor during the Edwardian era and describe the age as heralding great changes in political and social life. Robert Tressells popular novel The Ragged-Trousered Philanthropists is an example of the eras social critique. Despite this, this type of perception has been challenged more recently by modern historians, the British historian Lawrence James has argued that, during the early 20th century, the British felt increasingly threatened by rival powers such as Germany, Russia, and the United States. There was a political awareness of the working class, leading to a rise in trade unions. The aristocracy remained in control of top government offices, the Conservatives – at the time called Unionists – were dominant from the 1890s to 1906. The party had many strengths, appealing to voters supportive of imperialism, tariffs, the Church of England, a powerful Royal Navy, and traditional hierarchical society. There was a powerful leadership base in the aristocracy and landed gentry in rural England, plus strong support from the Church of England. Historians have used election returns to demonstrate that Conservatives did surprisingly well in working-class districts and they had an appeal as well to the better-off element of traditional working class Britons in the larger cities. Nevertheless, the weaknesses were accumulating, and proved so overwhelming in 1906 that they did not return to power until 1922. The Conservative Party was losing its drive and enthusiasm, especially after the retirement of the charismatic Joseph Chamberlain, there was a bitter split on tariff reform, that drove many of the free traders over to the Liberal camp. Tariff reform was an issue that the Conservative leadership inexplicably clung to. Support among the top tier of the class, and in lower middle class weakened. The 1906 election was a landslide for the opposition, which saw its total vote jump 25 percent, the Liberal Party lacked a unified ideological base in 1906
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1900s in Western fashion
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Fashion in the period 1900–1909 in the Western world continued the long elegant lines of the 1890s. Tall, stiff collars characterize the period, as do womens broad hats, a new, columnar silhouette introduced by the couturiers of Paris late in the decade signaled the approaching abandonment of the corset as an indispensable garment. With the decline of the bustle, sleeves began to increase in size, the fashionable silhouette in the early 20th century was that of a confident woman, with full low chest and curvy hips. The health corset of this period removed pressure from the abdomen, in 1897, the silhouette slimmed and elongated by a considerable amount. Necklines were supported by very high boned collars, skirts brushed the floor, often with a train, even for day dresses, in mid-decade. The fashion houses of Paris began to show a new silhouette, with a thicker waist, flatter bust, by the end of the decade the most fashionable skirts cleared the floor and approached the ankle. The overall silhouette narrowed and straightened, beginning a trend that would continue into the leading up to the Great War. Unfussy, tailored clothes were worn for activities and traveling. The shirtwaist, a costume with a bodice or waist tailored like a shirt with a high collar, was adopted for informal daywear. Wool or tweed suit called tailor-mades or tailleurs featured ankle-length skirts with matching jackets, ladies of fashion wore them with fox furs and huge hats. Two new styles of headgear which became popular at the turn of the century were the motoring veil for driving an sailor hats worn for tennis matches, bicycling and croquet. This decade marked the flowering of Parisian haute couture as the arbiter of styles and silhouettes for women of all classes. Designers sent fashion models or mannequins to the Longchamp races wearing the latest styles, in 1908, a new silhouette emerged from Callot Soeurs, Vionnet at the house of Doucet, and most importantly, Paul Poiret. The styles were variously called Merveilleuse, Directoire, and Empire after the fashions of the turn of the nineteenth century, the new styles featured form-fitting gowns with high or indefined waists, or ankle-length skirts and long tunic-like jackets, and required a different straight line corset. The Paris correspondent for Vogue described this new look as straighter and straighter, less bust, less hips, and more waist. how slim, how graceful, how elegant. Huge, broadbrimmed hats were worn in mid-decade, trimmed with masses of feathers and occasionally complete stuffed birds, or decorated with ribbons, masses of wavy hair were fashionable, swept up to the top of the head and gathered into a knot. Large hats were worn with evening wear, by the end of the decade, hats had smaller drooping brims that shaded the face and deep crowns, and the overall top-heavy effect remained. Shoes were narrow and often emphasized and they had a pointed toe and a medium height heel
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1910s in Western fashion
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Mens trousers were worn cuffed to ankle-length and creased. Skirts rose from floor length to well above the ankle, women began to bob their hair, during the early years of the 1910s the fashionable silhouette became much more lithe, fluid and soft than in the 1900s. When the Ballets Russes performed Scheherazade in Paris in 1910, a mania for Orientalism ensued, the couturier Paul Poiret was one of the first designers to translate this vogue into the fashion world. Poirets clients were at once transformed into harem girls in flowing pantaloons, turbans, the Art Deco movement began to emerge at this time and its influence was evident in the designs of many couturiers of the time. Simple felt hats, turbans, and clouds of tulle replaced the styles of headgear popular in the 1900s, two of the most influential fashion designers of the time were Jacques Doucet and Mariano Fortuny. The French designer Jacques Doucet excelled in superimposing pastel colors and his elaborate gossamery dresses suggested the Impressionist shimmers of reflected light and his distinguished customers never lost a taste for his fluid lines and flimsy, diaphanous materials. The Venice-based designer Mariano Fortuny y Madrazo was a curious figure, for his dress designs he conceived a special pleating process and new dyeing techniques. He patented his process in Paris on 4 November 1910 and he gave the name Delphos to his long clinging sheath dresses that undulated with color. The name Delphos came from the statue of the Charioteer at Delphi. Breton straw, Mexican cochineal, and indigo from the Far East were among the ingredients that Fortuny used, among his many devotees were Eleonora Duse, Isadora Duncan, Cléo de Mérode, the Marchesa Casati, Émilienne d’Alençon, and Liane de Pougy. The extravagances of the Parisian couturiers came in a variety of shapes, early in the period, waistlines were high, echoing the Empire or Directoire styles of the early 19th century. Full, hip length lampshade tunics were worn over narrow, draped skirts, by 1914, skirts were widest at the hips and very narrow at the ankle. These hobble skirts made long strides impossible, waistlines were loose and softly defined. They gradually dropped to near the natural waist by mid-decade, where they were to remain through the war years, tunics became longer and underskirts fuller and shorter. By 1916 women were wearing calf-length dresses, when the Paris fashion houses reopened after the war, styles for 1919 showed a lowered and even more undefined waist. The tailleur or tailored suit of matching jacket and skirt was worn in the city, jackets followed the lines of tunics, with raised, lightly defined waists. Fashionable women of means wore striking hats and fur stole or scarves with their tailleurs, most coats were cocoon or kimono shaped, wide through the shoulders and narrower at the hem. Changes dress during World War I were dictated more by necessity than by fashion, as more and more women were forced to work, they demanded clothes that were better suited to their new activities, these derived from the shirtwaists and tailored suits
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1920s in Western fashion
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The 1920s is the decade in which fashion entered the modern era. It was the decade in which women first abandoned the more restricting fashions of past years, men also abandoned highly formal daily attire and even began to wear athletic clothing for the first time. The suits men wear today are based, for the most part. The 1920s are characterized by two periods of fashion. In the early part of the decade, change was slow, from 1925, the public passionately embraced the styles associated with the Roaring Twenties. These styles continue to characterize fashion until 1932, after World War One, the United States entered a prosperous era and, as a result of its role in the war, came out onto the world stage. Social customs and morals were relaxed in the optimism brought on by the end of the war, women were entering the workforce in record numbers. The nationwide prohibition on alcohol was ignored by many, there was a revolution in almost every sphere of human activity. Fashion was no exception, as women entered the workforce and earned the right to vote, fashion became more accessible, masculine. Flappers were a name given to women of this time because of what they wore. The constrictive corset, an undergarment to make the waist thinner. The technological development of new fabrics and new means of fastening clothing affected fashions of the 1920s, natural fabrics such as cotton and wool were the abundant fabrics of the decade. Silk was highly desired for its luxurious qualities, but the limited supply made it expensive, in the late 19th century, artificial silk was first made from a solution of cellulose in France. After being patented in the United States, the first American plant began production of this new fabric in 1910, rayon stockings became popular in the decade as a substitute for silk stockings. Rayon was also used in some undergarments, hooks and eyes, buttons, zippers or snaps were all utilized to fasten clothing. Vastly improved production methods enabled manufacturers to produce clothing affordable by working families. The average persons fashion sense became more sophisticated, meanwhile, working-class women looked for modern forms of dress as they transitioned from rural to urban careers. Though simple lines and minimal adornment reigned on the runways, the 1920s were not free of luxury, the use of mannequins became widespread during the 1920s, and served as a way to show shoppers how to combine and accessorize the new fashions
Media related to Costume in Ancient Greece at Wikimedia Commons
