1.
Hypocrisy
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It is the practice of engaging in the same behavior or activity for which one criticizes another. In moral psychology, it is the failure to follow ones own expressed moral rules and principles, American political journalist Michael Gerson says that political hypocrisy is the conscious use of a mask to fool the public and gain political benefit. Hypocrisy has been a subject of wisdom and wisdom literature from the beginnings of human history. The word hypocrisy comes from the Greek ὑυπόκρισις, which means jealous, play-acting, acting out, alternatively, the word is an amalgam of the Greek prefix hypo-, meaning under, and the verb krinein, meaning to sift or decide. Thus the original meaning implied a deficiency in the ability to sift or decide and this deficiency, as it pertains to ones own beliefs and feelings, informs the words contemporary meaning. Whereas hypokrisis applied to any sort of performance, hypokrites was a technical term for a stage actor and was not considered an appropriate role for a public figure. This negative view of the hypokrites, perhaps combined with the Roman disdain for actors and it is this later sense of hypokrisis as play-acting, i. e. the assumption of a counterfeit persona, that gives the modern word hypocrisy its negative connotation. He assumes that politics is worthwhile, but since it is linked to lying and hypocrisy. Hypocrisy became a topic in English political history in the early 18th century. The Toleration Act of 1689 allowed for rights, but it left Protestant Nonconformists deprived of important rights. Nonconformists who wanted office ostentatiously took the Anglican sacrament once a year in order to avoid the restrictions, high Church Anglicans were outraged and outlawed what they called occasional conformity in 1711 with the Occasional Conformity Act 1711. This campaign of moderation versus zealotry, peaked in 1709 during the impeachment trial of high church preacher Henry Sacheverell, historian Mark Knights, argues that by its very ferocity, the debate may have led to more temperate and less hypercharged political discourse. Occasional conformity was restored by the Whigs when they returned to power in 1719, English author Bernard Mandeville famous s Fable of the Bees explored the nature of hypocrisy in contemporary European society. On the one hand, Mandeville was an heir to the French Augustinianism of the previous century, viewing sociability as a mere mask for vanity. On the other, he was a ‘materialist’ who helped found modern economics and he tried to demonstrate the universality of human appetites for corporeal pleasures. He argued that the efforts of self-seeking entrepreneurs are the basis of emerging commercial and industrial society, in the Enlightenment of the 18th century, discussions of hypocrisy were common in the works of Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montaigne. In the 1750 to 1850 era, Whig aristocrats in England boasted of their special benevolence for the common people and they claimed to be guiding and counseling reform initiatives to prevent the outbreaks of popular discontent that caused instability and revolution across Europe. Mitchell defends the Whigs, pointing out that thanks to them radicals always had friends at the centre of the political elite and he points out that the debates on the 1832 Reform Bill showed that reformers would indeed receive a hearing at parliamentary level with a good chance of success
2.
Hippocrates
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Hippocrates of Kos, also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the Age of Pericles, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the Father of Modern Medicine in recognition of his contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine. Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient physician, historians agree that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on the Greek island of Kos, other biographical information, however, is likely to be untrue. Soranus of Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greek gynecologist, was Hippocrates first biographer and is the source of most personal information about him, later biographies are in the Suda of the 10th century AD, and in the works of John Tzetzes, which date from the 12th century AD. Hippocrates is mentioned in passing in the writings of two contemporaries, Plato, in Protagoras and Phaedrus, and, Aristotles Politics, which date from the 4th century BC. Soranus wrote that Hippocrates father was Heraclides, a physician, and his mother was Praxitela, the two sons of Hippocrates, Thessalus and Draco, and his son-in-law, Polybus, were his students. According to Galen, a physician, Polybus was Hippocrates true successor, while Thessalus. Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather, Hippocrates was probably trained at the asklepieion of Kos, and took lessons from the Thracian physician Herodicus of Selymbria. Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far as Thessaly, Thrace, several different accounts of his death exist. He died, probably in Larissa, at the age of 83,85 or 90, Hippocrates is credited with being the first person to believe that diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods. Hippocrates was credited by the disciples of Pythagoras of allying philosophy, indeed there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did work with many convictions that were based on what is now known to be incorrect anatomy and physiology, ancient Greek schools of medicine were split on how to deal with disease. The Knidian school of medicine focused on diagnosis, Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of humans. The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms, the Hippocratic school or Koan school achieved greater success by applying general diagnoses and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and prognosis, not diagnosis and it could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice. Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from that of modern medicine, now, the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the Knidian school. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a meditation upon death, after a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend to occur on critical days, if a crisis occurred on a day far from a critical day, a relapse might be expected
3.
Physician
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Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
4.
Medical ethics
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Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of clinical medicine and in scientific research. Medical ethics allow for people, regardless of race, gender, or religion to be guaranteed quality and it creates an obvious guideline to follow. Medical Ethics is based on a set of values that professionals can refer to in the case of any confusion or conflict and these values include the respect for autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice. With the help of these values it allows doctors, care providers and it is important to note that these four values are of equal worth. The Code of Ethics was then adapted in 1847, relying heavily on Percival’s words, over the years in 1903,1912, and 1947 revisions have been made to the original document. The practice of Medical Ethics is widely accepted and practiced throughout the world, both The Declaration of Helsinki and The Nuremberg Code are two well-known and well respected documents contributing to medical ethics. Other important markings in the history of Medical Ethics include Roe v. Wade in 1973, Medical Ethics continues to develop and change throughout history, yet always keeping the focus on fair, balanced, and moral thinking. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, and sociology. Historically, Western medical ethics may be traced to guidelines on the duty of physicians in antiquity, such as the Hippocratic Oath, and early Christian teachings. The first code of ethics, Formula Comitis Archiatrorum, was published in the 5th century. These intellectual traditions continue in Catholic, Islamic and Jewish medical ethics, by the 18th and 19th centuries, medical ethics emerged as a more self-conscious discourse. In England, Thomas Percival, a physician and author, crafted the first modern code of medical ethics and he drew up a pamphlet with the code in 1794 and wrote an expanded version in 1803, in which he coined the expressions medical ethics and medical jurisprudence. However, there are some who see Percivals guidelines that relate to physician consultations as being protective of the home physicians reputation. Jeffrey Berlant is one critic who considers Percivals codes of physician consultations as being an early example of the anti-competitive. In 1815, the Apothecaries Act was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom and it introduced compulsory apprenticeship and formal qualifications for the apothecaries of the day under the license of the Society of Apothecaries. This was the beginning of regulation of the profession in the UK. In 1847, the American Medical Association adopted its first code of ethics, while the secularized field borrowed largely from Catholic medical ethics, in the 20th century a distinctively liberal Protestant approach was articulated by thinkers such as Joseph Fletcher. In the 1960s and 1970s, building upon liberal theory and procedural justice, much of the discourse of medical ethics went through a dramatic shift and largely reconfigured itself into bioethics
5.
Western culture
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The term also applies beyond Europe, to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to Europe by immigration, colonization, or influence. For example, Western Culture includes countries in the Americas and Australasia, whose language, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Ancient Greece is considered the birthplace of Western culture, with the worlds first democratic system of government and major advances in philosophy, science, Greece was followed by Rome, which made key contributions in law, government, engineering and political organization. European culture developed with a range of philosophy, medieval scholasticism, and mysticism. Rational thinking developed through an age of change and formation, with the experiments of the Enlightenment. More often an ideology is what will be used to categorize it as a Western society. There is some disagreement about what nations should or should not be included in the category, many parts of the Eastern Roman Empire are considered Western today but were Eastern in the past. Since the context is highly biased and context-dependent, there is no agreed definition what the West is and it is difficult to determine which individuals fit into which category and the East–West contrast is sometimes criticized as relativistic and arbitrary. Globalism has spread Western ideas so widely that almost all cultures are, to some extent. Stereotyped views of the West have been labeled Occidentalism, paralleling Orientalism—the term for the 19th-century stereotyped views of the East, as Europe discovered the wider world, old concepts adapted. The area that had formerly considered the Orient became the Near East, as the interests of the European powers interfered with Meiji Japan and Qing China for the first time. Thus, the Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 occurred in the Far East, the Greeks contrasted themselves to their Eastern neighbors, such as the Trojans in Iliad, setting an example for later contrasts between east and west. In the Middle Ages, the Near East provided a contrast to the West, concepts of what is the West arose out of legacies of the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, ideas of the west were formed by the concepts of Latin Christendom, Western culture is neither homogeneous nor unchanging. As with all cultures, it has evolved and gradually changed over time. Nevertheless, it is possible to follow the evolution and history of the West, and appreciate its similarities and differences, its borrowings from, and contributions to, other cultures of humanity. Nevertheless, the Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves as something between the wild barbarians of most of Europe and the soft, slavish Middle-Easterners. In the meantime, however, Greece, under Alexander, had become a capital of the East, the Celts also created some significant literature in the ancient world whenever they were given the opportunity
6.
Ionic Greek
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Ionic Greek was a subdialect of the Attic–Ionic or Eastern dialect group of Ancient Greek. The Ionic dialect appears to have spread from the Greek mainland across the Aegean at the time of the Dorian invasions. By the end of the Greek Dark Ages in the 5th-century BC, the Ionic dialect was also spoken on islands across the central Aegean and on the large island of Euboea north of Athens. The dialect was spread by Ionian colonization to areas in the northern Aegean, the Black Sea. The Ionic dialect is divided into two major time periods, Old Ionic and New Ionic. The transition between the two is not clearly defined, but 600 BC is a good approximation, the poet Archilochus wrote in late Old Ionic. The most famous New Ionic authors are Anacreon, Theognis, Herodotus, Hippocrates, and, in Roman times, Aretaeus, Arrian, and Lucian. This was further enhanced by the writing reform implemented in Athens in 403 BC, whereby the old Attic alphabet was replaced by the Ionic alphabet and this alphabet eventually became the standard Greek alphabet, its use becoming uniform during the Koine era. It was also the used in the Christian Gospels and the book of Acts. Proto-Greek ā > Ionic ē, in Doric, Aeolic, ā remains, in Attic, ā after e, i, r, in Attic, e, o is not lengthened. Proto-Greek *kórwā > Attic κόρη, Ionic κούρη girl *órwos > ὄρος, οὔρος mountain *ksénwos > ξένος, ξεῖνος guest, Proto-Greek *hāwélios > Attic hēlios, Homeric ēélios sun Ionic contracts less often than Attic. Ionic γένεα, Attic γένη family Proto-Greek *kʷ before a, o > Ionic k, Attic p. Proto-Greek *okʷō > Ionic ὄκως, Attic ὅπως in whatever way, in which way Proto-Greek *ťť > Ionic ss and this Ionic feature made it into Koine Greek. Proto-Greek *táťťō > Ionic τάσσω, Attic τάττω I arrange Ionic had a very analytical word-order, perhaps the most analytical one within ancient Greek dialects
7.
Hippocratic Corpus
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The Hippocratic Corpus, or Hippocratic Collection, is a collection of around 60 early Ancient Greek medical works strongly associated with the physician Hippocrates and his teachings. Even though considered as a corpus that represents Hippocratic medicine, they vary in content, age, style. Of the texts in the corpus, none is proven to be by Hippocrates himself, the works of the corpus range from Hippocrates time and school to many centuries later and rival points of view. Franz Zacharias Ermerins identifies the hands of at least nineteen authors in the Hippocratic Corpus, however, the varied works of the corpus have gone under Hippocrates name since antiquity. The corpus may be the remains of a library of Cos and it was not, however, only the Coan school of Ancient Greek medicine that contributed to it, the Cnidian did, too. Only a fraction of the Hippocratic writings have survived, the lost medical literature is sometimes referred to in the surviving treatises, as at the beginning of Regimen. Some Hippocratic works are only in translation. Hippocratic texts survive in Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, and Latin, the majority of the works in the Hippocratic Corpus date from the Classical period, the last decades of the 5th century BC and the first half of the 4th century BC. Among the later works, The Law, On the Heart, On the Physician, some of the earliest works of the corpus are connected to the Cnidian school, On Diseases II–III and the early layer within On the Diseases of Women I–II and On Sterile Women. Prorrhetics I is also mid-fifth century, in the second half of the fifth century, a single author likely produced the treatises On Airs, Waters, Places, Prognostics, Prorrhetics II, and On the Sacred Disease. Other fifth-century works include On Fleshes, Epidemics I and III, On Ancient Medicine, On Regimen in Acute Diseases, at the end of the fifth or the beginning of the fourth century, one author likely wrote Epidemics II–IV–VI and On the Humors. The coherent group of surgical treatises is of similar date, the gynecological treatises On the Nature of the Woman, On the Diseases of Women, Generation, On the Nature of the Child, and On Sterile Women constitute a closely related group. Hermann Grensemann identified five layers of material in this group, from the century to the mid-fourth century. The oldest stratum is found in On the Nature of the Woman, the latest layer is On Sterile Women, which was composed after the other gynecological treatises were in existence. A single fourth-century author probably wrote On Fistulae and On Hemorrhoids, the Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in no particular order. One significant portion of the corpus is made up of case histories, books I and III of Epidemics contain forty-two case histories, of which 60% ended in the patients death. Nearly all of the diseases described in the Corpus are endemic diseases, colds, consumption, pneumonia, however, unlike the Empiricists, the author does not claim that the doctors knowledge is limited to what can be observed by the senses. The author of The Art is at pains to defend the status of medicine as an art, for this writer, as for the author of On the Places in Man, the art of medicine has been wholly discovered
8.
Oxyrhynchus Papyri
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The manuscripts date from the 1st to as late as the 7th century AD. They include thousands of Greek and Latin documents, letters and literary works and they also include a few vellum manuscripts, and more recent Arabic manuscripts on paper. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri are currently housed in many institutions all over the world, a substantial number are housed in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University. Although the initial hope of finding many of the lost literary works of antiquity at Oxyrhynchus was not realized and these include poems of Pindar, fragments of Sappho and Alcaeus, along with larger pieces of Alcman, Ibycus, and Corinna. There were also remains of the Hypsipyle of Euripides, fragments of the comedies of Menander. Also found were the oldest and most complete diagrams from Euclids Elements, another important find was the historical work known as the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, whose author is unknown but may be Ephorus or, as many currently think, Cratippus. A life of Euripides by Satyrus the Peripatetic was also unearthed, Menanders plays found in fragments at Oxyrhynchus include Misoumenos, Dis Exapaton, Epitrepontes, Karchedonios, Dyskolos and Kolax. The works found at Oxyrhynchus have greatly raised Menanders status among classicists, there is an on-line table of contents briefly listing the type of contents of each papyrus or fragment. Among the Christian texts found at Oxyrhynchus, were fragments of early non-canonical Gospels, Oxyrhynchus 840, there are many parts of other canonical books as well as many early Christian hymns, prayers, and letters also found among them. All manuscripts classified as theological in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri are listed below, a few manuscripts that belong to multiple genres, or genres that are inconsistently treated in the volumes of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, are also included. In each volume that contains theological manuscripts, they are listed first, the original Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC. This translation is called the Septuagint, because there is a tradition that seventy Jewish scribes compiled it in Alexandria and it was quoted in the New Testament and is found bound together with the New Testament in the 4th and 5th century Greek uncial codices Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus and Vaticanus. The Septuagint included books, called the Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical by Christians, portions of Old Testament books of undisputed authority found among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri are listed in this section. The first number is the volume of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri in which the manuscript is published, the second number is the overall publication sequence number in Oxyrhynchus Papyri. Standard abbreviated citation of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri is, P. Oxy, <volume in Roman numerals> <publication sequence number>. Context will always make clear whether volume 70 of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri or the Septuagint is intended, VIII1073 is an Old Latin version of Genesis, other manuscripts are probably copies of the Septuagint. Dates are estimated to the nearest 50 year increment, content is given to the nearest verse where known. This name designates several, unique writings or different versions of pre-existing writings found in the canon of the Jewish scriptures
9.
Apollo
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Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros, Apollo has been recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu. As the patron of Delphi, Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the gods custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, as the leader of the Muses and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became an attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans, Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE. The name Apollo—unlike the related older name Paean—is generally not found in the Linear B texts, the etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling Ἀπόλλων had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era and it probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios, and the offerings apellaia at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai. According to some scholars the words are derived from the Doric word apella, apella is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the ecclesia. R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai, several instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollos name with the Greek verb ἀπόλλυμι, in the ancient Macedonian language πέλλα means stone, and some toponyms may be derived from this word, Πέλλα and Πελλήνη. The role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus by Chryses, the Hittite testimony reflects an early form *Apeljōn, which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot Ἀπείλων with Doric Ἀπέλλων. A Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunas makes Apollo The One of Entrapment, Apollos chief epithet was Phoebus, literally bright. It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollos role as the god of light, like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a number of appellations in Greek myth. Aegletes, from αἴγλη, light of the sun Helius, literally sun Lyceus light, the meaning of the epithet Lyceus later became associated with Apollos mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia and who was identified with the wolf
10.
Asclepius
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Asclepius was a hero and god of medicine in ancient Greek religion and mythology. Asclepius represents the aspect of the medical arts, his daughters are Hygieia, Iaso, Aceso, Aglæa/Ægle. He was associated with the Roman/Etruscan god Vediovis and the Egyptian Imhotep and he was one of Apollos sons, sharing with Apollo the epithet Paean. The rod of Asclepius, a staff, remains a symbol of medicine today. Those physicians and attendants who served this god were known as the Therapeutae of Asclepius, the etymology of the name is unknown. In his revised version of Frisks Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, R. S. P. Beekes gives this summary of the different attempts, but the variants of Asklepios and those of the word for mole do not agree. The name is typical for Pre-Greek words, apart from minor variations we find α/αι followed by -γλαπ- or -σκλαπ-/-σχλαπ/β-, I think that the -σ- renders an original affricate, which was lost before the -γ-. Szemerényis etymology from Hitt. assula- well-being and piya- give cannot be correct, Beekes suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *Atyklap-. He was the son of Apollo and, according to the earliest accounts and his mother was killed for being unfaithful to Apollo and was laid out on a funeral pyre to be consumed, but the unborn child was rescued from her womb. Or, alternatively, his mother died in labor and was out on the pyre to be consumed. Apollo carried the baby to the centaur Chiron who raised Asclepius and it is said that in return for some kindness rendered by Asclepius, a snake licked Asclepius’ ears clean and taught him secret knowledge. Asclepius bore a rod wreathed with a snake, which associated with healing. A species of non-venomous pan-Mediterranean serpent, the Aesculapian snake is named for the god, Asclepius became so proficient as a healer that he surpassed both Chiron and his father, Apollo. Asclepius was therefore able to evade death and to bring back to life from the brink of death. This caused an influx of human beings and Zeus resorted to killing him to balance in the numbers of the human population. Asclepius was married to Epione, with whom he had five daughters, Hygieia, Panacea, Aceso, Iaso, and Aglaea and he also sired a son, Aratus, with Aristodama. At some point, Asclepius was among those who took part in the Calydonian Boar hunt, Zeus killed Asclepius with a thunderbolt because he brought Hippolytus back alive from the dead and accepted gold for it. This angered Apollo who in turn killed the Cyclopes who made the thunderbolts for Zeus, for this act, Zeus suspended Apollo from the night sky and commanded Apollo to serve Admetus, King of Thessaly for a year
11.
Hygieia
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In Greek as well as Roman mythology, Hygieia, was the daughter of the god of medicine, Asclepius, and Epione. She was the goddess/personification of health, cleanliness and hygiene, Hygieia as well as her four sisters each performed a facet of Apollos art, Hygieia, Panacea, Iaso, Aceso, and Aglïa. Hygieia also played an important part in her fathers cult, while her father was more directly associated with healing, she was associated with the prevention of sickness and the continuation of good health. Her name is the source of the word hygiene, at Athens, Hygieia was the subject of a local cult since at least the 7th century BC. In the 2nd century AD, Pausanias noted the both of Hygieia and of Athena Hygieia near the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens. Hygieias primary temples were in Epidaurus, Corinth, Cos and Pergamon, Pausanias remarked that, at the Asclepieion of Titane in Sicyon, statues of Hygieia were covered by womens hair and pieces of Babylonian clothes. According to inscriptions, the sacrifices were offered at Paros. Ariphron, a Sicyonian artist from the 4th century BC wrote a well-known hymn celebrating her, statues of Hygieia were created by Scopas, Bryaxis and Timotheus, among others, but there is no clear description of what they looked like. She was often depicted as a woman feeding a large snake that was wrapped around her body or drinking from a jar that she carried. These attributes were later adopted by the Gallo-Roman healing goddess, Sirona, Hygieia was accompanied by her brother, Telesphorus. Hygieia Theoi Project, Hygeia Greek and Latin notices, in translation
12.
Panacea
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In Greek mythology, Panacea was a goddess of universal remedy. She was the daughter of Asclepius and Epione, Panacea and her four sisters each performed a facet of Apollos art, Panacea, Hygieia, Iaso, Aceso, and Aglæa/Ægle. Panacea was said to have a poultice or potion with which she healed the sick and this brought about the concept of the panacea in medicine, a substance meant to cure all diseases. The term is used figuratively as something intended to completely solve a large. A river in Thrace/Moesia was named after the goddess, and is known as the river Zlatna Panega
13.
Rise of Macedon
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This ascendancy is largely attributable to the personality and policies of Philip II. The Macedonian phalanx became the hallmark of the Macedonian army during his reign and his army and engineers also made extensive use of siege engines. Macedonia during the reign of Philip II was at first preoccupied by wars with marauding Illyrians and Thracians, chief among Philips Thracian enemies was the ruler Kersebleptes, who may have coordinated a temporary alliance with Athens. Philip II also fought against the Illyrian king Bardylis, who threatened Macedonia proper, Philip II eventually campaigned against the city-state of Athens and her allies in the Aegean region, as well as Thebes after the decline of its hegemony in mainland Greece. While poised to launch an assault on Athens in 346 BC. As a result, Macedonia and Athens became allies, yet Athens was forced to relinquish its claims to the city of Amphipolis, the Peace of Philocrates eventually broke down as hostilities reignited between Athens and Macedonia. Demosthenes, an Athenian statesman who was responsible for engineering the peace treaty. The Macedonian hegemony over Greece was secured by their victory over a Greek coalition army led by Athens and Thebes, at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. In the aftermath the federation of Greek states known as the League of Corinth was established, the League of Corinth elected Philip as strategos for a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. However, Philip was assassinated before he could begin the campaign, intact and relatively detailed histories of Greece, such as Herodotuss The Histories, Thucydidess History of the Peloponnesian War, and Xenophons Hellen cover the period from roughly 500–362 BC. However, no extant history specifically covers the relevant period of Greek history, the main source for the period is Diodorus Siculuss Bibliotheca historica, written in the 1st century BC, which is therefore a secondary source. Diodorus is often derided by modern historians for his style and inaccuracies, another surviving work for the period is Justins epitome of Pompeius Troguss Philippic History. Justin is generally negative towards Philip. These surviving histories are complemented by fragments of other histories, including Theopompuss 58-volume history of Philip, since these speeches were never intended to be historical material, they must be treated with great circumspection, particularly given the identity of the authors. Demosthenes and Aeschines have been described as a couple of liars, for instance, the Peace of Philocrates is known primarily from their speeches, made in 343 BC, when Demosthenes prosecuted Aeschines for his involvement in making the peace treaty. This state of affairs was resented by many of the Greek city-states, which had traditionally been ferociously independent, Sparta emerged from this conflict with its hegemony intact, though only as a result of Persian intervention, which led to the so-called Kings Peace. The fragility of Spartan dominance had been demonstrated however, and in the next decade, the Spartans were unable to successfully quell the revolt, leading to de facto Theban independence. Following up on this victory, Epaminondas invaded Peloponnesus in 370 BC, Spartan power rested on the forced labour of the helots of Messenia, which allowed the entire male Spartan population to dedicate themselves to warfare
14.
Pythagoreanism
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Later revivals of Pythagorean doctrines led to what is now called Neopythagoreanism or Neoplatonism. Pythagorean ideas exercised an influence on Aristotle, and Plato. According to tradition, pythagoreanism developed at some point into two schools of thought, the mathēmatikoi and the akousmatikoi. There is the inner and outer circle John Burnet noted Lastly, we have one admitted instance of a philosophic guild, that of the Pythagoreans. And it will be found that the hypothesis, if it is to be called by that name, of a regular organisation of scientific activity will alone explain all the facts. The development of doctrine in the hands of Thales, Anaximander, according to Iamblichus in The life of Pythagoras, by Thomas Taylor There were also two forms of philosophy, for the two genera of those that pursued it, the Acusmatici and the Mathematici. The latter are acknowledged to be Pythagoreans by the rest but the Mathematici do not admit that the Acusmatici derived their instructions from Pythagoras, memory was the most valued faculty. All these auditions were of three kinds, some signifying what a thing is, others what it especially is, others what ought or ought not to be done. By musical sounds alone unaccompanied with words they healed the passions of the soul and certain diseases, enchanting in reality and it is probable that from hence this name epode, i. e. enchantment, came to be generally used. Each of these he corrected through the rule of virtue, attempering them through appropriate melodies, therefore its function is none of what are called ‘parts of virtue’, for it is better than all of them and the end produced is always better than the knowledge that produces it. Nor is every virtue of the soul in that way a function, nor is success, for if it is to be productive, different ones will produce different things, as the skill of building produces a house. However, intelligence is a part of virtue and of success, according to historians like Thomas Gale, Thomas Taler, or Cantor, Archytas became the head of the school, about a century after the murder of Pythagoras. According to August Böckh, who cites Nicomachus, Philolaus was the successor of Pythagoras, and according to Cicero, Philolaus was teacher of Archytas of Tarentum. According to the historians from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Philolaus and Eurytus are identified by Aristoxenus as teachers of the last generation of Pythagoreans, a Echecrates is mentioned by Aristoxenus as a student of Philolaus and Eurytus. The mathēmatikoi were supposed to have extended and developed the more mathematical, the mathēmatikoi did think that the akousmatikoi were Pythagorean, but felt that their own group was more representative of Pythagoras. Commentary from Sir William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Aristotle states the fundamental maxim of the Pythagoreans in various forms. According to Philolaus, number is the dominant and self-produced bond of the continuance of things. But number has two forms, the even and the odd, and a third, resulting from the mixture of the two, the even-odd and this third species is one itself, for it is both even and odd
15.
Euthanasia
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Euthanasia is the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering. There are different euthanasia laws in each country, the British House of Lords Select Committee on Medical Ethics defines euthanasia as a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering. In the Netherlands and Flanders, euthanasia is understood as termination of life by a doctor at the request of a patient, Euthanasia is categorized in different ways, which include voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary. Voluntary euthanasia is legal in some countries, non-voluntary euthanasia is illegal in all countries. Involuntary euthanasia is illegal in all countries and is usually considered murder. As of 2006, euthanasia is the most active area of research in contemporary bioethics, in some countries there is a divisive public controversy over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of euthanasia. Jurisdictions where euthanasia is legal include the Netherlands, Canada, Colombia, Belgium, like other terms borrowed from history, euthanasia has had different meanings depending on usage. Bacon referred to an outward euthanasia—the term outward he used to distinguish from a spiritual concept—the euthanasia which regards the preparation of the soul, in current usage, euthanasia has been defined as the painless inducement of a quick death. Another approach incorporates the notion of suffering into the definition, the third element incorporated into many definitions is that of intentionality – the death must be intended, rather than being accidental, and the intent of the action must be a merciful death. Beauchamp and Davidson also highlight Baruch Brodys an act of euthanasia is one in one person. Kills another person for the benefit of the person, who actually does benefit from being killed. Prior to Draper, Beauchamp and Davidson had also offered a definition that includes these elements and their definition specifically discounts fetuses in order to distinguish between abortions and euthanasia, In summary, we have argued. In discussing his definition, Wreen noted the difficulty of justifying euthanasia when faced with the notion of the right to life. In response, Wreen argued that euthanasia has to be voluntary, and that euthanasia is, as such. Other commentators incorporate consent more directly into their definitions, hence, euthanasia can be voluntary only. Euthanasia may be classified according to whether a person gives informed consent into three types, voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary, however, others see consent as essential. Euthanasia conducted with the consent of the patient is termed voluntary euthanasia, active voluntary euthanasia is legal in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Passive voluntary euthanasia is legal throughout the U. S. per Cruzan v. Director, when the patient brings about his or her own death with the assistance of a physician, the term assisted suicide is often used instead
16.
Peter Paul Rubens
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Sir Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish/Netherlandish draughtsman and painter. He is widely considered as the most notable artist of Flemish Baroque art school, the catalogue of his works by Michael Jaffé lists 1,403 pieces, excluding numerous copies made in his workshop. His commissioned works were mostly history paintings, which included religious and mythological subjects and he painted portraits, especially of friends, and self-portraits, and in later life painted several landscapes. Rubens designed tapestries and prints, as well as his own house and he also oversaw the ephemeral decorations of the royal entry into Antwerp by the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand in 1635. His drawings are mostly extremely forceful but not overly detailed and he also made great use of oil sketches as preparatory studies. For altarpieces he painted on slate to reduce reflection problems. Rubens was born in the city of Siegen to Jan Rubens and he was named in honour of Saint-Peter and Paul, because he was born on their solemnety. His father, a Calvinist, and mother fled Antwerp for Cologne in 1568, after increased religious turmoil and persecution of Protestants during the rule of the Spanish Netherlands by the Duke of Alba. Jan Rubens became the adviser of Anna of Saxony, the second wife of William I of Orange. Following Jan Rubens imprisonment for the affair, Peter Paul Rubens was born in 1577, the family returned to Cologne the next year. In 1589, two years after his fathers death, Rubens moved with his mother Maria Pypelincks to Antwerp, religion figured prominently in much of his work and Rubens later became one of the leading voices of the Catholic Counter-Reformation style of painting. In Antwerp, Rubens received a Renaissance humanist education, studying Latin, by fourteen he began his artistic apprenticeship with Tobias Verhaeght. Subsequently, he studied under two of the leading painters of the time, the late Mannerist artists Adam van Noort. Much of his earliest training involved copying earlier works, such as woodcuts by Hans Holbein the Younger. Rubens completed his education in 1598, at time he entered the Guild of St. Luke as an independent master. In 1600 Rubens travelled to Italy and he stopped first in Venice, where he saw paintings by Titian, Veronese, and Tintoretto, before settling in Mantua at the court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga. The colouring and compositions of Veronese and Tintoretto had an effect on Rubenss painting. With financial support from the Duke, Rubens travelled to Rome by way of Florence in 1601, there, he studied classical Greek and Roman art and copied works of the Italian masters
17.
Osteopathic medicine in the United States
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Osteopathic Medicine is a branch of the medical profession in the United States. Frontier physician Andrew Taylor Still founded the profession as a rejection of the system of medical thought of the 19th century. Stills techniques relied on manipulation of joints and bones, to diagnose and treat illness, by the middle of the 20th century, the profession had moved closer to mainstream medicine, adopting modern public health and biomedical principles. American osteopaths became osteopathic medical doctors, ultimately achieving full practice rights as medical doctors in all 50 states, in the 21st century, the training of osteopathic medical physicians in the United States is equivalent to the training of Doctors of Medicine. Osteopathic medical physicians attend four years of medical school followed by an internship and they use all conventional methods of diagnosis and treatment. Though still trained in osteopathic manipulative treatment, the derivative of Stills techniques. An osteopathic physician is a licensed, patient-centered medical doctor. DO has full medical practice rights throughout the United States and in 44 countries abroad, discussions about the future of modern medicine frequently debate the utility of maintaining separate, distinct pathways for educating physicians in the United States. Physicians and surgeons who graduate from medical schools are known as physicians or osteopathic medical doctors. Upon graduation, they are conferred a doctorate, the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine. Osteopathic curricula in other countries differ from those in the United States, while it was once common for D. O. Currently, there are 30 accredited osteopathic medical schools offering education in 42 locations across the United States and 141 accredited U. S. M. D. medical schools, in 1960, there were 13,708 physicians who were graduates of the 5 osteopathic medical schools. In 2002, there were 49,210 physicians from 19 osteopathic medical schools, between 1980 and 2005, the number of osteopathic graduates per year increased over 250 percent from about 1,000 to 2,800. This number is expected to approach 5,000 by 2015, in 2015, there were 31 colleges of osteopathic medicine in 45 locations. One in four students in the United States is enrolled in an osteopathic medical school. As of 2015, there are more than 96,000 osteopathic medical physicians in the United States, by 2020, the number of osteopathic medical physicians will be over 100,000, say expert predictions, according to the American Medical Association. Osteopathic physicians are not evenly distributed in the United States, States with the highest concentration of osteopathic medical physicians are Oklahoma, Iowa, and Michigan where osteopathic medical physicians comprise 17-20% of the total physician workforce. The state with the greatest number of osteopathic medical physicians is Pennsylvania, the states with the lowest concentrations of DOs are Louisiana, Massachusetts and Vermont where only 1–3% of physicians have an osteopathic medical degree
18.
Osteopathic Oath
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The Osteopathic Oath is an oath commonly administered to osteopathic physicians who practice osteopathic medicine in the United States. Similar to the Hippocratic Oath, it is a statement of professional values, the first version of the oath was created in 1938, and the current version of the oath has been in use since 1954. Although taking the oath is not required or legally binding, it is seen as a rite of passage. The Oath was first developed in 1938 by a formed by the Associated Colleges of Osteopathy, headed by Frank E. MacCracken. In 1954, some amendments were adopted to create the current text, in the United States, all osteopathic medical schools administer the Osteopathic Oath, often in the context of a white coat ceremony. The Oath upholds the concepts of confidentiality, evidence-based medicine, and it also specifically forbids euthanasia, but does not address abortion. In a 2000 survey of US medical schools, all of the extant medical schools administered some type of professional oath. Among allopathic schools,62 of 122 used the Hippocratic Oath, the other 60 schools used the original or modified Declaration of Geneva, Oath of Maimonides, or an oath authored by students and or faculty. All 19 osteopathic schools used the Osteopathic Oath, like the Hippocratic Oath and similar professional oaths, the Osteopathic Oath is not legally binding, nor is it required in order to become a practicing physician. However, reciting the Oath is considered an important rite of passage for a new osteopathic physician, Declaration of Helsinki Medical ethics Nightingale Pledge Nuremberg code Oath of Asaph Physicians Oath Primum non nocere
19.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
20.
Louis Lasagna
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Louis Lasagna was an American physician and professor of medicine, known for his revision of the Hippocratic Oath. Louis Cesare Lasagna was a recognized and respected expert in clinical pharmacology. Born in Queens, New York in 1923, Lasagna was raised in New Brunswick, New Jersey and he graduated from Rutgers University in 1943 and earned his medical degree from Columbia University in 1947. During his time at Rutgers University, he joined Kappa Sigma Fraternity, early in his fourteen-year career at Rochester, Lasagna founded the Tufts Center for the Study of Drug Development. In July 1984, the Center moved with Lasagna to Tufts University, throughout Lasagnas distinguished career he wrote and lectured extensively on a variety of topics. In 1964, Lasagna wrote a version of the Hippocratic Oath. Today, the Lasagna Oath has been adopted by many medical colleges, Lasagna was the author of the book The Doctors Dilemmas. It was described in a review as an unusually readable account of the development of medical practice from a confusion of superstition. In one chapter, Lasagana had criticized popular alternative medicine ideas and famous quacks such as Franz Mesmer, in addition to updating the Hippocratic oath, Lasagna figured prominently in the conceptualization of controlled clinical trials and the placebo effect. He served as a consultant to, and headed, several Federal commissions on Federal drug approval, Lasagnas work led to the improvement of controlled clinical trials to test drug effectiveness, and improved the regulation of drugs for effectiveness and safety. In 1962 Lasagna delivered testimony to Congress during the Kefauver hearings on the 1962 amendments to the Food, Drug and this was the first prescription drug law in the world to specify the criteria for proving effectiveness, and other countries soon followed suit. It may be the largest single advance in the standards and outcome of medical therapy of all time, Lasagnas numerous honors and awards include honorary Sc. D. degrees from Hahnemann Medical School and Rutgers University, and an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Alcalá in Spain. Lasagna died in August 2003 of lymphoma and he was survived by his wife Helen, children Nina, David, Mosie, Krissy, Lisa, Peter, and Christopher, and grandchildren Molly, Joe, Maggie, Emma, Kari, Alison, Deacon, and Carmen. Dr. Lasagnas letters and manuscripts are archived at the University of Rochester and this article incorporates information from the archive, with written permission
21.
Joseph Rotblat
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Sir Joseph Rotblat KCMG CBE FRS was a Polish physicist, a self-described Pole with a British passport. Rotblat worked on Tube Alloys and the Manhattan Project during World War II and his work on nuclear fallout was a major contribution toward the ratification of the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Józef Rotblat was born on November 4,1908, to a Polish-Jewish family in Warsaw and he was one of seven children, two of whom died in infancy. His father, Zygmunt Rotblat, built up and ran a nationwide horse-drawn carriage business, owned land, józefs early years were spent in what was a prosperous household but circumstances changed at the outbreak of World War I. Borders were closed and horses requisitioned, leading to the failure of the business, despite having a religious background, by the age of ten he doubted the existence of God, and later became an agnostic. Rotblats parents could not afford to send him to a gymnasium and he then attended a technical school, where he studied electrical engineering, graduating with his diploma in 1923. He then worked as a electrician in Warsaw, but had an ambition to become a physicist and he was then interviewed by Ludwik Wertenstein, the Dean of the Science Faculty. Wertenstein had studied in Paris under Marie Curie and at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge under Ernest Rutherford, Rotblat earned a Master of Arts at the Free University in 1932. He then entered the University of Warsaw, and became a Doctor of Physics in 1938, during this period, Rotblat married a literature student, Tola Gryn, whom he had met at a student summer camp in 1930. Before the outbreak of World War II, he conducted experiments which showed that in the fission process, in early 1939 he envisaged that a large number of fissions could occur and if this happened within a sufficiently short time, then considerable amounts of energy could be released. He went on to calculate that this process could occur in less than a microsecond, in 1939, through Wertensteins connections, Rotblat was invited to study in Paris and at the University of Liverpool under James Chadwick, winner of the 1932 Nobel Prize for discovering the neutron. He traveled to England alone because he could not afford to support his wife there, before long, Chadwick gave Rotblat a fellowship, doubling his income, and in that summer of 1939 the young Pole returned home, intending to bring Tola back with him. Tola was trapped, and desperate efforts in the months to bring her out through Denmark, Belgium. He never saw her again, she died in the Holocaust at the Belzec concentration camp and this affected him deeply for the rest of his life, and he never remarried. While still in Poland, Rotblat had realised that nuclear fission might possibly be used to produce an atomic bomb and he worked with Chadwick on Tube Alloys, the British atomic bomb project. In February 1944, Rotblat joined the Los Alamos Laboratory as part of Chadwicks British Mission to the Manhattan Project, the usual condition for people to work on the Manhattan Project was that they had to become U. S. citizens or British subjects. Rotblat declined, and the condition was waived, at Los Alamos, he was befriended by Stan Ulam, a fellow Polish-Jewish scientist, with whom he was able to converse in Polish. Rotblat continued to have reservations about the use of science to develop such a devastating weapon
22.
Nobel Peace Prize
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Per Alfred Nobels will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a five-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded on 10 December in Oslo City Hall each year, the prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law, the Norwegian Nobel Institute, and the Parliament. Due to its nature, the Nobel Peace Prize has, for most of its history. Alfred Nobels will further specified that the prize be awarded by a committee of five chosen by the Norwegian Parliament. Nobel died in 1896 and he did not leave an explanation for choosing peace as a prize category, as he was a trained chemical engineer, the categories for chemistry and physics were obvious choices. The reasoning behind the peace prize is less clear, some Nobel scholars suggest it was Nobels way to compensate for developing destructive forces. His inventions included dynamite and ballistite, both of which were used violently during his lifetime, ballistite was used in war and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization, carried out dynamite attacks in the 1880s. Nobel was also instrumental in turning Bofors from an iron and steel producer into an armaments company and it is unclear why Nobel wished the Peace Prize to be administered in Norway, which was ruled in union with Sweden at the time of Nobels death. The Norwegian Nobel Committee speculates that Nobel may have considered Norway better suited to awarding the prize, the Norwegian Parliament appoints the Norwegian Nobel Committee, which selects the Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Each year, the Norwegian Nobel Committee specifically invites qualified people to submit nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize, the statutes of the Nobel Foundation specify categories of individuals who are eligible to make nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize. Nominations by committee members can be submitted up to the date of the first Committee meeting after this deadline. In 2009, a record 205 nominations were received, but the record was again in 2010 with 237 nominations, in 2011. Nominations from 1901 to 1956, however, have released in a database. Nominations are considered by the Nobel Committee at a meeting where a short list of candidates for review is created. Advisers usually have some months to complete reports, which are considered by the Committee to select the laureate. The Committee seeks to achieve a decision, but this is not always possible. The Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway on 10 December each year, the Peace Prize is the only Nobel Prize not presented in Stockholm. The Nobel laureate receives a diploma, a medal, and a document confirming the prize amount, as of 2013, the prize was worth 10 million SEK
23.
Roe v. Wade
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Roe v. Wade,410 U. S.113, is a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court on the issue of abortion. It was decided simultaneously with a case, Doe v. Bolton. Arguing that these state interests became stronger over the course of a pregnancy, later, in Planned Parenthood v. Casey, the Court rejected Roes trimester framework while affirming its central holding that a woman has a right to abortion until fetal viability. The Roe decision defined viable as potentially able to live outside the mothers womb, Justices in Casey acknowledged that viability may occur at 23 or 24 weeks, or sometimes even earlier, in light of medical advances. According to the Court, the criminal abortion laws in effect in a majority of States today are of relatively recent vintage. Providing a historical analysis on abortion, Justice Harry Blackmun noted that abortion was resorted to without scruple in Greek, Blackmun also addressed the permissive and restrictive abortion attitudes and laws throughout history, noting the disagreements among leaders in those eras and the formative laws and cases. In the United States, in 1821, Connecticut passed the first state statute criminalizing abortion, every state had abortion legislation by 1900. In June 1969, 21-year-old Norma L. McCorvey discovered she was pregnant with her third child and she returned to Dallas, Texas, where friends advised her to assert falsely that she had been raped in order to obtain a legal abortion. However, this failed because there was no police report documenting the alleged rape. She attempted to obtain an abortion, but found that the unauthorized facility had been closed down by the police. Eventually, she was referred to attorneys Linda Coffee and Sarah Weddington, in 1970, Coffee and Weddington filed suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas on behalf of McCorvey. The defendant in the case was Dallas County District Attorney Henry Wade, McCorvey was no longer claiming her pregnancy was a result of rape, and later acknowledged that she had lied about having been raped. Rape is not mentioned in the opinions in the case. In addition, the court relied on Justice Arthur Goldbergs concurrence in Griswold v. Connecticut, the court, however, declined to grant an injunction against enforcement of the law. In 1971, Shirley Wheeler was charged with manslaughter after Florida hospital staff reported her illegal abortion to the police and she received a sentence of two years probation and under her probation, she had to move back into her parents house in North Carolina. Roe v. Wade reached the Supreme Court on appeal in 1970, the justices delayed taking action on Roe and a closely related case, Doe v. Bolton, until they had decided Younger v. Harris and United States v. Vuitch. The day after they announced their decision in Vuitch, they voted to hear both Roe and Doe, arguments were scheduled by the full Court for December 13,1971. Before the Court could hear the arguments, Justices Hugo Black
24.
Washington v. Harper
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Respondent Harper, an inmate in the Washington prison system since 1976, had a history of becoming violent when not on antipsychotic medication. Twice he was transferred to the Special Offender Center, an institution for convicted offenders with serious psychiatric problems. While there, Harper was forced to take psychiatric medication against his will, the SOC followed its policies of institutional review for making a treatment decision to forcibly medicate an inmate. Upon his second hospitalization at the Center, Harper filed suit in court under 42 U. S. C. 1983, alleging that the Center failed to provide a hearing before involuntarily medicating him. The United States Supreme Court granted a Writ of Certiorari, an issue in this case was the institutional policy of forming a treatment decision team made up of two mental health professionals and one associate superintendent. This three person committee evaluated issues such as the severity of the mental disorder and the risk to himself or others. Six members of the Court disagreed with Harpers argument that he had a right to due process through the court. Riggins v. Nevada,504 U. S.127 Mclearen, Alix M. Ryba, Nancy L. Identifying Severely Mentally Ill Inmates, Can Small Jails Comply with Detection Standards. Text of Washington v. Harper,494 U. S.210 is available from, Findlaw Justia Forced Medication of Legally Incompetent Prisoners, A Primer
25.
Hospital corpsman
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A Hospital Corpsman /ˈkɔərmən/ is an enlisted medical specialist of the United States Navy who may also serve in a United States Marine Corps unit. Hospital corpsmen are frequently the only medical care-giver available in many fleet or Marine units on extended deployment and they may function as clinical or specialty technicians, medical administrative personnel and health care providers at medical treatment facilities. They also serve as battlefield corpsmen with the Marine Corps, rendering emergency medical treatment to include initial treatment in a combat environment. Hospital corpsmen were trained at Naval Hospital Corps School, Great Lakes, Illinois. The colloquial form of address for a hospital corpsman is Doc, in the United States Marine Corps, this term is generally used as a sign of respect. Prior to the establishment of the Hospital Corps, enlisted medical support in the Navy was limited in scope, in the Continental Navy and the early U. S. Navy, medical assistants were assigned at random out of the ships company. Their primary duties were to keep the hot and buckets of sand at the ready for the operating area. It was commonplace during battle for the surgeons to conduct amputations and irons were used to close lacerations, sand was used to keep the surgeon from slipping on the bloody ship deck. Previously, corpsmen were commonly referred to as a boy, a term borrowed from the Royal Navy. The nickname was in use for so many years that it was finally officially recognized by the Navy Regulations of 1814. In coming decades, the title of the medical assistant would change several times—from loblolly boy, to nurse. A senior enlisted medical rate, surgeons steward, was introduced in 1841, following the war, the title surgeons steward was abolished in favor of apothecary, a position requiring completion of a course in pharmacy. S. Army had established an enlisted Hospital Corps in 1887, Navy Surgeon General J. R Tryon and subordinate physicians lobbied the Navy administration to take action. With the Spanish–American War looming, Congress passed a bill authorizing establishment of the U. S. Navy Hospital Corps, three rates were created therein—hospital apprentice, hospital apprentice first class, and hospital steward, which was a chief petty officer. A revision in 1916 established a new rate structure, with the introduction of a second junior rate there were now hospital apprentice second class and hospital apprentice first class. The rating title for petty officers was established as pharmacists mate, pharmacists mate third class, second class, and first class were now the petty officers, and chief pharmacists mate was the CPO. This structure remained in place until 1947, a total of 684 personal awards were awarded to hospital corpsmen, including 22 Medals of Honor,55 Navy Crosses, and 237 Silver Stars. During World War I, hospital corpsmen served throughout the fleet, in World War II, hospital corpsmen assigned to Marine units made beach assaults with the Marines in every battle in the Pacific
26.
Patient safety
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Patient safety is a discipline that emphasizes safety in health care through the prevention, reduction, reporting, and analysis of medical error that often leads to adverse effects. Recognizing that healthcare errors impact 1 in every 10 patients around the world, indeed, patient safety has emerged as a distinct healthcare discipline supported by an immature yet developing scientific framework. There is a significant transdisciplinary body of theoretical and research literature that informs the science of patient safety, millennia ago, Hippocrates recognized the potential for injuries that arise from the well-intentioned actions of healers. Greek healers in the 4th century BC drafted the Hippocratic Oath and pledged to prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability and my judgment, since then, the directive primum non nocere has become a central tenet for contemporary medicine. In the United States, the public and the specialty of anesthesia were shocked in April 1982 by the ABC television program 20/20 entitled The Deep Sleep. Presenting accounts of anesthetic accidents, the stated that, every year,6,000 Americans die or suffer brain damage related to these mishaps. By 1984 the American Society of Anesthesiologists had established the Anesthesia Patient Safety Foundation, the APSF marked the first use of the term patient safety in the name of professional reviewing organization. Although anesthesiologists comprise only about 5% of physicians in the United States, likewise in Australia, the Australian Patient Safety Foundation was founded in 1989 for anesthesia error monitoring. Both organizations were soon expanded as the magnitude of the medical error crisis became known, in the United States, the full magnitude and impact of errors in health care was not appreciated until the 1990s, when several reports brought attention to this issue. In 1999, the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences released a report, To Err is Human, within 2 weeks of the reports release, Congress began hearings and President Clinton ordered a government-wide study of the feasibility of implementing the reports recommendations. Initial criticisms of the methodology in the IOM estimates focused on the methods of amplifying low numbers of incidents in the pilot studies to the general population. However, subsequent reports emphasized the striking prevalence and consequences of medical error, the experience has been similar in other countries. The Department of Health Expert Group in June 2000 estimated that over 850,000 incidents harm National Health Service hospital patients in the United Kingdom each year, on average forty incidents a year contribute to patient deaths in each NHS institution. Effective communication is essential for ensuring patient safety, communicating starts with the provisioning of available information on any operational site especially in mobile professional services. The use of communication among patients and healthcare professionals is critical for achieving a patients optimal health outcome. However, according to the Canadian Patient Safety Institute, ineffective communication has the effect as it can lead to patient harm. Communication with regards to patient safety can be classified into two categories, prevention of adverse events and responding to adverse events, use of effective communication can aid in the prevention of adverse events, whereas ineffective communication can contribute to these incidences. If ineffective communication contributes to an event, then better
27.
Sun Simiao
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Sun Simiao was a famous traditional Chinese medicine doctor of the Sui and Tang dynasty. He was titled as Chinas King of Medicine for his significant contributions to Chinese medicine, Sun wrote two books - Beiji Qian Jin Yao Fang and Qian Jin Yi Fang - that were both milestones in the history of Chinese medicine, summarizing pre-Tang dynasty medicine. The former listed about 5300 recipes for medicines, and the latter 2000 and he also put forth the “Thirteen measures to keep health”, which claimed that actions like touching hair, rolling eyes, walking, and shaking heads improved health. This portion of the book is still a required reading for Chinese physicians and he should meet everyone on equal grounds. He should always act as if he were thinking of his close relatives, the work Essential Subtleties on the Silver Sea was probably written by Sun Simiao. It was published at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and has had influence on the Chinese ophthalmology until today. In addition to his work, Sun also engaged in alchemy. Sun Simiao, Author of the Earliest Chinese Encyclopedia for Clinical Practice — Subhuti Dharmananda
28.
White coat ceremony
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At some schools, where students begin meeting patients early in their education, the white coat ceremony is held before the first year begins. WCCs typically involve a formal coating of students, over 100 medical schools in the USA now have a WCC, and many students now consider it a rite of passage in the journey toward a healthcare career. Some schools also use this as a graduation from the entire program, in the nineteenth century respect for the certainty of science was in stark contrast to the quackery and mysticism of nineteenth century medicine. This led to the recent association of the white coat with medicine since its continued adoption. WCCs originated in University of Chicagos Pritzker School of Medicine in 1989, in 1993, Dr. Arnold P. Gold, a teacher and pediatric neurologist, created the first full-fledged WCC at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. Before this ceremony, medical students received the Hippocratic Oath for the first time at commencement. This ceremony marks a change in tradition, introducing students to the Oath before starting their first year of study and this was intended to provide students with well-defined guidelines regarding the expectations and responsibilities appropriate for the medical profession prior to their first day of class. Since its conception at Columbia, the WCC has spread rapidly to schools of medicine, dentistry, osteopathic medicine, since starting in the US, several medical schools in countries outside of the United States have also started holding WCCs. In 2003 a survey found that the majority of US pharmacy schools hold WCCs, in December 2006 the first white coat ceremony was held by Fatima Jinnah Dental College, in Karachi, Pakistan. In October 2008 the white coat ceremony was held at the VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, in 2011 Erasmus Medical Center in Rotterdam also participated in holding the ceremony at their Medical Faculty. On October 13,2010, the faculty of medicine at the University of Cologne, Germany, on April 12,2010, The University of Queenslands School of Pharmacy became the first in Australia to adopt the ceremony for its incoming Bachelor of Pharmacy students. In September 2011, Jagiellonian University in Kraków became the first medical school in Poland to introduce a white coat ceremony for the incoming class, on October 5,2012, the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy Gr. T. POPA of Iasi, Romania, became the first Romanian university to integrate this ritual, for its first year medical students, into the symbolism of developing as a physician. On October 8,2012, the Medical University of Graz became the first university in Austria to celebrate a White Coat Ceremony of its third-year students. On December 6,2012, the School of Medicine at the All American Institute of Medical Sciences, Jamaica, became the first in Jamaica to introduce this ritual, for its Basic Sciences medical students. Gold Foundation for Humanism in Medicine partnered with the American Association of Colleges of Nursing to pilot the White Coat Ceremony at nursing schools
. PMID 7950672.
